c

c VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV

Several large structures, such as dams, tunnels, power houses, etc. require huge quantities of
concrete and other building materials which justify mechanical handling and processing. This requires
special aggregate and concrete preparation plants.

Construction equipment is an important aspect of construction planning Varying with the

degree of mechanization on a project, the cost of this equipment may range from 10 to 30% of the total
cost of a construction project. Besides being a sizeable portion of the capital investment the proper
selection and application of this equipment is essential to achieve the construction targets, and to keep
construction costs low. For developing countries, in particular, the correct planning and utilization of
this equipment ?
of utmost importance in view of the large content of foreign exchange involved in the
acquisition and maintenance of this equipment. The low availability (below 50%) of this equipment on
projects in this country

points to the vital need in this regard. It would be worthwhile to keep
informed on the extent of indigenous manufacture while selecting equipment for a project.

Planning and selection of proper type, size and make of equipment is absolutely necessary if
construction targets are to be met and costs kept low. The site geology, topography, climate and location
will influence equipment selection. The planner must decide between old and new machines, between
different makes of the same type and between standard and non standard sizes. His choice should be made
as far as possible, on objective considerations, past experience and on information from similar works
executed in the recent years or under execution at the time. Products of established leading manufacturers
are generally likely to be less expensive in the long run than those of comparatively unknown manu-
facturers, and should be preferred on large and important jobs.

Performance calculations for equipment considered for selection have to be made in order to
select adequate capacity in size and number. These calculations should be based on factual or
recommended values of cycle times or outputs. Proper sizing of equipment that is required to work as a
team must be done so that the different units match with each other. Waiting by one equipment for the
product or services of another piece to
equipment essentially results in lost production and increased unit
costs.

V
 Economics of construction equipment to compute the hourly working rates is
another important
aspect of equipment management. Since the acquisition of construction equipment amounts to capital
investment proper  
accounting of these assets is necessary. Upkeep of equipment records on the
project invariably aids in this task.

Preventive maintenance and field repairs of construction equipment assume great importance in
view of the fact that this equipment is usually employed under severe job conditions of geology,
topography and climate As the machines are scattered over a wide area proper supervision becomes
difficult and the equipment is likely to be handled in a rough way by the operating personnel. Proper care
and maintenance of the machinery is. therefore, increasingly important.

Recently, advances have been made in analytical methodology using techniques of systems
analysis in problems of equipment management. Though sophisticated in approach, these techniques can
be employed in equipment problems through proper education and training methods help in a realistic
assessment of the capabilities.

Vc
V

VV
V

Severe power shortage is one of the greatest obstacles to India¶s development. Over 40
percent of the country¶s people -- most living in the rural areas -- do not have access to electricity
and one-third of Indian businesses cite expensive and unreliable power as one of their main
business constraints.

India¶s energy shortfall of 10 percent (rising to 13.5 percent at peak demand) also works
to keep the poor entrenched in poverty. Power shortages and disruptions prevent farmers from
improving their agricultural incomes, deprive children of opportunities to study, and adversely
affect the health of families in India¶s tropical climate.

Poor electricity supply thus stifles economic growth by increasing the costs of doing
business in India, reducing productivity, and hampering the development of industry and
commerce which are the major creators of employment in the country.

V
 

V VV
V V 
 V 
V

To boost economic growth and human development, one of the Government of India¶s
top priorities is to provide all its citizens with reliable access to electricity by 2012. To ensure
that the uncovered 40 percent of Indian homes get electricity by 2012, and to serve rising
demand from those already being served by the power grid, the government estimates that the
country will need to install an additional 100,000 Megawatts (MW) of generating capacity by
2012, expanding grid-based generation to about 225,000 MW. Given that India added about
23,000 MW during the last Five Year Plan of 2002-2007, this will be quite a quantum jump.

The Government of India has decided to acquire an increasing portion of this additional power
from the country¶s vast untapped hydropower resources, only 23 percent of which has been
harnessed so far. India¶s energy portfolio today depends heavily on coal-based thermal energy,
with hydropower accounting for only 26 percent of total power generation. The Government of
India has set the target for India¶s optimum power system mix at 40 percent from hydropower
and 60 percent from other sources.



VV 

V

When developed in accordance with good environmental and social practices,

hydropower plants have the advantage of producing power that is both renewable and clean, as
they emit less greenhouse gases than traditional fossil fuel plants and do not emit polluting
suspended particulate matter (from the high ash-content of indigenous coal).

Hydropower plants can also start up and shut down quickly and economically, giving the
network operator the vital flexibility to respond to wide fluctuations in demand across seasons
and at different times of the day. This flexibility is particularly important in a highly-populated
country like India where household electricity demand is a significant portion of total demand
and this demand in concentrated in a short period of time (usually in the evening). As an
illustration, if the approximately 150 million households in India were to turn on two 100 watt
light bulbs at 7 pm, the power system would experience an instantaneous surge in demand of
about 30,000 MW! Today, this peak demand is often met by households turning on small
gasoline and diesel generation units, which, in addition to being polluting, are a serious health
hazard in congested areas. And, with rising wealth, households are switching on a lot more than
two light bulbs. Although hydropower plants are subject to daily and seasonal variations in water
flows (which affects the production of electricity at that point in time), they are not subject to the
fluctuations in fuel costs that trouble thermal power plants.

While hydropower plants have large up-front capital costs, they also have long and
productive lives, which significantly help reduce costs over time. For example, the Bhakra
Nangal plant, now more than 40 years old, has operating costs of only Rs 0.10 or US$ 0.002 per
unit. Hydropower plants are thus generally cheaper in the long run than natural gas-based plants,
which are constantly at risk from fuel price increases in the global market.

While India plans to develop mainly run-of-the-river projects, multipurpose hydropower

plants with water storage facilities can help manage critical water resources in an integrated
manner by serving as flood controllers as well as sources of irrigation and much-needed drinking
water. The Tehri Dam in Uttarakhand, for instance, which was commissioned in 2006, today
caters to one-third of the drinking water needs of Delhi, India¶s capital.

Besides which, India¶s hydro-resources are largely available in some of the least-
developed parts of the country and hydropower plants, if designed appropriately offer significant
potential for regional development and poverty alleviation. Hydropower projects that forge
equitable systems of benefit-sharing and implement targeted local area development can help
local communities improve the quality of their lives quite significantly.


 VV 

V V

While hydropower plays an important role in the energy and development strategies of
India, such natural resource projects are inherently challenging. Environmental and social
impacts are inevitable but they can be mitigated. Hydropower development in India has seen
significant strides in understanding and addressing these impacts and the lessons learned from
past engagements are now being incorporated in project selection and design.

These lessons, coupled with suggestions from civil society, have resulted in changes to
the laws and regulations that govern hydropower development today. As a result, there have been
improvements on the ground, including greater public consultation with people affected by such
projects; better monitoring of the environmental and social aspects of projects; and
improvements in resettlement policy and practice. The Government has also ensured that the
methodology used by Central power agencies to select sites has improved, as has the capacity of
various hydropower developing agencies to deal with complexities in project identification,
engineering and design.

9
V
V
 
 V

The Government of India has requested World Bank support for its plans to increase the
country¶s hydropower capacity. It has also requested Bank assistance to help its power sector
agencies build on their recent achievements with the aim of attaining international standards in
hydropower design, construction and operation.

The World Bank aims to assist the Government of India in meeting its targets for
hydropower expansion in a sustainable manner. This entails not just ensuring financial,
economical, and technical soundness but also meeting social practices which have been
developed by the industry in recent years, and safeguarding environmental assets for future
generations.

The Bank has been engaged in hydropower in India since the late 1950s. Several of its
past engagements have been difficult, with Bank support for a number of potential hydropower
projects, including the Sardar Sarovar project on the river Narmada, being cancelled before they
were commissioned. The two most recent Bank engagements, the Nathpa Jhakri and Koyna IV
projects which were completed in 2002 and 1998 respectively, have benefited from the lessons
of earlier hydropower development, including more socially and environmentally sensitive
safeguard policies.

V 

V
 V Vc

V

At the request of the Government of India, the World Bank is evaluating two hydropower
projects in the country -- the Rampur Hydropower Project downstream from Nathpa Jhakri on
the River Satluj in Himachal Pradesh and the Projection the River Alaknanda in Uttarakhand.
While the Rampur Project is in the project appraisal stage, the Vishnugad-Pipalkoti project is in
the early stages of preparation.

The World Bank is also assisting the state governments of Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand adopt a river-basin approach in the planning and development of cascaded
hydropower systems. The two mountain states that have made hydropower generation a
significant development priority, have asked for Bank assistance in initiating a River Basin
Development Optimization Study that uses the Satluj and Alaknanda rivers as case studies. The
Study aims also at forging effective and equitable systems of cost-and benefit-sharing among all
stakeholders, including developers and operators, affected local communities, and host states.

VV

VV 

V 
 V


 
V

  V V 
V
 

According to functional basis hydroelectric plants may be classified as

(i) Base-load plants and (ii) Peak-load plants.VVVV

VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV

(i) 

V
 VV

Base-load plants are those which are capable of substantially continuous operation in the base of
the load curve throughout the year. Both run-of-river plants as well as storage plants can be used
as base-load plants. When run-of-river plants without pondage are used as base load plants, their
full plant discharge is seldom more than the minimum flow of river.

(ii) 

V
 VV

A peak-load plant is one designed and constructed primarily for taking care of the peak-load of a
power system. Pumped-storage plants are peak-load plants. Run-of-river plants with pondage can
operate both as peak-load and base-load plants as river flow permits.


 
VV V
 VV
V

On the basis of head hydroelectric plants may be classified as (i) Low head plants, (ii) Medium
head plants, and (iii)
High head plants.

(i) îV
V
 VV

A low head plant is the one which is operating under a head less than about 30 m. Run-of-river
plants are usually low head plants. For low head plants generally axial flow turbines such as
Kaplan turbines are used.

(ii)  V

V
 VV

A medium head plant is the one which is operating under a head between 30 and 250 m. The
lower ranges of medium head may be made available by utilizing a steep slope or a fall in a river
or a channel where run-of-river plants may be provided. However, the higher ranges of medium
head may be obtained by constructing dams and hence these are storage plants. Again for lower
ranges of heads for these plants axial flow turbines may be used. But for higher ranges of head
for these plants usually mixed flow turbines such as Francis turbines are used.

 V V
V
 VV
A high head plant is the one which is operating under a head more than 250m. These heads may
be obtained by constructing dams of sufficient height and installing the power plant either at the
toe of the dam close to it or in a deep depression available at some distance away from the dam.
Thus these are invariably storage plants. For these plants usually impulse turbines such as Pelton
wheel turbines are used.

It may however be stated that the above noted head ranges for the different types of hydroelectric
plants are arbitrary. Moreover, with the advances in the turbine design it has become possible to
use axial and mixed flow turbines for higher heads. Consequently the ranges of head indicated
above also move up.


 
VV V
 VV
 V

V

On the basis of plant capacity the hydroelectric plants may be classified as ¯? Micro hydel
plants, ¯??
Medium capacity plants, ¯???
High capacity plants, and

¯? Super plants.

¯? 
V V

 VA micro hydel plant is the one which has a capacity less than 5 MW.

¯??  V


V
 VA medium capacity plant is the one which has a capacity in the
range 5 to 100 MW.

¯???
 V

V
 VA high capacity plant is one which has a capacity in the range of 101
to 1000 MW.

¯?
\
V
 VA super plant is the one which has a capacity more than 1000 MW.


V
V


V 
V
V\ 

V
V\
V 
V
Firm (or primary) power is the power which a plant can deliver throughout the year or 100
percent of time. Secondary (or surplus) power is the power in excess of firm power which a plant
can deliver only for a part of the year or for some percentage of time. Thus for a run-of-river
plant without any storage the firm power would correspond to the minimum flow of the river
which would be available throughout the year. However, by providing the storage the firm power
can be considerably increased. Similarly, by having one or more thermal plants which can be
utilized to generate extra power when hydroelectric generation is low, a part of the secondary
power can be converted into firm power.

î
V

V  
V

V
V

V

V

Load factor is defined as the ratio of the average load during a certain period to the peak or
maximum load during that period. The load factor is thus related to a certain period and therefore
these are expressed as daily load factor, weekly load factor, monthly load factor and yearly load
factor.

The load factor of a power plant would vary greatly with the character of the load. The load
factor for a power plant serving a highly industrialized area may be as high as 80%, but in
residential areas me i factor may be as low as 25 to 30%.

Utilization factor (or Plant-use factor) is defined as the ratio of the peak load developed
during a certain period to the installed capacity of the plant. It thus represents the maximum
proportion of the installed capacity utilized during any period. In the case of a hydroelectric
plant, with constant head, utilization factor would also be the ratio of water actually utilized for
generating maximum power corresponding to peak load to that available in the river, and usually
there will be little difference in this factor whether expressed as a ratio of power or water. For a
hydroelectric plant, utilization factor commonly varies from about 0.40 to 0.90, depending on
plant capacity, load factor, available pondage and storage etc.
V

Capacity factor (or plant factor) may be defined as the ratio of the energy that the plant actually
produces during any period to the energy that it might have produced if operated at full capacity
throughout this period. V
Capacity factor will be identical with load factor when the maximum or peak load just equals the
plant capacity. For a hydroelectric plant, capacity factor commonly varies from about 0.25 to
0.70 or more depending on load factor, plant capacity, available pondage and storage etc.

The thermal plants may be operated at any desired capacity factor, whereas the capacity factor at
which hydropower plants may operate is usually limited by the variation in the flow of water in
the river. Theoretically a thermal power plant might operate at 100% annual capacity factor, but
practically because of the necessity for an annual maintenance period the maximum annual
capacity factor is much lower and usually it does not exceed 80%. Moreover there is always a
decline in the annual capacity factor of thermal power plants with their age.

¬

V



  VV
V 

V
 V

A hydroelectric development ordinarily includes a diversion structure (dam, weir or barrage), a

conduit (penstock) or a channel (or canal) to carry water to the turbines, turbines and governing
mechanism, generators, control and switching apparatus, housing for the equipment,
transformers, and transmission lines to the distribution centers. In addition, trash racks at
entrance to the conduit, channel and penstock gates, a forebay, surge tank and other
appurtenances may be required. A tailrace, or waterway, from the powerhouse back to the river
has to be provided if the powerhouse is situated so that the water after flowing through the
turbines is not discharged directly into the river. It may however be stated that no two power
developments are exactly alike and each will have its own unique problem of design and
construction. The type of plant best suited to a given site depends on several factors, including
head, available flow and general topography of the area.

In general hydroelectric developments may be classified as (i) Concentrated-fall development,

and (ii) Divided fall development.

A concentrated-fall hydroelectric development the one in which the power house is located close
to the dam on the downstream side. The powerhouse may be located at one or both ends of the
dam

In a divided fall hydroelectric development
the powerhouse is located at a considerable distance

away from the dam and water is carried to the power house through a canal, tunnel or penstock.
This type of development is adopted to utilize a steep fall in the ground surface which might be
available at some distance away from the dam. Thus in this case with favorable topography it is
possible to achieve a high head even with a low dam. Moreover, with this arrangement, head
variations in the reservoir may be small as compared with the total head, and the turbine can
operate near optimum head (peak efficiency) at all times.

 VV 

V V

The various components of hydroelectric developments are described below.

 
 V\
 
VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVThe

diversion structures commonly used are dams, weirs and barrages. A diversion structure is
constructed across a river at suitable site to develop storage of water and to create head for the
generation of power. In order to control the supply of water from the storage certain gates and
valves are used. The different types of gates used are plain sliding gates, wheeled or roller gates,
etc. Similarly the common types of valves used are butterfly and needle valves.V

9


V

A waterway is passage through which water is carried from the storage reservoir to the power
house. It may consist of tunnel, channel (or canal) or penstock. If a hill intervenes the reservoir
and the power house, then a tunnel may be driven to provide the necessary waterway. The tunnel
may be circular or horse-shoe shaped, lined or unlined, lined with concrete or reinforced concrete
or steel depending on the nature of the rock through which it is driven. It may flow full as a
pressure conduit or partly full as a channel.

Water may be conveyed from the reservoir to the turbines through penstocks or through a
channel (called power channel or power canal) followed by penstocks. In the later case at the end
of the channel a forebay is provided from which water is conveyed to the turbines through the
penstocks.

  V

Penstocks are the pipes of large diameter used for conveying water from the reservoir to the
turbines. These are usually made of steel. However, reinforced concrete, cast iron and wooden
penstocks are also used for low heads and relatively small developments. The thickness of the
penstock is determined on the basis of the magnitude of stresses developed due to static
pressures as well as water hammer pressures which may be developed due to sudden reduction in
the flow caused by the governor when the load is suddenly reduced. Long penstocks are usually
provided with a surge tank to absorb water hammer pressures and to provide water to meet
sudden load increases.

A penstock is usually supported on piers, but when it is laid along slopes or encounters
change in alignment, it should be supported on anchor blocks. As far as possible sharp bends in a
penstock should be avoided because of the head loss and the large forces required to anchor the
penstock. Air valves are provided at the sections of the penstocks where there are steep changes
in the gradient.

In the case of long steel penstocks, expansion joints should be provided to take care of expansion
and contraction due to changes in temperature. Long penstocks are usually branched at the lower
end to se several turbines. However, in the case of short penstocks, separate penstocks ordinarily
used for each turbine.

Penstocks are usually provided with head gates which can be closed to permit repair of the
penstock. An air-inlet valve and air duct connecting the penstock with the open air, should be
provided immediately on the downstream of the gate. The air-inlet valve permits air to enter the
penstock when the head gate is closed and the turbine gate is open, and thus prevent collapsing
of the penstock which may occur due to sudden drainage of the penstock. A sufficient water
depth should be provided above the penstock entrance to avoid formation of vortices which may
carry air into the penstock and result in lowered turbine efficiency and undesirable pressure
surges. This problem may more commonly arise in the case of penstocks taking off from the
forebays. The entrance to the penstock should be properly designed to minimize the loss of head.



V

A forebay is an enlarged body of water provided just in front of the penstocks. It is provided in
the case of run-of-river plants and in the case of storage plants when the power house is located
at a certain distance away from the dam and water is carried from the reservoir to the power
house through a channel. However, if the power house is located close to the dam then since the
penstocks directly take water from the reservoir, the reservoir itself will act as forebay. The main
function of the forebay is to provide a small balancing storage upstream of the power house to
store temporarily the water rejected by the plant when the load is reduced and to provide water to
meet the instantaneous increased demand on account of increased load while the flow in the
channel is being accelerated. The forebay may be developed by enlarging the channel just
upstream of the intake for the penstocks leading water to the turbines in the power house. The
forebay must be provided with a spillway or wasteway, so that excess water can be disposed of
safely if the need arises.
c
V\
 
VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVThe

water from the reservoir or forebay is let into the penstocks through intake structure. The main
components of an intake structure are trash racks and gates. The trash rack is provided to prevent
the entry of debris into the water passage of the hydropower plant which may otherwise damage
the wicket gates and turbine runners, or choke up the nozzle of impulse turbines. A
debris
cleaning device is usually fitted on the trash rack. Further if ice may get deposited on the trash
rack, a heating element or some other ice removing equipment is also provided. The trash racks
are provided ahead of the gates. The gates along with their hoisting arrangements are provided to
control the entry of water into the penstocks.

\
V

V

A surge tank is a cylindrical open-topped storage tank which is connected to the penstock at a
suitable point. Surge tanks are provided in the case of hydroelectric developments having long
penstocks. These are provided to relieve the penstocks of excess pressure caused by water
hammer and to provide additional supply of water when the turbines are in need of more water
on account of increased load. A surge tank however, provides protection against water hammer
pressure for only that portion of the penstock which lies on the upstream of it. As such surge tank
should be provided as close to the power house as is possible according to the site conditions.

When the load on the turbine is steady and normal, a constant water surface will be maintained in
the surge tank, which will be lower than the reservoir surface by an amount equal to the friction
head loss in the portion of the penstock connecting the reservoir and the surge tank. When the
load on the generator is reduced, turbine gates are closed by the governor to reduce the flow
through the turbine and the water moving towards the turbine has to move backwards. The
rejected water is then stored in the surge tank and water level in the surge tank rises. The
retarding head so built up in the surge tank reduces the velocity of flow in the pipeline
corresponding to the reduced discharge required by the turbine. When the load on the generator
increases, the governor opens the turbine gates to increase the rate of flow entering the runner.
The increased demand of water by the turbine is partly met by the water stored in the surge tank.
As such the water level in the surge tank falls. In other words, the surge tank develops an
accelerating head which increases the velocity of flow in the penstock to a value corresponding
increased discharge required by the turbine.

In general the surge tanks may be classified as (i) Simple surge tanks and (ii) Differential surge
tanks.
A simple surge tank is a cylindrical open-topped tank connected to the penstock through a
central vertical riser pipe or an orifice. A differential surge tank is also a cylindrical open-topped
tank connected to the penstock through a central vertical riser pipe but in this case the riser pipe
extends vertically into the tank upto considerable height and at the lower end of the riser pipe
within the tank small ports or holes are provided. The main advantage of a differential surge tank
is that for the same stabilizing effect its capacity may be less than that of a simple surge tank.
This is so because in a differential surge tank retarding and accelerating heads are developed
more promptly than in a simple surge tank in which the heads only built up gradually as the tank
fills.

The surge tanks must be high enough so that there is no spilling of water from the tank even with
a full load change. This would, however, require a very high surge tank involving large cost if it
is provided close to the power house. As such in order to reduce the height and hence the cost of
the surge tank, it is generally provided at a point where the ground surface has a steep fall and
the penstock drops rapidly to the power house. The height of a simple surge tank may also be
reduced by providing an internal bellmouth spillway (with its crest upto the desired maximum
water level in the tank) which permits the overflow of water from the tank and the same can be
conveniently disposed of. However, the main drawback of this arrangement is that considerable
amount of water is allowed to be wasted.


VVVV

VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV The power

house of a hydroelectric development houses the various hydraulic and electric equipments. The
various hydraulic equipments are turbines, gates or gate valves, governors etc. The various
electrical equipments include generators, transformers, switching equipment, transmission lines
and transmission structures, auxiliary electrical equipments etc.

The power house consists of two main parts, a substructure to support the hydraulic and
electrical equipment and a superstructure to house and protect this equipment. The generating
units are always placed in a row at right angles to the direction of flow through the power house.
An important feature of the superstructure is a travelling crane, spanning the width of the power
house and of sufficient capacity to lift the heaviest single piece of equipment. This crane is
needed to remove and carry turbine, generator or other equipment for servicing repairs or
replacement. A switch yard for the transmission of power is usually located outdoors near the
power house.



V
 The tailrace is the channel into which the water is discharged after passing through the
turbines. If the power house is close to the stream, the outflow may be discharged directly into
the stream. On the other hand if the power house is located away from the stream the tailrace is
formed by constructing an artificial channel between the power house and the stream.

V\ VV
V VV 
 

The most commonly used turbines are Francis turbines, Kaplan turbines and Pelton
wheel turbines. In addition to these three types of turbines, the other types of turbines which are
also used though not very commonly are Deriaz (or Diagonal) turbines and Tubular turbines. The
selection of a suitable type of turbines is usually governed by the following factors:

(i) Head and Specific SpeedVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV

It has been found that there is a range of head and specific speed for which each type of turbine
is most suitable. However, as a general rule, it may be stated that as far as possible a turbine with
highest permissible specific speed should be chosen which will not only be cheapest in itself but
its relatively small size and high rotational speed will reduce the size of the generator as well as
power house. But the specific speed cannot be increased indefinitely because higher specific
speed turbine is generally more liable to cavitations. However, the cavitations may be avoided by
installing the turbine at a lower level with respect to the tail race.

(ii) Part Load Operation:

VVVThe turbines may be required to work with considerable load variations. As the load deviates
from the normal working load, the efficiency would also vary. At part load the performance of
Kaplan and Pelton turbines is better in comparison to that of Francis and Propeller turbines. The
variability of load will influence the choice of type of turbine if the head lies between 150 m to
300 m or lies below 30 m. For higher range of heads Pelton wheel is preferable for part load
operation in comparison to Francis turbine, though the former involves higher initial cost. For
heads below 30 m, Kaplan turbine is preferable for part load operation in comparison to
Propeller turbine.VVVVVVVVV

VV 

V 
 V
1.V Classification based on Storage Characteristics

›V Run-of-river plants
›V Storage or Reservoir plants
›V Pumped-Storage plants
›V Tidal Plants

2.V Classification according to functional basis

›V Base-load plants
›V Peak-load plants

3.V Classification on the basis of head

›V Low head plants

›V Medium head plants
›V High head plants

4.V Classification on the basis of plant capacity

›V Micro hydel plants

›V Medium capacity plants
›V High capacity plants
›V Super plants

 VV 

V
 :

1.V Intake arrangement

›V Dam
›V Storage reservoir
›V Diversion structure or spill way
›V De-silting basin
›V Trash rack
›V Gates
2. Water conductor system

›V Power channel / Duct

›V Tunnel
›V Surge shaft / Surge tank
›V Drop shaft
›V Pressure shaft
›V Penstock with penstock protection valve ( Butterfly valve )

5.V Power house

a.)V Mechanical Component

›V Distributer / Spiral casing

›V Spherical valve or Main inlet valve
›V Turbine
›V EOT Crane

b.)V Electrical component

›V Generator
›V Transformer
›V Switchyard
›V Transmission line

c.)V Power house auxiliaries

›V Cooling water system

›V Compressed air system
›V De-watering system
›V Drainage system
›V Air conditioning system
›V Control & monitoring system
›V Fire protection system
 
 V VV
V

1.V Classification Based on Function:

›V Storage Dam or Impounding Dam

›V Detention Dam
›V Diversion Dam
›V Coffer Dam
›V Debris Dam

2.V Classification Based on Hydraulic Design

›V Overflow Dam
›V Non-overflow Dam

3.V Classification Based on Material of Construction

›V Rigid Dam
›V Non-rigid Dam

4.V Classification Based on Structural Behaviour

›V Gravity Dam
›V Arch Dam
›V Buttress Dam
›V Embankment Dam

5.V Classification Based on Size

 ›V Small
›V Intermediate
›V Large

Reservoir :

During extremely low flows it may not be possible to meet the demands of the consumers
if water is drawn directly from a river. As such it is essential to create a reservoir or an artificial
lake by constructing a dam across the river which can retain the excess water from periods of
high flows for use during the periods of low flows or droughts. In addition to conserving water
for later use, the storage of floodwater may also reduce flood damage on the downstream of the
reservoir.

Spillway :

A spillway is a waterway provided to dispose of surplus flood waters from a reservoir

after it has been filled to its maximum capacity. Spillways are invariably provided for all the
dams and this act as safety valves for the dams. It may be located either within the body of the
dam or at one end of the dam or entirely away from the dam as an independent structure. It is
essential to provide a spillway of sufficient capacity (or outflow rate through the spillway) so
that the surplus flood water is discharged keeping the water level in the reservoir below some
predetermined maximum level and no damage is caused to the dam.

Spillways crest gates :

By installing gates over the crest of the spillway additional storage can be made
available. Gates can be provided on all types of spillways except siphon spillways for which
gates are not required because the rise of water level during floods is small as compared to other
spillways. For an non-gated spillway the useful storage in the reservoir can be maintained only
up to the level of the crest of the spillway.
P

V
V

An embankmentV dam is a massive artificial water barrier. It is typically created by the

emplacement and compaction of a complex semi-plastic mound of various compositions of soil,
sand, clay and/or rock. It has a semi-permanent waterproof natural covering for its surface, and a
dense, waterproof core. This makes such a dam impervious to surface or seepage erosion. The
force of the impoundment creates a downward thrust upon the mass of the dam, greatly
increasing the weight of the dam on its foundation. This added force effectively seals and makes
waterproof the underlying foundation of the dam, at the interface between the dam and its stream
bed. Such a dam is composed of fragmented independent material particles. The friction and
interaction of particles binds the particles together into a stable mass rather than the use of a
cementing substance. They are of two types:

›V Earth-fill dam
›V Rock-fill dam

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen, rolled-earth or simply earth dams, are constructed as
a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely
constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water. A zoned-
earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a locally plentiful shell with
a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect
and remove seep water and preserve the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated
method of zoned earth dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight
core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill
dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is
the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a
watertight region of permafrost within it.

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an

impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a large percentage of large particles hence the
term ¡ ?

. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete,
plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be
within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a ¡ . In the instances where clay is
utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as a  ? dam. To prevent internal
erosion of clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters
are specifically graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When
suitable material is at hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during
construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate
quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment
which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can
be reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate
compaction during construction

Activities & equipments involved in embankment dam construction

1>Site clearance: site clearance involved cleaning & clearing o fland, grabbing, the plants &
trees.

Equipments: dozer, ripper, hoe, scrapper, wood-cutter.

2>Excavation : excavation means it is cutting the heaped part & filling extra earth in pits.

Equipments :

Excavation : bulldozer, scraper, reaper, scraper, hoe, power shovel, clamshell, dragline.

Hauling : trucks, tractors, scrape.

3>Compaction & leveling :It is the placing the different gravels, boulder & fine soil layers in
layers with stabilizing, & curing till the optimum moisture content is achieved.

Equipment :

Placing: shovels, hoe, loader.

Vibrating : vibrators, self vibrating plats and manually propelled compactors, rollers.
4>Sheet piling : sheet piling is piling in upstream side, centre and downside to minimize the
underground seepage flow. It is done by excavation, stabilization, drilling.

Equipments:

Drilling : auger drill, pneumatic drills.


 V
:

Concrete dams are built in four basic shapes. The concrete gravity dam has weight as its
strength. A cross section of this dam looks like a triangle, and the wide base is about three-
fourths of the height of the dam. Water in the reservoir upstream of the dam pushes horizontally
against the dam, and the weight of the gravity dam pushes downward to counteract the water
pressure. The concrete buttress dam also uses its weight to resist the water force. However, it is
narrower and has buttresses at the base or toe of the dam on the downstream side. These
buttresses may be narrow walls extending out from the face of the dam, much like the "flying
buttresses" supporting cathedral walls or a single buttress rather like a short dam may be built
along the width of the toe of the dam.

›V Gravity Dam
›V Arch Dam

In a gravity dam, stability is secured by making it of such a size and shape that it will
resist overturning, sliding and crushing at the toe. The dam will not overturn provided that
the moment around the turning point, caused by the water pressure is smaller than the moment
caused by the weight of the dam. This is the case if the resultant force of water pressure and
weight falls within the base of the dam. However, in order to prevent tensile stress at the
upstream face and excessive compressive stress at the downstream face, the dam cross section is
usually designed so that the resultant falls within the middle at all elevations of the cross section
(the core). For this type of dam, impervious foundations with high bearing strength are essential.
 In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the
upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by
gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and
arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When
the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal component of the
weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure
will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the
abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for
an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock. The safety of an
arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch
be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

Different Construction Activities:

1.V Site Clearing

2.V Excavation
3.V Moving & Hauling
4.V Piling work
5.V Dewatering
6.V Frame work
7.V Concreting
8.V Grouting
9.V Drilling
10.VPlacing
11.VBreaking work
12.VCompaction & Leveling
13.VSurface treatment

Activities & equipments involved in embankment dam construction

1.V Site Clearing

2.V Excavation
3.V Moving & Hauling
4.V Piling work

This above activities detail is mention in Earthen Dam section.

5.V Dewatering: Removing water from the duck or Excavated area.

Equipment used:

›V Reciprocating pump
›V Centrifugal pump

6.V Concrete work:

Equipment used:

(a) Mixers :

›V Tilting mixer
›V No tilting mixer
›V Rotary mixer.
›V Transit mixer

(b) Transportation of concrete

›V Metal pans
›V Buggies-either hand operated or power operated
›V Belt conveyer system
›V Buckets handled with cranes
›V Pump & pump lines
›V Pneumatic concrete placer

(c) Vibrators :
 ›V Needle vibrator
›V Platform vibrator

7.V Grouting : Grouting work is used for filling the void in concrete
Equipment : Grouting pump.
8.V Breaking work:
Equipment used:
›V Hydraulic Rock Breaker
›V Hydraulic Hammer
›V Stone Crushing Machine
9.V Compaction & Leveling
This above activity detail is mention in Earthen Dam section.

VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV

V
 
  V
V VV  :

Modern construction industry is of a complex work. Projects are big and complicated in nature.
There may be more than one sites has to be handled at same time. In modern era planning takes
most important thing prior to commencement of work by which one will decide what work to be
done, how to do, sequence of work, how to optimize the time and cost of project, how an
equipment can be optimistically used in the construction. With increase in the scope, complexity
and nature of work, every single work is executed by different equipments.

The selection of the equipment is also of upmost priority of work is important. Before
start of execution nature of work should be properly defined by checking, inspecting and testing
job site. Equipments are very costly, so they have to be selected by a specialist person.
Equipments are also very typical to handle, maintain and repair. They need specialized person
for driving, who must be training. Nature of work affects the selection procedure. Use of
equipment offers certain advantages such as:

›V Tough work which is beyond the scope of manual labour can be performed effectively
and efficiently.
›V At the time when human labour is uncertain, machines are the only alternative, further
these equipments are not affected by social and economic condition of the region.
›V Due to us of machine, proper planning of work can be made, which consequently reduces
the overall cost of the project.
›V For huge work or when large quantities of material to be transported from one to other,
use of equipment is always cheaper.
›V Equipment help in rapid industrialization of the country.

Roll of IT in the development of equipment will make work easier and with automation
it will decrease labors on the site.

Drawbacks:

›V It creates unemployment problems to human labour as well as to the national economy.

›V Equipments are required to be maintained properly. If they are under repair, work
progress stops completely. Hence it is essential to have stand byes may increase the total
cost of project.
›V It may require the investigation which may not be easy for all the contractors.
›V If it is to be imported, valuable foreign exchange disturbes the balance of the foreign
trade.
›V It is problem to transport heavy equipment to job site.
›V Construction equipments are more power consumptive than any other.
 ›V Some times for unique site equipments are established specifically.

Factors of deciding the type of equipment:

›V Nature and magnitude of work.

›V For heavy lifting and transporting of materials and machineries.
›V Cost of equipment
›V Job site conditions like, climate, place, geography, type material to handle.
›V External or internal power supply.
›V Fuel requirement and power consumption for work.
›V xuality, work precision and duration of work

There are following aspects to be considered at selection stage;

›V Suitability for job with specific reference to climatic and other conditions.
›V Size of equipment
›V Standardization and variety reduction
›V Type of prime mover
›V Degree of utilization
›V Suitability of local condition
›V Adaptability
›V Technical considerations

The of size of equipment is indicated as either minimum number of large size of

machines or more no of small/ medium sized machines. A main advantage of selection of large
size of equipment is that they are generally sturdy and tuned to tough working conditions. The
size of standby equipment will also be a consideration in selection of equipments. As far as
possible multiple uses of units is preferred first. Basic units of equipment comprises of prime
mover and hydraulic system are available with wide variety of attachments to perform a a variety
of functions.

Persons who are involved in construction industry always prefer to purchase standard equipment
for following reasons.

›V Less initial investment and more reliability

›V Can be held from market easily with short notice period.
›V Easy to repair and dispose off
›V More resale value
›V Can be used many times for similar nature of works
 In general special equipments are defined as equipment manufactured for a single
construction project or for a specific job. Special equipments are purchase after doing the deeper
analysis. As it requires high initial investment and has restricted usage, A factor that must be
considered while purchasing an equipment is easy and with which replacement parts can be
obtained easily.

Technical consideration includes the following points:

›V Strength
›V Variable stability
›V Resistance to wear
›V Heat resistance
›V Reliability
›V Maintainability
›V Planning for construction equipment

A type of equipment selected depends on the type of work, amount of work, site
condition and type of work to be handled. The number and size of equipment depend on amount
of work, working days available, shift of work, and availability of labour.

Along with planning of selection of equipment, planning of equipment operations, its

relation with other jobs under execution etc. should be done properly. If proper planning of
operation of equipment and surrounding equipment is not done properly, availability of
equipment will be less and its use will be less. Either equipment will remain idle or work is not
taken from equipment of its capacity. Arrangement must be made for its repairs and
maintenance. Topographical condition where it would be placed should be considered while
selection of equipment and planning execution, operation of equipment.



V
  V V VV  V

Downtime cost

Downtime cost is that cost that machine is not under working. it happens when machine
is under repairing, or adjustments. It increases with usage. Hence, due to productivity of machine
decrease and production cost per unit increases. The loss of money is because machine is not
under usage due to downtime that¶s why it is called downtime cost.

Obsolescence cost

Due to continuous improvement of machines, the production cost per unit of new
machine decreases. The advantage can be gained only by replacing the old equipments by new
improved one. But it is tendency to use older one with continuous repairs till it becomes useless.
Hence a person who has gained this older equipment sustains loss in thh form decrease in the
profit is called obsolescence cost. Failure to take advantage of new equipment results in higher
than necessary production cost for the owner of old equipment. The production cost for
equipments is reducing by approximate 3 to 5 percent due to improvement of machineries.

Depreciation

Every asset has got useful life whether fixed or movable has got certain useful life. Its
book value goes on decreasing with time. This decrease in value of asset with use or age or
obsolescence is defined as depreciation. Due to continued decline in value of properties of assets
their cost must be amortized over useful and economical life so that owner can recover his
investment, if and when need be and has the capital available when replacement of the asset or
property becomes necessary. Because property value generally decreases in value, it is desirable
to consider the effect of depreciation on the project cost.

Cycle time

It is the time taken by machine to complete one full cycle of operation. It consists of fixed
value and variable time. Variable time is the time spent on travelling hence is function of
travelling distance, time spent, and speed of equipment other than travelling like loading,
unloading, turning, dumping. It is of ideal requirement that equipment work for an hour means
60 minutes but it seldom works for 50 minutes. In case of night It works for about 45 minutes per
hour.

Economic and useful life of equipment

The owner of equipment is always interested to keep production time minimum. The period
through which the equipment gives maximum profit is called as economic life of an equipment.
Useful life of equipment is its life in years to which it can be used economically. Hence, many of
times economic life of equipment is called as a useful life. But in real in economic life periods
profit will be maximum. Economic life is always less than the useful life. Factors which affect
the economic and useful life are:

›V Depreciation and replacement

›V Amount invested in equipment
›V Maintenance and site conditions
›V Downtime and obsolescence time

It is always necessary to replace used equipment at end of its useful life. The cost of
maintenance and repairs generally increase in geometric proportion with increase in age of an
equipment. Apart from pure economic consideration, replacement it is also required due to
obsolescence cost, non availability of spare-parts, etc.

Productivity of equipment

The manufacturer generally provides the information regarding productivity, rating of an

equipment under different conditions. On site it is prudent that output is always less than the
quoted rating by manufacturer. In general utilization factors remains from 0.6 to 0.8, depends on
quality of work and conditions at site. It is always advisable by a good planner to compare the
scope and quantity work completion with different no. and sizes of equipments for same quantity
of work and then to select equipment.
 î
\\cc

c

Machines and mechanisms used in construction can be classed in respect to the kind of
job, nature of working process, the operation conditions, the type of drive, the capacity (output),
the type of running gear, universality and the kind of control.V

Equipments are used on almost all the project in one form or theVother.V

Equipments are classified as shown below:V

1. Hauling Equipments

(a) Tractors

›V Crawler mounted
›V Wheel mounted

(b) Trucks

(c) Dumpers.

2. Earth moving machines

(a) Bulldozers and Anglodozer

›V Crawler mounted
›V Wheel mounted
›V Tractor mounted

(b) Rippers

›V Crawler mounted
›V Wheel mounted
›V Tractor mounted Scrappers

(c) Scrapers

›V Crawler tractor mounted

›V Wheel tractor mounted.

3. Hoisting
equipments
 a)V Chain hoist or Jib hoist
b)V Chain-pulley block
c)V Jacks
d)V Winch hoist
e)V Cranes

›V Dorric crane
›V Mobile crane
›V Tower crane
›V Hydraulic crane
›V Gantry crane
›V Lift crane.

4. Excavating and Hauling equipment

(a) Power shovel

›V Wheel mounted
›V Crawler mounted
›V Tractor mounted

(b) Hoe or drag shovel

(c) Clamshells

(d) Draglines

(e) Dredgers

›V Dipper dredger
›V Ladder dredger
›V Suction dredger

5. Earth compactors

a)V Tamping rollers

b)V Smooth wheel rollers
c)V Pneumatic tyred rollers
d)V Vibrating rollers
 e)V Self propelled vibrating plat, and/or shoes
f)V Manually propelled vibrating plates
g)V Manually propelled compactors

6. Pneumatic equipments²Air compressors :

›V Stationary Compressor
›V Portable compressor
›V Reciprocating compressor
›V Rotary compressor
›V Centrifugal compressor
›V Axial flow compressor

7. Conveying equipments

a)V Belt conveyer system

b)V Pneumatic conveyor
c)V Ropeways

8. Rock drilling equipment

›V Jack hammer
›V Drifter
›V Wagon drills
›V Track mounted drills
›V Percussion drills
›V Rotary percussion drills
›V Blast hole drills
›V Diamond drills

9. Blasting equipments

10. Pumping and Dewatering equipments

(a) Reciprocating pump

(b) Centrifugal pump

11. Pile driving equipments hammers

›V Steam hammer
›V Hydraulic hammer
›V Diesel hammer
›V Single-acting hammer
›V Double-acting hammer
›V Differential acting hammer

12. Crusher

(a) Primary crushers

›V Jaw crusher
›V Gyratory crusher
›V Hammer mill crusher

(b) Secondary crushers

›V Cone crusher
›V Roll crushers
›V Hammer mill crusher
›V Tertiary crusher
›V Roll crushers
›V Rod mill crusher
›V Ball mill crusher

13. Concrete mixing plants

(a) Concrete mixing batchers

(b) Mixers :

›V Tilting mixer
›V No tilting mixer
›V Rotary mixer.
›V Transit mixer
 (c) Transportation of concrete

›V Metal pans
›V Buggies-either hand operated or power operated
›V Belt conveyer system
›V Buckets handled with cranes
›V Pump & pump lines
›V Pneumatic concrete placer

(d) Vibrators :

›V Needle vibrator
›V Platform vibrator.

14. Miscellaneous equipments

a)V Welding equipments

b)V Grouting equipments
c)V Tar mixing equipments

15. Special Tunneling equipments

›V Drilling jumbo
›V Explosives
›V Ventilating fans and ducts
›V Temporary supports
›V Mucking equipment
›V Rock loaders
›V Concreting gantry
›V Machine tunneling

Other Methods of Classification

With respect to the degree of mobility (universality), machines are classified as stationary
and mobile, the later, depending on the manner of gauging up, may be of the self propelled, semi
trailer and trailer types. As to the type of the running gear, machines may be crawler, pneumatic
tyre, rail mounted, and walking.
 With respect to the system of control, hand operated and automatic machines are
distinguished and with respect to the means of control, they are classified as mechanically
controlled, hydraulically controlled, pneumatic controlled and electrically controlled machines,
borne machines have combined control for example hydro-mechanically controlled machines.

General purpose self-propelled vehicles find an even widening field of application. These
usually consist of a base vehicle and a set of change mounted or semi-trailed and sometimes
trailed working equipment. Tractors, trucks are used as a base vehicle.

The design and performance features of machines are evaluated by their basic
parameters, including the power rating, horse power, bucket capacity for excavator and scrapper,
blade size for a bulldozer, drilling diameter etc.

The requirements imposed on machines include social, design, usage and economy.

A class of machine is subdivided into groups according to the nature of working process
involved. For instance earth work machines are divided into excavation machines (excavators)
and earth moving machines.

With respect to duty, machines of various groups are classed as intermittent (cyclic)
action (for instance, single bucket excavators) and continuous action machines (for instance
multi bucket excavators).

Machines of all types must be available in a number of standard size, differing from one
another in the power rating of the drive, in mass, size of working members, over all dimensions,
but being at the same time of almost similar design.

With respect to the main drive, machines are distinguished as powered by an electric
motor, an internal combustion engine, by pneumatic and hydraulic motors, or as a combination
of two, a diesel electric.

1>
îc ¬VP c P
\

To Haul means to carry, hence an equipment used to carry, materials from one place to
other is called an hauling equipment. Their function is simply to transfer. Tractors, dumpers and
trucks are used to haul the material.

A tractor is a multipurpose machine varies from light models used small haulage and
agricultural works to heavy crawler units for large and heavy works. It is one of the most
important equipment and is indispensable on most of the projects whether small or big.
 The primary function of a tractor is to pull or push loads but they are also used to mount
other equipments also such as shovels, rippers, bulldozer blades, hoes etc. These tractors may be
(i) Crawler mounted or (ii) Wheel mounted.

If a tractor is mounted on crawler it is called crawler mounted tractor and if rubber tyres
have been used it is called wheel mounted. These tyres are called pneumatic tyres.

from one place to other. These because of high speed and more capacities provide relatively low
hauling cost. Trucks may be classified as four wheel or six wheels, gasoline engine or diesel
engine 3 gears or 4 gears, capacity in term of weight or in volume etc. Hence trucks should be
selected as per works to be carried with them.

These equipments have got life of 8 to 10 years(9000 to 16000 hrs.) depending on it¶s
horsepower varies from 100HP to 300HP. Wheeled tractors have been developed at speed more
than 50kmph.

Crawler type tractors

Crawler types are tractors are developed for heavier jobs at site, or where the location of
job site in undulating land or at territorial areas. They are more costlier than wheeled type
tractors. Operation and maintenance of crawler type tractors are more & it requires the skilled
operators. Crawler type tractors are mostly used in the soft grounds and slop surfaces.

Trucks

Trucks are used on sites for transportation of materials like cement, aggregate, coal, steel,
earth, sand or other machineries. They have high speed than tractors. Trucks are generally on the
long distance material transportation.

Specifications.

Capacities ² 0.4 m3 to 20 m3

Speed = 10 to 50 kmph (max. 100 kmph)

Carrying capacity

light trucks ² 1/2 to 1 Tons (0.5 KN to KN)

Medium ² 1.5 to 3 Tons. (15 KN to 30 KN)

Heavy ² 3.5 to 10 Tons. (35 KN to 100 KN)

Common trucks are 4 x 2 wheel i.e. 2 front or driving wheel and 4 rear wheel.

Many times to main body of trucks, service trailers of huge size are attached. Trailers of 13 m
length having 16 tyres are usual. Even trailers having 40 wheels for transportation of heavy
equipment have been manufactured by various firms as shown.

Dumper

Dumper is a heavy duty truck with a strongly built body which is hinged at back and is fitted
with a hydraulic ram on the underside to lift the front of the body and tilt it backward into the
dumping position. A tail gate may be fitted at the rear of the body or the body may have a chute
like shape in the rear with inside corners rounded and sides tapered to facilitate dumping which
is most popular now-a-days.

Useful life of dumpers is generally 8 to 12 yrs i.e. 10000 hours to 15000 hours depending
on their capacity. The life is also expressed in terms of km i.e. 200000 km.

Dumpers have generally capacity of 4.5 m3. Angle of tilt varies from 45¶ to 62¶.dumpers
have capacity of more than 300MT have been manufactured and used for specific works. The
usual dimensions ate 6.23 * 2.29 * 2.64 m3. The main advantage is that while unloading labors
are not required.

à P

Vc ¬V
c P\V

These equipments are used to cut the earth or trees or rocks and then move them to a
distance required. Equipments like Bulldozers are also used for leveling of the ground, cleaning
land of timber, stumps, spreading earth fill etc. These equipments are very common of all the
earth moving machine, a bulldozer is most useful and most of project sites require its use in one
form or the other.

Bulldozer and Anglodozer

Bulldozer is basically pushing unit consist of a tractor either crawler mounted or wheeled
to which a cutting blade is mounted at the direction perpendicular to the direction of travel.
There is no difference in bulldozer and an anglodozer except that the cutting blade is set at an
angle with the direction of travel.
 The angle dozers push the load at angle of approximately 30¶ to the direction travel of the
tractor. It is specially used in the side hill works where material is to be piled on the side of line
of travel.

Bull dozers push the material in forward direction while anglodozer pushed it on one side
only. if attached blade can move 20 to 25cm then it is called as a tilted dozed. The size of bull
doer is decided by length, height and capacity of the blade. Bulldozers are collecting all the earth
& soil undulation above its level of blade and collect in the bucket.

Ripper and Scraper

Rippers are used for rocks ripping whilst scrapers are used to scrap the surfaces. To rip
means to take out by cutting or tearing hence a equipment used to cut or to tear a rock and to take
it out is called ripper. As shown in Fig. 5.10 a cutting edge is attached to tractor which is quite
strong to rip rock or very hard soil when pushed with it. It has been found that rocks which
propagate round waves at low velocities are ripable. Tractored rocks, large grain size faults or
weakness in any plan favors use of ripping. Sedimentary rocks also can be ripped easily.

Scraper is used mainly for earthwork operations of roads. Scraper consists of a scrap with
a cutting edge. The excavated material is collected in the body of a scraper or bucket and then
removed to the place of dumping, operation of a scraper consists of:

1. Lowering the front-end of the bowl until cutting edge attached, extended across the width of
the bowl enters the ground and at the same time, raising the front apron to provide an open slot
through which the earth may flow into the bowl. As scraper is pulled forward a strip of earth
depending on cutting edge depth is forced into bowl. This operation is continued till the bowl is
filled.

2. At this time when no earth is forced in bowl, i.e. bowl is full, the cutting edge is raised and the
apron is lowered to prevent spin g during the haul trip.

3. Once it is taken to a place of dumping the cutting edge lowered to the desired height, apron is
raised and earth is forced out between the blade and apron by means of a movable ejector
mounted at the rear of the bowl.

It is a combination of cutting or scraping, loading and hauling. The capacity of a scraper

depends on capacity of bowl. Output of a scraper depends on capacity of tractor, type of
material to be handled, haul distance and other general conditions like weather, management etc.

Rippers or scrapers are classified on the basis of tractor whether it is wheel mounted or
crawler mounted. Scrapers are also classified as single engine, twin engine, two bowl or multi-
bowl, multi-engine etc. depending on its action. Similarly rippers are also classified on the basis
of ripping blade like twin shanks ripper, towed type etc, scrapers are also classified as motorized
and towed. In the motorized unit scraper is self-powered, whilst in towed it is like a tractor on 2
axles hauled by separate tractor usually a crawler. Many a time a pusher is also provided for
extra power.

The capacity of scraper varies from 7.6 cubic m3 and above. The useful life of equipment
is about 8 to 10 years (i.e. 9000 to 10,000 hours).

A thumb rule to determine output of a scraper is by formula =

Output in cubic metre per hour = 100 C/(3.28D + 3)

where C = Struck capacity of scraper in cubic metre, and

D = Haul distance (one way) in hundred of metres.

 c\
c ¬VP c P
V

Hoisting means an operation consisting of lifting a load from one location to transport it
if required to a reasonable distinct location and un-load it down. Equipment used for one or all of
these are called hoisting equipment.

The hoists are used to lift the material & to haul it at required place, in the range of
hoists. It does not mean the transportation of material but put it on platform or package it,
generally hoists are connected with tractors or trucks for transport of hoists. They are generally
settled on the crawler mounted wheels. Types of hoists are;

›V Jib hoists or chain hoists

›V Transportable tower hoist or platform hoist
›V Mobile hoists

The scaffolding type of hoists is easily developed by connecting some steel tubes with
pulley arrangement, hook and jib frame. These types of scaffold hoists are developed at
congestible sites specially at small building sites.

Scaffold hoist or chain which can be fitted to existing tubular scaffolding at a point just
above the level to which the load is to be lightest type of powered builder hoists. The frame of
this hoist can be fitted to existing tubular scaffolding upright in a few minutes and thereafter
swivels on the upright. The scaffolding jib hoist is very useful on small building jobs where
tower hoist in uneconomical or when it is not possible to own tower hoist at the site due to
congestion or other reasons.

Chain hoist consist of gears, sheaver and chains. These are made in capacities 0.25 to 50
tones and are low in the first cost and easy to operate. Hand operated chain hoists are very much
used in isolated locations where no motive power is have slow lifting speeds.

The transportable tower hoist consists of a vertical mast, carriage travelling on the mast
and a power operated winch it is also called as a platform hoist. The transportable tower hoist is
very much used on building construction. It takes time to erect, but once it erected it can be
quickly extended to cater higher lifts as required It is great saver of man power as only two men
are needed to operate it, one ground and the other at discharge level.

Cranes

Cranes are used in construction for lifting and erecting of precast units.types of cranes are
classified as below:

1) Non-swing type

›V Tower crane.
›V Climbing

2) Swinging cranes

›V Derrick cranes also known as scotch derrick or stiff legged derrick

›V Mobile crane.

For different load lifting, different cranes are used. Cranes are economical only if used
for large works. The used life of cranes varies from 10 to 20 years ( 12,000 to 30,000 hours )

Derricks crane

Derricks crane is mounted on a wide frame for stability. Its load carrying capacity is 5 to
10 tones and jib length 30 m long. It is mainly used for building frames. Mobile crane is us for
low building works i.e. up to 1 to 2 storey height. It is mainly us for factory columns, trusses,
frames etc. For very tall building climbing crane is generally used.

The derrick is a form of crane which widely used in civil engineering practice as a lifting
crane, as a grabbing crane and oi occasion for pile driving. Derrick cranes are usually large
structure with long jibs giving a wide out reach and a high lift. Derrick with capacities 30 tonnes
jib length 50 m are common now-a-days in civil engineering works. There are mainly two types
of derricks which an used on large projects.

›V The Guy derrick.

›V Scotch derrick.

Tower crane

These are the swinging type cranes mounted on high steel tower. These cranes are vary
useful for high rise buildings particularly for tall structures in congested areas and in assembly of
high industrial plants with elements of steel structure. It can also be used for loading and
unloading of heavy structural pieces. The tower on which crane mounted has a truss structure
welded from angle bars and channels. Tower extension pieces are generally provided which are
bolted to the main tower structure. Jib is attached to the last tower. The life of this crane is about
70 years i.e. 30,000 hours.

Hydraulic crane

This type of crane has become popular due to its unique properties such as its boom
length and angle can be changed easily and quickly during operation. Further it has all the
advantages of hydraulic power device. These are of two types :

(i)V Telescopic boom crane.

(ii)V Cable operated boom crane.

The telescopic crane has fast speed, mobility and maneuverability. Its boom length can be
increased at the rate of 110 metre/minute and reduced 104 metre per minute. It is not easy with
cable operated crane. These crane operate hydraulically and have very smooth operation without
jerks. These are usually truck mounted, very massive cranes upto a capacity of 1900 tonnes have
been developed. Boom length up to 57 m and boom height up to 118 m have also been
manufactured.

Fork Lift

It is a type of crane used to lift boxes etc. from one place and to keep them at the other
side on another set of boxes or platform. Blades are inserted in horizontal gap of boxes and then
mobile unit goes behind along with blade. The portion above that gap gets loaded over these fork
blades and then these boxes are transferred to other place. These cranes are very common in
factories, stores etc. fork-lift trucks are available with a load lifting capacity from 3 to 5 tonnes a
load lifting height up to 6 m. The load hoisting speed is within J-5U m/min, and their no-load
travelling speed is up to 30 km/hr, and when loaded, up to 20 km/hr.

The fork is suspended from a hoisting device consisting of main (fixed) frame 1 and
movable frame 2. The fork is secured to carriage 4 which is suspended from the movable frame.
The frame with the carriage is lifted by a single acting hydraulic (ram) 3 mounted on the main
frame.

The main frame is pivoted on the truck frame and can be tilted together with the carriage
in the vertical plane through an angle oi 3-4 degree forward and 12-15 degree backward with the
aid of two hydraulic cylinders.

Jacks

Jacks are equipments used for applying pressure. They may be mechanical or hydraulic in
operation and have a wide range of sizes from the small automobile jack to one of 100 tonnes
capacity or more. Mechanical jacks may be of lever, screw or gear type. Screw jack works on
principle of inclined plane. Hydraulic jack works on the principle that pressure exerted by a
liquid on a surface is proportional to the area of the surface. From small portable hydraulic jacks
to heavy car serving station lifts all work on this principle.

Hydraulic jacks in which pressure is excited by a liquid is most common. These have
large capacities in small dimensions. The lift is provided by oil under pressure. These jacks can
exert a pressure up to 200 tonnes and more. It consists of a cylinder of oil in which a piston
moves under pressure of oil sent from a reciprocating pump. To release oil pressure a release
screw is provided.

• P


 V
V
  VP  VV

There is a wide range of excavating and hauling equipment available commercially, to

which include shovel, dragline clamshell etc and a hauling unit either crawler mounted or trucks
mounted (wheel mounted). To select proper equipment for particular job great care is required.
These equipment as the name indicates consists of an excavator hauling unit also has a revolving
unit through which an excavator can be swing to any direction horizontally. This combination of
travel unit and revolving unit is called basic shovel to which different attachment are made to
produce different excavating and hauling equipment.

›V REVOLVING UNIT
›V CRAWLER MOUNTED
›V TRUCK MOUNTED
 Thus the basic shovel has the means of propulsion of the machine, of revolving the super
structure around, and of operating the head or rig attached to it. With the further addition of the
rig the basic shovel changes in to a complete machine of any type as required.

The capacity of digging varies for different soils. Earths like dry sand, loose earth, loose
gravel, muck cinders, ashes etc can be lifted more efficiently. Dipper fill factors for such
materials is about 85% to 110% and classed as easy digging. Wet clay, dry gravel etc is materials
not very difficult to dig can be cut and lifted easily. Dipper fill factor for such materials is about
80 to 95%. Materials requiring some breaking by light blasting are termed as hard digging
materials and have a dipper fill factor of about 70 to 90%. Heavy wet stick clay gravel with large
boulder, cemented gravel etc come in to category of granite and sandstone. Hard and tough racks
are required to be blasted. Their efficiency varies from 40 to 80% only.

Power Shovel

This is an equipment used for excavating all classes of earth except solid rocks. It is best
suited equipment for close range work and have good control of digging. As shown dipper stick
is attached in the centre of boom. Dippers used very in capacity from 3 cubic metre to 5 cubic
metre as per requirements. The output of a power shovel mainly depends on type of material to
be handled and depth of cut. Approximate hourly shovel handling capacities in cubic meters per
hour for different material as shown below. It also has shown the optimum depth of cut for
different shovel dipper capacity cubic metre.

If depth of cut is small dipper will not get filled completely in one pass and hence will
reduce the output per unit period of time. As the angle of swing increases firm 45° to 180° the
output decreases by unit to approximately 40 per cent at 180° swing.

Tractor shovel is extensively used now-a-days to handle and transport if required bulk
material such as earth, coal etc. It is also used to load truck by loose material as shown. These are
also of two types, i.e. crawler tractor mounted or wheel tractor mounted. These are also classified
on the basis of capacity of bucket. The capacity of these bucket varies from 1.8 m3 to 4 m3
heaped.

Hoe

It is an excavating equipment of power shovel group hence it is also called as Back

shovel or pull shovel. It is used to excavate below natural surface of ground on which machine
rests. It consists of a dipper which can be lowered down to a level below the level of machine.
This equipment is used to excavate trenches, pits. Most effective digging action occurs when the
dipping stick is at right angles to the boom. It is also known as earth excavator.
Single bucket excavator and loader

Many a time a single bucket with attachments is used to excavate and lift loose material.
It is then loaded into trucks and discharged to a desirable place. Such single bucket excavator has
become very common. Owing to their versatility, mobility and possibility, construction
excavators are very effective for small and detached construction project and for excavating
handling and operation on larger construction projects. The operation of excavating and lifting
materials and then unloading to the truck & trolley.

Clamshells

This equipment is used to lift and handle loose material like sand gravel, crushed stone,
coal etc. the buckets of clamshell varies in capacity from 0.25 m3 to 2 cubic metres. These can
be attached to a long boom to increase the working area. The actual capacity of bucket is defined
by various methods. A more accurate capacity is given by water level capacity, i.e. capacity of
bucket filled with water and leveled. It is measured in litres or cubic metre. The plate line and
heaped measure capacities are expressed in cubic metre.

Use of clamshells has become very common now-a-days. Buckets used for clamshells are
of various types heavy duty type used for excavation: medium duty type for general purpose and
light duty type for light materials. Clamshell buckets with teeth are used for excavating purpose
and buckets without teeth are used for lifting. If with teeth they form a inter lock between two
halves of bucket and have grip with each other. Clamshells in general are used mainly for lifting
materials.

Dragline

The dragline is one of the most flexible excavating tool. It has more reach than a shovel
both for excavating as well as for disposal. It can dig far below its base as well as at almost any
other location. It can be used even in underwater. However, it cannot handle hard digging so
efficiently as it is done by shovel. The boom has a fixed angle to horizontal and is generally 30 to
37°.

There is not much difference between a shovel and a dragline. These can be changed
simply by changing the boom, different buckets are used for different material to be handled with
it. Heavy duty bucket used for excavation of heavy materials whereas medium duty are used for
general work and light duty bucket are used for light materials. The bucket size varies from 1.15
m3 to 27 m3 consequents the weight of empty bucket varies from 1450 kg to 32,250 kg. The life
of equipment varies from 10 to 25 years (12000 to 40000 working hours) depending on bucket
capacity and type of manufacture. The usual bucket capacity varies from 1.15 m3 to 3 m^3.
 As other equipments, it also operates by swinging its bucket out on to the material to be
excavated, then hauling it back towards the base machine, excavation and filling as it comes on.
It is generally used for bulk excavation of a reasonable light nature working below trucks level.
It is mainly used for excavating trenches when sides are permitted to establish their angle of
repose without shoring, compare with power shovel, these have got less efficiency. As usual
drag-line are also classified on the basic of their mounting i.e. weather truck mounted, crawler
tractor mounted or wheel mounted. An approximate hourly dragline capacity in cubic metre
varies for different soils. It is approximately 70 per cent that of shovel reason being small
capacity of bucket and more boom length. Due to more length to boom it can cut to a greater
depth compare to the power shovel by about 50 to 60cm. with more swing angle capacity
reduces by 30%.

Boom-length :15²24m

Capacity : 2700²5400 kg

Boom-angle : 20°²45°

Dumping radius : 12 to 26 m3

Dumping height : 3 to 13 m

Maximum digging depth : 12 to 6 m

Speed-crawler wheel and trucks : 2 km per hour 50 kmph

Dredger

Dredger means the excavation of bed of river, lake or sea for purpose of deepening.

This excavation is generally done at docks and harbors to increase the depth of water way
to provide sufficient draft for ships. A dredger is an equipment used for dredging. Following are
the common dredgers used now-a-days.

›V Dipper dredger.
›V Ladder dredger of continuous bucket dredger.
›V Suction dredger or Hydraulic dredger.
›V Grapple dredger.
 Dipper dredger consists of a floating vessel to which a shovel or dragline is mounted
whilst in grapple dredger, a clamshell is attached instead of shovel or dragline. These dredges
can excavate to a depth of 0.5 m to 20 m. Ladder or bucket dredger consist of a bucket elevator
mounted on a ladder, i.e. is a sort of belt conveyer system.

The speed of it varies from 20 to 30 km per hour and capacity of individual buckets being
85, 140 or 225 liters. This system is only suitable for soft ground or for loose filling like sand
and gravel.

A section on hydraulic dredge consists of a suction pipe carrying at the lower end a cut of
some sort. This suction pipe is connected to a centrifugal pump having a long delivery pipe for
discharging the loosen soil to specially selected spot on shore needing reclaiming or filling. This
type of dredge is very effective in beds of sand, silt, mud and clay. Gravel and soft rocks are
easily reduced by the cutter up to 60 m depth, this can be used efficiently.

Æ P

V

\V

Compaction of the earth to increase its density the K increasing its bearing power and
strength and to give impermeability/ on earth structure?) Compaction is also done to tar
pavement to increase its bearing power. Many type of rollers are used to compact them. To
produce desired compaction, number of passes given should be sufficient.

Many types of compacting equipments are available like plain steel rollers, vibration
rollers, temping rollers, pneumatic tired rollers etc. They are also classified as manually
propelled or mechanically operated. Self-propelled vibrating plates or shoes are also used for
compacting the surfaces. Selection of a type of a roller depends on class of work and type of
surface to be compacted.

Plain steel rollers or smooth drum roller weighing from 5 to 15 tonnes are used for
ordinary rolling works where deep compaction is not required, for ex. road work for compaction
of tar road. Steel rollers also called as smooth wheel roller. It consists of two axles and three
wheel of which front wheel is used for steering whilst rear two wheels are used for driving the
unit. Two wheel tandom and vibrating road roller. A three wheel tandom roller differs from two
wheel in that it has three drums and three axles are more effective. There rollers are designated in
terms of weight which is stated in tonnes. A 8/10 tonnes indicates that, minimum weight of
machine in 8 tonnes and can be ballasted to give a maximum weight of 10 tonnes.

For compacting earthwork in the embankment or canals compaction is required to be

done at great depths. Sheep foot temping roller which consist of a hollow steel drum around the
periphery of which welded projections or feet just like that of sheep usually 15 to 20 mm long
are used. The soil is compacted and consolidated when compression by projecting teeth is more
than 12mm deep on the surface has been rolled 16 to 20 times. the top layer s finished with
smooth rollers. The below feet is 4 to 7 kg/cm2 for light rollers and 28 to 70 kg/cm2 for giant
rollers. This be attached to hauling unit like tractor. These rollers are 0.9 to 1.5 m in length and
0.75 to 1.5m in diameter. These rollers have weight varying from 2 to 13 tonnes. These rollers
transmit a pressure of 10 to 50 kg/sq cm & some times 70 kg/sq cm. About 12 no. of passes are
enough for average ground.

The grid rollers consist of steel grill fixed along periphery of wheel of cast alloy steel.
The grid combines soil and produces high pressure at point of intersection of the base hence the
rock gets crushed and compacted. These rollers have generally 7 to 9 tonnes capacity & they are
used in rocky soils.

Pneumatic tyred rollers are compact the soil through static weight, kneading and
vibrating. It consists of ballast-box mounted between two axles. The tyres are arranged such that
tracks of forward wheels in between the tracks of rear wheels. Compaction occurs due to these
tyred wheels. No. of tyres can be 4 or more. The maximum load may be in the range of 180 to
185MT. These rollers can compact up to depth of 60ccm and are useful always in the soils
except rocky soils.

Hard rollers can also be used by filling soil, sand & water in the hollow steel cylinder to
increase the weight.

 P
cVP c P
\V
cV P\\\V

Compressed air is considered as an indispensable construction tool. It is used extensively

on construction projects for drilling rock or other hard formations, loosening earth, operating air
meters, hand tools, pumps, mucking operation, cleaning etc.

When air is compressed it receives energy. This energy is transmitted through a pipe or
hose to the operating equipment, where a portion of the energy is converted into mechanical
works. The operation of compressing, transmitting and using air results in a loss of certain
energy which gives overall efficiency less than 100%.

Air compressor is the machine used to increase the pressure of air by reducing it¶s
volume. The capacity of a compressor is the actual volume of free air drawn into a compressor
per minute and expressed in cubic metre. The quantity of compressed air required for different
work varies from 0.5 to 1 cubic metre per minute for chipping hammers clay diggers to about 7.5
to 8 cubic metre per minute for hoist drifters.

  Pc ¬VP c P
V

A conveyor is an equipment which is capable of carrying material in a continuous stream

and usually has as its distinguishing feature, some kind of an endless chain or belt which by its
motion constitutes the primary device of the conveyor. Aerial transportation like rope ways,
cable ways etc. are also conveying equipment. Conveying may be horizontal or vertical or
inclined which is most common. An elevator or lift is also a vertical conveyor.

Its use in field of construction has increased extensively. It is most satisfactory and
economical method of handling and transporting materials like earth, aggregate, concrete, mine
ore etc. It's use in the form of ropeways, cable ways for transportation of men and materials in
hilly regions has become a pleasure now. These have been used in offices, libraries, for handling
office material, books etc.

A conveyor for transporting material for a short distance may be portable unit or a fixed
installation. For transporting materials to a considerable distance a number of flights are used,
each flight being a complete conveyor unit. These are arranged in series such that material from
one will be shifted to next one automatic. This system to handle and transport materials to a
considerable distance by a belt conveyor is not very common in India. Ropeways and cable-ways
become very common in mines and in hilly regions, and have been found economical and more
feasible. They are certainly economical for mass concreting work in dam sites and at crushers
sites to transport and to load crushed aggregate to trucks and dumpers.

Belt

The belts used in conveyors may be of rubber, canvas woven wire, steel etc. depending
upon type of work to be done. Canvas stitched canvas belts, as these are sometimes called are
made of duck or canvas of good quality. These are made into plies and stitched together with a
sewing machine and water proofed with suitable compound. The suitability of belt to be used
under different environment depends on quantity of surface coat of the belt. These belts are
used to handle ores, coke, aggregate, clay etc. These belts can withstand a temperature of 250°F.

Balata is a tree gum found in West Indies used to join water proofed cotton duck plies
and called as balata belt. These are better than rubber belts.
 Wire mesh belt consist of an assembly of flattened helical coils of wire of steel or brass
or an alloy woven together to form a flexible band with sufficient rods or cross wires woven at
intervals to act as hinge. These belts are used at places where other fiber belts cannot be used
either due to higher temperature or due to wetness.

Steel belts consist of bends of steel cold rolled, hardened and tempered. They are usually
made about 1 mm thick, 80 cm or more in breadth and 110 m long. These belts are always flat
and can be widened by joining two or more belts widthwise.

Rubber belts are most popular that are used in belt conveyor. These are made of rubber
covered cotton or rayon laid up in plies and are suitable for all kind of services. Now-a-days
synthetic rubbers are becoming very common. A wire cable reinforced belt is also becoming
popular in ore conveying.

It is necessary to select a belt with sufficient strength to resist maximum tension likely to
occur. Further it should be wide enough to transport the material at required rate. The quantity of
material that can be transferred depends on the type of belt and its load carrying capacity, slope,
angle of repose of material to be handled and speed. If buckets are attached to a belt its load
carrying, increases.

Idler

These provide the supports for a belt conveyor and provide necessary toughness to the
belt. These may be flat or toughing. Flat idlers are used mainly to convey piece goods at lower
speed. One common form of toughing idler It consists of 3 rollers placed edge to edge and free
to move on bearings. The central roller being horizontal and outer one inclined at 20°. For wide
belts even 5 rollers are used. Diameter of rollers used is generally 10 to 20 cm depend! capacity.
Large diameter gives less friction and better belt protection. Spacing of idlers varies from 60 to
150 cm. There are also many types like return idler, training idler. There is slight variation in
construction but the main object is to support belt. Return idlers are used to support empty belts
hence spacing is increased to 3 m centre to centre.

Driving Unit.

Driving unit mainly is a three phase induction motor electrically operated or hand
operated for emergency conditions Alternatively a compressed air may be used. The external
power required to drive a belt conveyor depend on

›V Load to be moved.
›V Angle of movement whether horizontally, vertically or at an inclination.
›V Number of idlers.
 ›V Friction offered by idlers belts and pulleys.
›V Number of pulleys to be driven.

Hence horse power of motor should be sufficient to complete operation efficiently. Along
with 3-phase induction motor, driving unit consist of head pulley, tail pulley and intermediate
pulley. More the number of pulleys less will be the driving force required. These pulleys are
arranged in tandem to increase more contact area with the belt. Speed controllers are also
installed.

Take ups

Conveyor belt take ups are used to adjust the length of belt as it changes due to change in
temperature during its operation. A screw take up as is used to increase the length of conveyor. It
is adjusted by moving the head or toil pulley. It is good method of adjustment for small pulley.
"Hold backs" are used to prevent the load from coining back in case of power failure. It should
be strong enough to resist the force by the load during power failure. Take ups are also of type
vertical gravity take or horizontal take up.

Feeders

The purpose of the feeder is to feed materials to belt at a uniform rate. Many a times
instead of discharging material to belt directly it a chute which reduces to possibility of impact
on a belt. Many types of feeders are available. They are classified on the basis of method used to
feed.

Apron feeder consists of a moving flat, rubber covered belt. It receives material from a
gated hopper and transfers it to belt. A reciprocating feeder is used in which a plate placed under
a hopper in operation to produce reciprocating effect, due to which the material moves on to the
conveyor belt. A rotary vane feeder consists of a number of vanes mounted on a horizontal shaft.
These vanes deliver measured amount of material to the conveyor.

Trippers are sometimes used when material is required to be removed before it reaches
the end. But it is used rarely as it requires extra power further, it is rarely required to remove
material in between.

À Vcîîc ¬VP c P
VVVV

Before excavation of rock is started it is necessary to consider various factors such as

structural arrangement of rock strata, nature of rocks to be encountered, the possible presence of
water, and the resistance of exposed rocks to weathering influence. The structural arrangement of
rock strata affects considerably the side slopes to be adopted in design. It also affects
underground water problem, line of movement etc.

Of great importance is the nature of the rock to be excavated. Nature of rock means its
properties of a particular type of rock to be encountered all over the area to be excavated for ex.
sandstone can vary from a hard and compact rock to material that is little better then that of
compacted sand. Adequate drainage facilitation are naturally an important feature of all rock
excavation work.

The usual methods of rock excavation are drilling and blasting. Relatively soft rock can
be excavated by drilling operation whilst for hard rock blasting is essential. It also depends on
amount of w be excavated It is surprised to note that, no more advance t0 technique of rock
excavation methods have developed basically equipments used for drilling, the nature of
explosive for blasting improved to a great extent to improve the efficiency of rock removal. One
man drilling rigs have developed correspondingly the adoption of removable bits and the
improvement in the wear & tear properties of the bits have led to great advances in handling of
drill bits, and therefore in the operation of drilling in general.

Drilling rock.

Drills are used to excavate holes in the rocks for blasting. After, the holes being made,
they are filled with explosives and blasted. These operations are necessary to loosen the rocks in
order that excavating equipment may handle it.

There are various types of drilling equipments used to drill the holes. The type to be
selected depends on type of rock, amout of work and the size of hole. Bits are needed to drill the
rock. Bit is a cutting equipment attached to drilling rod to disintegrate the rock. The success of
drilling operation depends on the ability of this bit to remain sharp under the impact of the drill.

Rock bits or steel bits made of steel and varying in size from 2.5 to 11 cm and can be
resharpened two to six times. The depth of hole that can be drilled with it depends on type of
rock and varies from a few centimetres to several metres.

Carbide insert bits consists of a very hard metal tungusten carbide embeaded in steel.
These are used when rocks are very abrasive and steel bits do not work properly. These are also
as illustrated in Fig. 5.53. Initial cost of these bits is more but over all they are found to be
economical.

BIT OF CARBIDE ALLOY

 Before drilling starts, it is imperative to carry out preparatory work including building of
access roads and leveling of working areas, setting out of work which ensures efficient drilling.
If required holes may be drilled by mobile or truck-mounted rigs.

Rigs for cable drilling are used to make wells up to 400 mm in diameter and up to 200 m
deep. The drilling process consists in alternately breaking of rock by drilling tool impacts and
removing of debris from the well. The breakage time in the overall drilling cycle increases with
the hardness of rock. The effectiveness of drilling depends on the correct choice of bit shape,
height of lift and frequency of impacts of the drilling tools which produce impacts of maximum
energy.

Drills used for excavation are broadly classified as :

1. Abrasion Drills

§V Blast hole drill

§V Diamond drill
§V Shot drill.

2. Percussion Drills

§V Churn drill
§V Jack hammer
›V Drifter and wagon drills
§V Piston drill
§V Stop hammer.

Abrasion Drills

(i) Blast hole drill. : It consists of a steel rod to which a roller b is attached at its bottom. The bit
is rotated and drilling proceeds d to abrasion between drill bit and surround rock. Compressed air
may be used for its rotation. Disintegrated rock is removed by the steam of compressed air and it
cools the bit also. It is self-propelled and mounted on any hauling equipment. For soft and
medium rocks it is very suitable. The usual life of it is 10 years, i.e. 10,000 hours.

(ii) Diamond drill. : It is also rotary drill and mainly used in exploration work1 and in foundation
treatment. To extract cores from the interior of the earth, these drills are very useful. These drills
can drill to a depth varying from a few metre to a four to five thousand metres also effectively
and can penetrate to very hard rock. Rate of drilling varies from 30 cm to several metres per
hour. These costs initially more but they are certainly economical for longer use. These can be
attached to any hauling units further these can drill to any desired direction from vertical
downward to upward.

A drilling rig consists of diamond bit, a core vassel, a jointed driving tube and a rotary head to
supply the driving torque. Water is pumped through driving tube to remove the cuttings. The
pressure on the bit is regulated through hydraulic feed swivel head.

(iii)Shot drills. : A shot drill is a tool which depends on the abrasive effect of chilled steel shot.
To penetrate the rock the bit consists in the form of a section of steel pipe with a scratched or a
roughened lower end. The bit is rotated and cuttings are removed by water which is supplied
through the drill rod. Standard shot drills can drill holes to a depth of about 200 metres and more
with varying diameter from 6 to 50 cm. Very hard rocks can also be drilled with shot drills. It is
vary mainly used for vertical holes only.

Percussion Drills

(i) Churn drill. It consists of a long steel bit which is lifted up and dropped down to give an
impact for disintegration of the rock. It can drill vertical holes of 15 cm diameter or more to a
considerable depth in any type of rock. It works mechanically.

(ii) Jack hammer. It is an air operated portable drill use primarily for drilling vertical holes
downward hence they are also known as sinkers. It moves vertically up and down by compressed
air which transmits an impact to the bit through drilling rod. It is classified according to the
weight of hammer such as 20 kg. or 25 kg. About 2000 blows per minute are transferred which
produces the hammer effect for drilling operation. These are used to drill holes of diameter 5 to 6
cm and of a depth varying from 3 to 6 m. The cutting can be removed by air or by water. These
can be mounted on tripod to have more stability. These are used only on very hard ground as
tripod is required to be shifted slightly for adjustment of drilling operation.

(iii) Drifter. Drifter is a heavy rock drill similar to jack hammer and weigh from 45 to 68 kg and
more. But it is very large hence requires mechanical mounting to work with. It can drill holes of
diameter of II cm and upto a depth of 12 metre with steel charge of 4.6 metres. These holes can
be drilled either horizontally or vertically. Drifter are used generally for tunnel excavation work
or for making holes for the mining. The cutting is removed either by air or by water. It is also
called as sinker.

When it is mounted on a wheeled frame it is called a wagon drill, and becomes portable one.
This wheel frame is commonly made of tubular section. Wagon drills are suitable for use in
drilling relatively dead holes in non-abrasive and hard soils as heavier drills can be employed
with longer steel changes. Due to tubular frame, steel is accurately guided and bit end is kept
well pressed. It can be used for drilling at any angle. Wagon drijls are commonly used for
quarrying operation.

If it is mounted on truck, it is called truck-mounted drill and can move quickly to any new site
and then works hydraulically or by compressed air.

(iv) Piston drills. It is also a self-propelled percussion machine which is mounted on crawler
tractor. In this a hollow tube is attached to the piston. The stroke and rotation of the piston is
through this attached tube and it is so adjusted to give best performance for the particular type of
rock being drilled, carbide insert drills are also available attached to the tube. Piston drills are up
to 15 cm in diameter can drill to a depth of 20 m or so.

(u) Stop hammer. Jack hammer are used for drilling downward. Stop hammer is a modified form
of jack hammer and hence can be used to drill overhead as required in core mining tunnels.

Other Types

Fusion piercing. When a mixture of oxygen and a flux bearing fuel such as kerosene are
burnt and sent through end of a blowpipe, a fusion piercing effect is produced at the other end of
blow pipe. When this flame is directed to the rock a high temperature of fusion flame about
4000°F causes some types' of rocks to flake out. A water spray, directed on the heated rock,
quenches the rock into small fragments which are blown out of the hole by the expanding steam

Selection of drilling method and equipment

Holes are drilled by many reason, they are

(i)V To receive charge of explosives for blasting of rocks

(ii)V For exploration work.
(iii)V For injection of grout material.

Within practical limits one which will produce the greatest overall economy along with
efficiency for particular project is the most satisfactory. Following are the factors that affect the
selection of the equipment.

1.V Nature of terrain.

2.V Required depth of hole which consequently depends on purpose of drilling.
3.V Size of the project and extent to which rock is to be broken.
4.V Availability of water to decide dry drilling or wet drilling.
5.V Core size required for exploration diamond drills can be used for small cores whilst
short drills are preferred for large. Up to 7.5 cm dia cores, diamond drilling is most
 satisfactory. For cores of 20 cm and more shot drills are best suited. To drill holes of
about 15 cm in diametre and 15 to 90 m deep, blast hole or rotary drills are best suited.

{ î
\
c ¬VP c P
V

The process of loosening and breaking the large mass of rock into smaller ones by the help of
blasting powder is called blasting. The functions of blasting a rock mass are :

1.V To produce stone for masonry work and ballast for concrete and road metalling.
2.V To excavate foundation for building road formation in rocks.
3.V To excavate for tunnel work.

When the rock is solid, un-fissured and very hard, blasting by means of some explosive is
necessary. It must be remembered that the aim of blasting is to loosen and separate out as much
rock as possible out of the rock mass and not to shatter the rock into pieces.

Detonators

Two types of detonators are manufactured ² plain detonators and instantaneous electric
detonators.

The plain detonator, for use with safety fuse, contains a base charge of pentaerythritol tetranitrate
with a primary charge of ASA composition (lead oxide, lead styphnate and aluminium powder)
in an aluminum tube. It is manufactured in No. 6 strength only. The base of the tube is conical
which gives an intense local shock due to the 'Munroe effect'.

Instantaneous electric detonators are also made in No. 6 strength with either aluminium or
copper tube; the former can be used in almost all workings, except underground coal mines
where mining regulations specify the use of copper electric detonators only.

The specifications and firing characteristics of these detonators are given below :

1.V Leading Wires : 24 SWG tinned iron covered with yellow

PVC in the case of copper detonators, and blue PVC in the case of aluminium
detonators.

2.V Electrical resistance with 1.8 m, 2.5-3.8 ohms leading wires

3.V Firing characteristics.
à
  VP  V

Tunnel Constitute one of the most important classes of heavy construction works unavoidable in
many river valley project, railways and road constructions, and mining and sewage schemes.
Two principle applications of tunnels are in conducting water and conducting rail and road
traffic.

In India great deal of tunnel construction has taken place in the execution of several river valley
project, such as the Bhakra Dam, Beas Dam, Beas-Sutlej link, Yamuna hydro-Electric Project,
Koyna Project and Idikki project.

Methods Of Tunneling:

Tunneling Methods may be broadly classified into two categories:

1. The Conventional ³drill and Shoot´ method

2. The Recent ³mole´ Tunneling

Drilling jumbo:

The Drilling Jumbo is a portable structure made of steel members in a shape and size such that it
is capable of moving in and out of a tunnel. it is capable of moving in and out of a tunnel. The
jumbo provides one or more working platforms on which rock drills of the drifter class are
mounted and operating staff is able to stand and move during drilling operation. The platform
decks are adequately spaced depending upon the size of the tunnel. The lowest deck should be so
provided that a space of 10 ft X 12 ft (3 m X 3.6 m) is available in the centre to allow for traffic
under the jumbo. Alternatively, the lower member may be hinged to provide passage of mobile
equipment underneath. In small diameter tunnels (less than 5m diameter) this arrangement
permits the jumbo to stay on in the tunnel after drilling. Jumbos in large tunnels are usually rail
mounted, but pneumatic wheels are also employed to lend flexibility of movement outside the
tunnel. Wheel mounted articulated rigs are available which are fitted with a number of booms
bearing the drills. These rigs are easy to move in and out of the tunnel.

The jumbo permits the drills to be located in any desired position to conform to drilling pattern
used. The drills are mounted ladders or on pusher legs. Use of feed legs improves drilling rate
but demands skilful operation. These are hydraulic oil compressed air powered and support the
drills which can be placed in in any position in only a few seconds.

Explosives:

Ammonium nitrate explosives are used in large diameter holes and are available in cans varying
from 4 to 12 in. (100 mm to 300 mm) in diameter and from 16 to 24 in. (400 mm to 600 mm) in
length. The cans weigh from approximately 11 to 75 lb. (5 to 35 kg). The cans are waterproof
and can be used in wet rocks. These explosives are less expensive and are also much safer in
handling than dynamites. They however, need special primers for detonation.

Ventilating Fans and Ducts:

Exhausting the fumes produced by blasting and providing suitable quantity of fresh air for
normal ventilation are necessary in tunnelling work. Air may be blown into the tunnel through
electrically driven blowers, or stale air may be exhausted through an electrically driven fan
causing convection currents to take fresh air into the tunnel. Both, exhausting and blowing in
may be used and the same installation utilized through suitable manipulation with valves in the
ducts.

Temporary Supports:

Temporary supports are required in tunnels to support the ground adjacent to the tunnel,
immediately after blasting and before proceeding to clear the muck. Rock falls may result from
faults and folds in the formation and these may be so severe that the tunnel bore may be totally
filled up with rock collapse and damage may be caused to machines and workmen. A total
stoppage of construction may result.

Steel H-beams properly bent to conform to the shape of the tunnel (called ribs) have been used as
temporary support. Two or more pieces are bolted or welded together to cover the entire
curvature, and these are spaced from as close as 18 in. (450 mm) to as far as 6 to 8 ft (1.8 to 2.4
meters) depending upon the nature of the rock supported. In early work timber was used to
support tunnel roof which gave the operation the name of "timbering". Steel, however, provides
thinner sections, is easily installed and serves supplemental to steel reinforcement.

The space between the ribs is filled up with heavy pieces of timber or precast concrete sleepers
or steel plates. Extending from rib to rib, this installation called lagging prevents broken and
loose rock from falling over the equipment and personnel working inside the tunnel. The space
between the lagging and the rock in situ is filled with timber, rock gravel or lean concrete (called
initial concrete).This supports the natural formation and prevents its shifting towards the tunnel
roof.
Rock bolts are specially suited to support in soft rock and earth. These are steel bolts installed in
holes drilled through the loose mass into stable rock capable of supporting the load of loose rock.

Mucking Equipment:

This equipment includes loaders for excavated rock and carriers for its removal. Restrictions of
space and the necessity for making mucking operations automatic and speedy make the selection
of this equipment vitally important. The choice of drive, whether diesel powered or electrically-
powered is another important aspect of selection. Diesel equipment may need fitting of scrubbers
to reduce ventilation problems. For carrier units selection has to be made between the rail
mounted and pneumatic wheel mounted equipment.

Rock Loaders:

Loading of rock in tunnels may be done through standard earth loading machines like the full
revolving power shovel and tractor loader or through special equipment called muckers. Where
inside dimensions of the tunnel permit use of standard machines or articulated models, loading
may be accomplished at low cost. If, however, space restrictions inhibit even short boom power
shovels or articulated loaders, use of mucking machines becomes unavoidable. The loaders
may be crawler or wheel mounted and may run on tunnel bottom or on rails. They may be
powered by compressed air or by electricity, Diesel or gasoline prime are rarely used.

Tunnel Concreting:

Tunnels used as water conductors are usually concrete lined to prevent seepage of water. Traffic
tunnels may be concreted only in portions where rock formation needs additional support.
Alternatively, masonry is employed instead of concrete in these tunnels.

Concreting operations include: fixing of reinforcement and form work, supplying mixed concrete
inside the tunnel at the point where it is to be placed, placing the concrete and compacting it after
placement. The reinforcement steel, bent to the required shape, is transported in sections and
assembled inside the tunnel with the help of a jumbo. The drilling jumbo with some
modifications may be used or a special reinforcement jumbo may by constructed.

Tunnel forms may be made of steel or wood or a combination of steel and wood. Comparative
economies should be studied before one of these is selected and the form should be designed to
resist concrete pressure during placement. Forms are mounted on a traveller unit called
concreting gantry. The gantry is equipped with adjustable jacks or screw ratchets for extending
the form into position and then collapsing the form into position for concreting and then
collapsing it slightly to pull it away after concrete has set initially. The gantry is then moved to
next position for concreting another section of tunnel length. Along the side walls and roof of the
form, hinged doors are provided which permit placement. Temporary openings may also be used
for pouring concrete behind the forms. The proper design of concreting gantry is essential for
success of a concreting operation in tunnels.

Additional equipment on concreting gantry includes : travelling trolley for concreting sides, top
hopper for concreting arch, belt conveyors, pouring pipes, concrete placing pump, pneumatic
concrete placer and air, water and electricity supply connections. The concrete in invert and sides
of the tunnel is generally gravity poured while the arch is concreted through concrete placer or
pumpcrete.

Machine Tunneling:

In the advanced countries of Europe and in U.S.A. the technique of tunnelling has been
completely mechanized and made easier, less expensive and Safer through use of tunnelling
machines, also called moles. These machines cut or pulverize the rock in entire section of the
tunnel, convey the cuttings and advance into the bore in the continuous manner, giving high rates
of driving. The bore is cut to a precise diameter and the danger to overlying structures,
pavements and utility lines due to blasting in conventional drilling is completely eliminated. The
tunneling Machines have arrangements for transporting and fixing steel supports, concreting the
interior and grouting around the bore. Since the machines are operated by electricity and there is
no blasting involved, ventilation requirement are very little. In countries where facilities for
manufacturing these exists and spare parts and technical know-how are easily available, use of
moles results in less expansive drilling. The magnitude of work should, however, justify the
heavy investment in procuring the machine.

à  c ¬VVP9

Pc ¬VP c P
\V

RECIPROCATING PUMPS

Reciprocating pumps are those which cause the fluid to move using one or more oscillating
pistons, plungers or membranes. Reciprocating-type pumps require a system of suction and
discharge valves to ensure that the fluid moves in a positive direction. Pumps in this category
range from having "simplex" one cylinder, to in some cases "quad" four cylinders or more. Most
reciprocating-type pumps are "duplex" (two) or "triplex" (three) cylinder. Furthermore, they can
be either "single acting" independent suction and discharge strokes or "double acting" suction
and discharge in both directions. The pumps can be powered by air, steam or through a belt drive
from an engine or motor. This type of pump was used extensively in the early days of steam
propulsion (19th century) as boiler feed water pumps. Though still used today, reciprocating
pumps are typically used for pumping highly viscous fluids including concrete and heavy oils
and special applications demanding low flow rates against high resistance.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

gVB

V
VV
V V V

VV V VV 

V V

VV
VVVV V V 
VV V 
V
 VVV V
VV V  
V  VV
  V

 V V V
V V V VVVVV V V
VV
V

VV
 V V V VVV V VV 
VVV
 V V V V 
V V
 V
 V  V

 V V 
VV
V
VVV

V  V
V

V V

V
 V V
VVV

VV  V
V

V

V
VVV



V
VV
V



V

V 

 V V  V 
V  V V VV
  V VVVVg
 VVg V
V V
VV V V
V V !
V  V
V

VV 
V  
V

V
VV  V
 V 
V VVV

VV 
V

VV
 
VgV

V
 V V
V 
VV V

VV"#$VV%&$VV

VV V
V
V '

V
V
V  V VVV
V
  VV 
V
V VV

àà cîPVcc ¬VP c P
\V

Diesel hammer
A modern diesel pile hammer is a very large two-stroke diesel engine. The weight is the piston,
and the apparatus which connects to the top of the pile is the cylinder. Pile driving is started by
having the weight raised by auxiliary means ² usually a cable from the crane holding the pile
driver ² which draws air into the cylinder. The weight is dropped, using a quick-release. The
weight of the piston compresses the air, heating it to the ignition point of diesel fuel. Diesel fuel
is added/injected into the cylinder. The mixture ignites, transferring the energy of the falling
weight to the pile head, and driving the weight back up. The rising weight draws in more fuel-air
mixture, and the cycle starts over until the fuel runs out or is stopped by the pile crew.
Hydraulic hammer
gV 
V  V
VV VVV  V  V
V V
VV 
VV V  
VV
  V
V V

V

VV V 
V(
V  
VV V  V


V V VV

V

V  
V
V VV

V
VV
V


V  V
V 

V 
V
V 
V
VV

V 
V V VV
V

 V

VV V  V
VV

V VV

V

V V
VVV
 V V
  V 
VV

V)V 
VV
V 
VVV Vg  V
VV

V  V
VVVV

 V
V 
VV VV 
V V 
V
V

 V
VVV

* VV

 V
VVV
V

V V
 V
V
VV V
 V
V 

VV
VV+,-VV).V VV 
 VV
 VV 
V VV

V VV
VV
  V

 V
V V  V  
V V V V
  VV
 V


V

Vibratory hammer
Vibratory pile hammers contain a system of counter-rotating eccentric weights, powered by
hydraulic motors, and designed in such a way that horizontal vibrations cancel out, while vertical
vibrations are transmitted into the pile. The pile driving machine is lifted and positioned over the
pile by means of an excavator or crane, and is fastened to the pile by a clamp and/or bolts.
Vibratory hammers can either drive in or extract a pile; extraction is commonly used to recover
steel "H" piles used in temporary foundation shoring. Hydraulic fluid is typically supplied to the
driver by a diesel engine powered pump mounted in a trailer or van and connected to the driver
head through a set of long hoses. When the pile driver is connected to an Excavator, it is
powered by the excavator's own diesel engine. Vibratory pile drivers are often chosen to mitigate
noise, as when the construction is very close to residence or office buildings, or when there is not
enough vertical clearance above the foundation to permit use of a conventional pile hammer (for
example when retrofitting additional piles to a bridge column or abutment footing). Hammers are
available with several different vibration rates, ranging from about 1200 vibrations per minute to
about 2400 VPM; the vibration rate chosen is influenced by soil conditions at the site and other
factors such as power requirements and purchase price of the equipmentV
V