Theory of Errors in The Measurement

THEORY OF ERRORS IN THE MEASUREMENT
1. Measurement and Uncertainty

To know and understand the world around us, it takes a relationship between physical
quantities with other physical quantities. For example, to measure the velocity (v) on a
uniform rectilinear motion is needed to measure the distance (s) and time (t).
v
s
t
To be clear, the measurement results should be expressed quantitatively, not

qualitatively or simply by illustration. Quantitative results are needed for comparison with
other results.
Wrong :
Hasan has is very high
Should :
Hasan has a height of 2.1 m
A breeze damped
Wind speed of 10 m / sec
The measurement accuracy is very important in physics to obtain reliable results.
However, there is no precise measurement absolute, there is always uncertainty in each
measurement.
Therefore, we must include error numbers so that we can provide a reasonable
assessment of the results of experimental physical quantities, e.g., x can be expressed:
x x x x x
With a value instead of the correct value, an error in the measurement caused the
limitations of the tool, Negligence, the time difference measurements, etc. To include or
limit fault tolerance to a value that we think is right, we can account for the results of the
experiments conducted.
2. Sources and Type of Errors
Other sources of experimental errors can come from:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Instrumental, such as calibration tools are not perfect.

Observations, such as parallax error reading.
Environmental, such as mains voltage is unstable.
Theory, the model here is very simple, such as neglect friction.
In the measurement, the error is divided into two kinds:
Systematic error
Random error
General Physics Experiment II
Random Error, is a consistent error occurred on the measurement that basically can be
identified and eliminated. This error can be avoided by good calibration, observation
avoids parallax, looping an electrical breakdown occurs.
Random Error, not always be identified, such as: error after reaching the smallest
scale division, temperature fluctuations and mechanical vibration. This error can be
quantified statistically.
Scheme of random error and systematic error can be illustrated below:
Only random error
True value
Random and systematic
True Results
value
3. Writing Errors on Measurement
How to estimate and state error, depending on how the measurement is done, that is
repeated measurements and a single measurement (cannot be repeated).
If possible, in an experiment should be made through repeated measurements, but
sometimes a single measurement cannot be avoided, namely:
a. Events that cannot be repeated, e.g. comets velocity measurements, long total
solar eclipse, and others.
b. The measurement was repeated but the result remains the same, this is usually
caused by a low level of precision instrument used to measure a smaller scale,
e.g. with a ruler to measure the thick fur.
In such case, the measurement results are reported as below:
x x
With
the result of a single measurement and
x is times the smallest

t (2,10 0,05) cm
measurement scale of the measuring instrument. Examples.
Repeated measurements produce a sample population
x , that is
x1 , x2 , x3 ,
...,
x n. To state the best value instead of the true value of x from the measurements above,
use the average value of the sample
that is:
x
1 n
xi
n i 1
While for stated deviation measurement results (
) can be used the standard
deviation of the average value of sample:

n
(x x )
Sx
n 2 (n 1)
n X i xi
2
i 1
n(n 1)
The measurement results can be written as below:

x x x x s x
(Sometimes there are some experimental textbooks that take over errors such
x 3 S x u
, with u is error applying / smallest scale of the measuring instrument).
Measurement error is often expressed in:
a. Relative error
b.
Absolute error :
x
x
(can also be written in percent)
x xlit
xlit
c. Error (relative) of the literature
Writing results should use the correct number of significant figures, decimal places of
the error should not be more than the numbers after the decimal point from the average, if
found very large numbers or very small exponent form should be used and the unit should
always be written.
Table I. How Writing Significant Figures
Example of writing wrong
Example of writing true
k = (200,1 0,215)0K/Second
k = (200,1 0,2)0K/Second
d = (0,000002 0.00000035) mm
d = (20 4) x 10-7 mm
= 22/7
= 3,1415
F = (270 3 ) x 104 N
F = (2700000 30000) N
4. Error Propagation
Many physical quantities are a function of other physical quantities. For example
physical quantities
and
z , a function of
y . To find
z , then the scale
should be measured first. Furthermore, the uncertainty of
determined by first outlining the function

around
and
x and
can also be
z=z ( x , y ) be a differential or a Taylor series
y .
Examples:
z a sin x , maka z a cos x x
1.
1
1
z , maka z 2 x
x
x
2.
z xy , maka z x x y y
3.
z can also be calculated by the equation:
Uncertainty
2
z
z
2
y 2 .......
z
x
Sometimes found a quantity determined by several measurements
x , which have
xi
different degrees of accuracy
. The average value of these quantities can be calculated
using weighted average:

n
g x
i 1
n
i i
g
i 1
With weighting factor:
1
xi 2
gi
The uncertainty of the weighted average is:

n
g x
i 1
i
n
n 1 gi
i 1
5. Creation of graphs and Linear Regression

The results of experiment when it was made in the form of numbers alone will drab,
therefore the numbers are visualized in a graph or curve of the desired variables. Making
graphs whose objective look at the relationship between variables, calculate the constants /
coefficients of the formula, and prove the truth of a formula.
For the purposes of the first, can be done by way, making all data points are available,
then we connect these dots (example with a ruler) to obtain the curve pattern. While the
purpose of the second and third remedy, we keep the linear curve
y=a+bx . For
example, suppose we want to find the relationship between the pressure (P) and volume
(V) of a gas at constant temperature. We know Boyle's Law; PV = constant, then to get a
straight line, we draw the graph P vs 1 / V and not the P vs V.
Then to get the coefficients / constants from the experiment, we use the last square
method (least squares) to get a linear regression. The decline over the formula can be seen
in statistics books, here only the final results will be disclosed only.
Suppose we have some data
y 1 , y 2 , y3
linearly with data
, ....
x1 , x2 , x3
, .....
x n (number of data n) associated
y n which can be expressed as below:
y a bx
Best prices a and b can be found by the least squares method:
y x x xy
n x x
2
x
n x x
2
Sa Sy
With error
n xy x y
n x2 x
Sa Sy
n xi xi
2
With error
Here:
1
Sy

n 2
2
x y 2 x x y y
y n x x
i i
2
n xy
Strength of the relationship between x and y can be calculated from the correlation
coefficient (fuller discussion can be seen in the statistics books):
r xy
S xy
Sx S y
x x y y
x x y y
i
Or can be written as below:
r ( xy)
n xi yi xi yi
n x
xi n yi yi
2
To facilitate the search for the prices of A and B should be made a table with columns
x , y , x 2 ,xy .
EXPERIMENT I
SPRING VIBRATION
A. Standards Competence
Applying the concept and principle of waves symptoms and optics in solving the
problem.
B. Basic Competence
Do a scientific studies to recognize the symptoms and characteristics of wave in

general and its application.
C. Indicator
1. Students can explain the factors that affect the spring period.
2. Students can determine the period and constant of spring.
D. Experiment Goals
1. Determine the springs constant.
2. Find out the relation between springs periods to the mass of burden.
E. Tools and Materials
N
o
1
Stopwatch
1 pc
Base of statif
1 pc
Feet of statif
1 pc
Short statif bar
1 pc
Long statif bar
1 pc
Spiral Spring
1 pc
Burden/Load 100 gram
6 pcs
6
F. Basic Theory
Tools / Materials
Amount
Repetitive motion in the same time interval called Periodic Motion. This periodic
motion can always be expressed in sine and cosine functions, therefore periodic motion
called Harmonic Motion. If this periodic motion moves back and forth through the same
path called Vibration or Oscillation.
The time needed to take the path back and forth called the Period, while the number
of vibrations per unit time is called Frequency.
t
T= n
n
f= t
(1.1)
The Relation between period (T) and frequency (f) according to the following
statements is:
1
T= f
(1.2)
The unit of frequency in SI is cycle per second or Hertz (Hz). Position when the
resultant force acts on the vibrating particles equal to zero is called a balanced position.
Consider an object of mass (m) is hung on the end of the spring, the spring length
increases. In equilibrium position, weight (w) is equal to the spring force (F), the resultant
force is zero, the load stuck.
a
KE PE
max 0 max
0 max 0
equilibrium
F = -k. y
y
max 0 max
Figure 1.1 Spring Motion

From its equilibrium, the load is given deviation (y), the work load force (F), this
force tends to drive the load up. Spring force is the driving force, whereas the spring force
is proportional to the deviation of the spring.
F = -k y
; k = constant of spring
(1.3)
Easy to understand that the smaller the deviation the smaller the driving force anyway.
Movement motive force is proportional to the deviation called Harmonic Motion
(harmonic).
Negative sign (-) must be used because the direction of F and y is always opposite.
According to Newton's Second Law, in motion of object is:
F = m.a
(1.4)
Restoring force on the object motion is: F = -k . y

k . y =m
d2
d2 y k . y
atau
+
=0
2
2
m
dt
dt
This equation is called simple harmonic motion differential equations.

To find the simple harmonic motion with finding the solution of simple harmonic
differential equation is a function (y) is derivate tow times to (t) so that obtained negative
value of its function and times to the. The function with that characteristic is named sine
and cosine function.
Let sine function as: y =
A sin ( t+ )
where A, , and still have to look for the
value.
If the equation is derivate two times to (t), so we get:
d2 y
=2 A sin ( t+ )
dt 2
If the equation is substituted to the simple harmonic differential equation, we get:
2
A sin ( t + )=
k
A sin ( t + )
m
So, to make the sine function is really a simple harmonic differential equation, we get:
2 =
k
k
atau=
m
m
If time (t) in equation of y = A sin ( t + ) is added with
y= A sin t +
2
+
so we get:
A sin ( t+ 2 + )
y= A sin ( t + )
So the function is repeated again after a time interval
motion period, or T =
2
Because
T=
k
m
. So that,
is its
so we get:
2
m
=2
dan f =
1
1
=
2 2
jadi :=2 f =
k
m
2
T
(1.5)
G. Experimental Procedure
1
Arrange the instruments and materials as figure below.
Figure 1.2 Experiment Construction

2
3
4
Hang the load of mass 500 gram of the spring

Pull down the loads 2 cm and practicing take the stopwatch in hand.
Release the load and wait till the spring have harmonic motion, after the spring have
harmonic motion switch on the stopwatch.

Count up to 10 oscillation and exactly in that 10th oscillation, switch off the
stopwatch. Note the experiments result in the table.
Count the time for 1oscillation (period, T) and complete the table.
Repeat step 3 up to 6 with changing its deviation to 3 cm.
Repeat step 2 up to 7 for the load 600 gram.
Table 1.1 Experiments Result of Period of Spring Motion
6
7
8
No
Massa of
Load(gr)
Deviation
(cm)
500
600
500
4
600
H. Task After Experiment
1
2
Time to 10
Oscillation (s)
t1
t2
t3
Period (T)
(s)
Springs Constant
2
(gr/ s )
Explain the factors that affect the oscillation period!

Write the application of using the spring in daily activity!
10
3
4
Make the graph of relation between period and mass of load!

Make Graph relations and mass load periods
EXPERIMENT II
SHADOWS FORMATION OF FLAT MIRROR
Being able to analyze and apply the concepts of optical geometry in daily life
B. Basic Competence
Being able to understand the concept of the shadow formation and reflection in a
mirror flat by experiment
C. Indicators
1. Students can determine the systematic relationship between the angle flat mirrors
with the number of images forming
2. Students can draw the rays form the image on the diagram of flat mirror at an angle
3. Students can prove sound Snells Law of reflection
D. Experiment Goals
1. Counting the number of shadows that occur on two flat mirrors based on
experiments for several different angles
2. Drawing the formation of a shadow that occurs on two flat mirrors for several
different angles
3. Proving the sound of Snells Law
No
1
Tools / Materials
Flat Mirror
Pointer Laser
1 pcs
Degree Bow
1 pcs
Soft Board
1 pcs
Needle
1 pcs
White paper
1 pcs
6
F. Basic Theory
Amount
2 pcs
The light is usually seen as a group of light rays or we called beams of light.
There are three types of light beam that is parallel, divergence and convergence. The
mirror is smooth surface, flat and shiny that reflects all the light that comes to it. There are
two types of light reflectance namely diffuse reflectance and regular reflectance.
11
Snell's Law of reflection that:

1. Incident rays, reflected rays and the normal lines intersect at one point and put in one
plane
i
2. Angle of incident rays (
) always same with Angle of reflection rays (
From real objects that stand at the flat mirror will form a virtual image and the
shadows stand upfront flat mirror will form a virtual image. The number of images will
depend on the amount of mirror images that appear by another mirror. Images number of
two plane mirrors at an angle can be determined by the following equation:
n=
360
Where:
(2.1)
n = the image produced
= enclose angle of flat mirror
Shadows Formation of Flat Mirror
1. Set two flat mirror at an angle on a flat, flat as soft board (between the mirrors give
the hinge)
2. Measure angle between two mirror (
) start from 450,600, 900, 1200 and 1800.
3. Put a needle in an arbitrary point soft board between the two mirrors form an angle
4. Observe and count the number of shadows that appear in both the mirror angle
1st Mirror
Needle
2nd Mirror
Figure 2.1 Shadows formation of two flat mirrors
5. Repeat this experiment for several different angle
6. Complete experiment data in the table observation below :
12
Table 2.1 Observation of Shadows Formation
N
o
1
45
600
900
1200
360 /
360 /
-1
5
1800
7. Compare the number of shadows that occur on the theory and experiment
8. Describe the formation of a shadow that occurs in two plane mirrors with an angle
that has been done
9. Conclude the concepts derived from observation table
Reflection of Flat Mirror
1. Put a mirror in an upright on white paper set with protractor
2. Turn on the light source and make rays at the mirror with angle formation toward
normal line
3. Observe the reflected rays that comes out of the mirror and measuring the reflection
angle
4. Draw the incident rays, the reflected rays and the normal line on the even of reflection
5.
Repeat this experiment for several different angle

Mirror
White Paper
Figure 2.2 Reflected rays of flat mirror
13
6. Complete experiment data in the table observation below :
Table 2.2 Observation of Reflection

No
i
Incident Rays (
Reflection Rays (
1
2
3
4
5
7. Conclude the concepts derived from observation table
1. Calculate the amount of shadow that occurs in two flat mirrors based on
experiments for several different angles?
2. Draw the formation of a shadow that occurs on two flat mirrors for several
different angles?
3. Compare the number of shadows that occur in theory and experiment?
4. Measure angles rebound occurs by experiment and discuss whether the magnitude
of the angle of incidence is always equal to the angle reflection?
5. Discuss whether the light comes, is the reflected rays and the normal located in a
plane?
6. Draw the rays come, light reflection and reflection on the events of the normal line
to several different angle?
EXPERIMENT III
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
14
Being able to observe the phenomenon of interference of monochromatic light from
two slits.
B. Basic Competence
Finalizes the experiment to determine the distance of two narrow slits with a laser
beam.
C. Indicators
1. Students can observe the phenomenon of diffraction of light from the two slits
2. Students can determine the distance between two narrow slit diffraction pattern
D. Experiment Goals
1. Can observe events in the double slit diffraction.
2. Can determine the distance between two narrow slits by measuring the diffraction
pattern
No
Tools / Materials
1
He-Ne Laser beam
2
Two narrow slits
3
Ruler
4
Small wire diameter size range
5
Millimeters paper
F. Basic Theory
Amount
1 pcs
1 Set
1 pcs
3 pcs
3 pcs
If the plane Ade front arriving at a narrow slit (width smaller than the wavelength),
then the wave will experience bending waves resulting in a semi-circle behind the
widening of the gap. This event is known as diffraction.
Diffraction is the bending of light as a barrier kitar / a Koo phole. The resulting
diffraction pattern is equal to conditional on the double slit diffraction pattern (interference
Young).
A large number of parallel slits within the same so-called diffraction grating. Lattice
can be made with a precision machined parallel lines are very delicate and meticulous over
the glass plate. Distance not etched in between the lines function as a diffraction.
Containing cracks called transmission grating.
Diffraction grating consisting of a row of narrow slits that are close together in large
quantities. If a beam of light is passed diffraction grating will be diffracted and can
produce a diffraction pattern on the screen. The distance between successive gaps (d)
called the lattice constant. If the number of cracks or scratches per unit length (cm) is
expressed by N, then:
d=1/N
(3.1)
15
A beam is perpendicular grating and a converging lens is used to collect the rays to
the desired point P on the screen. The observed intensity distribution on the screen is a
combination of interference and diffraction effects. Each slit produces diffraction, as
described previously, and the diffracted rays that interfere on the screen before the final
pattern that produces.
Interference pattern described in an arbitrary direction , before reaching the point
were observed. Each light comes from different slits. For two different slits, different
trajectories that occurs is d sin . Thus the general requirements of the interference pattern
is:
d sin = no ( n = 1,2,3 , .. )
(3.2)
These requirements may be expressed to determine the wavelength by measuring the
lattice constant if d is known with integers, n -order diffraction states. If waves coming
on the lattice consisting of multiple wavelengths of each will deviate or will establish the
maximum in different directions. Except for n = 0 which occurs in the direction = 0.
Maximum center (n = 0), while the maximum length range includes the 1st, 2nd and so
satisfy ( m +1) * / 2 according to each wavelength.
A gap is subjected to light from the front will project light shade that form with the
gap behind him. But in addition, also formed bright images other than the gap on either
side of original shadow, and its getting to the edge, he explained slump. So as if the rays
of light that escapes the gap there are bent or diffracted towards sideways. Symptoms
diffraction interference is thus nothing but the rays of light from the electromagnetic wave
each piece wave field as a source of light waves.
1. Measure the diameter (d) wire using a micrometer.
2. Put a narrow slit in a holder / holders gap.
3. Set the distance between narrow slits and laser beam is 60 cm.
4. Attach the wire to the mounting gap so that the experiments can be easily performed.
5. Shine a laser beam right into the gap.
6. Observe the pattern formed on the screen / wall.
7. Mark the center point and all the light pattern using a pencil
8. Turn off the source of the laser beam , and then measure the dimensions L and y
9. Perform wire to wire with different diameters
16
Figure 3.2 the series of experiments

Table 3.1 Observation
No
d (theory)
L (m)
.
1
2
3
y1(m)
y2 (m)
y3 (m)

1.
2.
3.
Determine the distance between the slit and its measurement error!
Compare the difference in distance between the gap by using y1, y2 and y3!
Compare the results with millimeter measurements d and d with this method!
EXPERIMENT IV
FORMATION OF SHADOWS BY LENS
A Standards Competence
Understand the concept and application of optics in everyday technology products.
B Basic Competence
Investigate the properties of light and the relationship with different lens shapes.
C Indicators
1 Students can design and conduct experiments to demonstrate the properties of
light.
2 Students can experiment to determine the position of the shadow of a shadow on
the properties of concave lens and convex lens.
D Experiments Goals
1 Investigate the nature of the image formed by a convex lens and a concave lens
2 See the relationship between the object distances, the distance a shadow, with a
negative focus length lens and a positive lens.
17
E Tools and Materials:

No
Tools / Materials
Amount
Concave lens
1 Piece
Convex lenses
1 Piece
Lens holder
2 Piece
Screen
1 Piece
Ruler
1 Piece
6
Source of light (candle)
F Basic Theory
1 Lens
1 Piece
The lens is a transparent object, and has at least one curved surface. There are two
types of lenses are convex lenses and concave lenses.
a
Convex lenses (positive lens / convex lens), this lens has a thicker middle
section from on its edges, so that the rays - rays are usually accumulate.
This lens is also called a converging lens.
Figure 4.1 The three form a convex lens or a convex lens

Concave lens (negative lens / concave lens), this lens has a center part is
thinner than the edges, so that the rays - rays are usually radiate. This lens
is also called a diverging lens.
Figure 4.2 The three form a concave lens or concave lens

Beam into the lens can be made from both directions, so that the lens has two
focus points (denoted F1 and F2). The focus point is called the focus point F 1 is active,
because the major axis parallel rays refracted through or as if - as if from that point.
While the focus point F2 is called passive.
Ray - a special light on the convex lens
a Rays come parallel to the main axis is refracted towards the focus point
18
Rays coming through the center of the lens (0) did not undergo refraction
Rays come through the focus point will be refracted parallel to the main
axis
Ray - a special light on the concave lens

a Rays come parallel to the main axis is refracted as if coming from the
focus point F1
Rays coming through the center of the lens (0) did not undergo refraction
19
Beam that seems to come into focus point, refracted parallel to the main
axis.
If thick lenses have only a surface, which has a finger - the finger of curvature R 1
and R2, for a thin lens thickness of the lens is considered zero, or not taken into account.
I = first surface
II = second surface
R1 and R2 finger - the finger curvature of each - one surface
n n
1
1
+ ' =(n ' n)
s s
R 1 R2
(4.1)
Where:
n = refractive index of objects and shadows, or the refractive index around the lens is
located. For air, n = 1
n= refractive index of the lens
for n = 1 (air) then equation (4.1) becomes:
1 1
1
1
+ ' =(n' 1)
s s
R 1 R2
(4.2)
And when the object is no infinite far s = ~, then the shadow of the object will be at a
point focus lens or s = f, then equation (4.2) can be:
s = ~ s = f
1 1
1
1
+ =(n' 1)
f
R1 R2
1
1
1
=(n' 1)
f
R 1 R2
(4.3)
f: = focus length lens

Provisions:
a
For convex-convex lens (biconvex), R1 and R2 positive negative
20
b
c
For a concave lens - concave (biconcave), R1 and R2 positive negative

R can be mentioned in front of the lens is worth negative and positive
value R behind the lens
Lens Power(P)
The power of the lens, or often called the power of the lens is the reciprocal of
the lens focus length.

1
1
1
P= =(n ' 1)
f
R1 R 2
(4.4)
By:
f : focus distance of the lens in the air
P : power of the lens in the air
If f has units of meters then P has units of diopters
P=
1
f (m)
(4.5)
Or if f united cm, then the equation can be written into:

P=
100
f
(4.6)
G Experimental Procedure
Establishment of Shadows by Convex Lens
1 Notes prices lens- focal distance.
2 Compose the tool according to the screenshot below. Put the lens is convex (3) at a
distance of 15 cm from the wax objects (2) practical work on the table (1). The
distance between objects to this lens is the scb.
4
5
6
Figure 4.3 Experiment shadow formation by convex lens

Slide screen to form the image that most clearly on display (4).
Measure the distance between the convex lens to the screen (s).
Measure the height of candle flame (hcb) and height of shadows (h'cb).
Repeat step 2 until 4 with scb = 25 cm.
Compare the nature and results of the formation of the shadows that occur when
practical with the theoretical.

Fill in the data table on the experiment results.
Table 4.1 Observations convex lens

21
No
scb
(cm)
1
2
15
25
s'cb
(cm)
hcb
(cm)
h'cb
(cm)
scb + s'cb
(cm)
scb. s'cb
(cm2)
(scb. s'cb) / s'cb

(s+s)
/
(cm)
scb
h'cb
/
hcb
Nature of
shadows
Establishment of Shadows by Concave Lens

1 Note the price of the lens focus positive and negative lens
2 Compose tool fit the image below. Place the concave lens (3) at a distance of 5 cm
from the candle (2) and a concave lens (4) 35 cm from the candles on the table
practical (1).
Figure 4.4 Experiment shadow formation by a concave lens

Put screen (5) behind the lens convex, sliding screen so formed shadow the most
obvious on the screen. Measure the distance between concave lenses with sails
(s'cb).
Measuring instrument high flame of a candle (hck) and high its shadow formed in
the back a convex lens (h'cb).
5
6
Repeat step 2 s / d 4 with sck = 10 cm.

Compare the nature and results of the shadow formation that occurs during practice
with theory
Fill data from experiments on the table
Table 4.2 Observations concave lens

No
1
2
sck
(cm)
.....
.....
s'cb
(cm)
scb
(cm)
s'ck
(cm)
hck (cm)
h'cb
(cm)
hcb (cm)
h'ck
(cm)
Nature of
shadows
Establishment of rays - a special light on the convex lens

1
Place the paper on a table-millimeter lens and a convex lens on paper millimeters.
Describe the lenses on Paper. Then form a line perpendicular to the central focus of
the lens.
22
Shape up three lines of the rays coming towards the midline, convex lens on paper
work.
Figure 4.5 Experiment refraction of light on a convex lens
4 Observe the refraction and reflection of light on the lens.
5 Experiment 1 s / d 2 with different beam directions, thus forming a central point on
6
Paper
Draw the shape of the beam is formed from refraction lens and measuring the distance
from the lens to the point of refraction of light.
Establishment of rays - a special light on the concave lens

2
Place the paper on a table-millimeter lens and a convex lens on paper millimeters.
Describe the lenses on Paper. Then form a line perpendicular to the central focus of
the lens.
Shape up three lines of the rays coming towards the midline, concave lenses on paper
work.
23
Figure 4.6 Experiment refraction of light on concave lens

5
Observe the refraction and reflection of light on the lens.

6 Experiment 1 s / d 2 with different beam directions, thus forming a central point on
7
paper
Draw the shape of the beam is formed from refraction lens and measuring the
distance from the lens to the point of refraction of light.
Tasks After the Experiment

1 From the experiments that have been done then calculate the focus point, powerful
2
lenses, and lens magnification.

Can the distance between the object to the lens object distance s given name? What
is the reason?
Can the distance between the lens until the shadow is called the distance of the
shadow? What is the reason?

How huge shadow of the object when viewed directly by the eye through the lens,
and how shadows are captured by the screen? The shadow is what happened in
5
6
7
8
both these lenses?

Under question 3 can concave lenses is called a negative lens?
What is the price s.s/s+sremains
What is the price s.s/s+sequals f?
Provide an analysis of the relationship between s.s chart with s + s that you have
the picture.
Based on data make a graph with the y-axis is s.s and the x axis is s + s
s.s
24
s+s
Note:
1
2
Virtual image is a direct reflection can be seen by the eye.

Shadow is a true eye shadow that can be seen when captured by the screen.
EXPERIMENT V
REFRACTION LIGHT BY PRISM AND PARALLEL PLAN
Understand the natural phenomena and its application in daily life.
B. Basic Competence
Able to analyze and apply concepts of geometric optics in daily life.
C. Indicators
1. Understand the basic principles prims and forms of light refracting on the prism.
2. Determine the shift light on the glass parallel plan (t).
D. Experiment Goals
1. Determine the refractive index of the prism material.
2. Determine the shift light on the glass parallel plan (t).
3. Describe the formation of the refraction light by a prism and a parallel plan.
No
.
1
Tools / Material
Amount
HVS
8 pcs
Pin length
8 pcs
Protractor
1 pcs
Rule
1 pcs
Cardboard (Styrofoam)
1 pcs
Plan parallel glass
1 pcs
Equilateral prism
1 pcs
8 Millimeter block
F. Basic Theory
1. Refraction Light by Prism
3 pcs
Prism in optics is a clear medium bounded by two surfaces that form an angle. When
a beam of white light or polychromatic light passes through a prism so that light will be
described. The decomposition of light into monochromatic colors of light is called the light
25
dispersion. Light dispersion occurs because each color of light has a refractive index
different. Red light has the largest refractive index, so the red light experienced the smallest
deviation and light purple experienced the largest deviation.
Of a prism with a refracting angle and the refractive index of prism n will be
obtained and beam coming out of the prism will be banked for the first rays enter the
prism angle
is called the angle of deviation or deviation angle. Be obtained
systematically geometric deviation angle on the magnitude of the prism that is,
=( i 1r 1 ) +(r 2i 2)
(5.1)
By varying the position of the prism so that the magnitude of the angle incidence be
changing as well. When the incident angle becomes larger, the deviation angle is also getting
bigger, and otherwise. When the incident angle is made into smaller, by rotating the position
of the prism, the angle of deviation will be smaller scaled cant be continue, exist deviation
angle irreducible. So in smallest deviation of a prism exist minimum deviation.
Systematically if isosceles triangle is evidenced:
i 1=r 2=r 1 :i 2 : =2 r 1
(5.2)
PQ rays coming from the air on the prism with the angle of incidence i1 to normal line
N. By AB surface, PQ rays refracted near-normal N. According direction of QR, refractive
angle is r1. Next, QR rays is refracted by the surface of BC, by RS with angle of incidence is
i2 and angle of refraction is r2 for each time it undergoes refraction of light, the light is
deflected toward the thicker part of the prism.
Figure 5.1 Propagation of light in a prism

Rays that comes out of the prism (RS ray) turned an angle to the direction of rays
initially (extension PQ ray). The angle is called the angle of deviation. In geometry can
evidenced:
26
=( i 1r 1 ) +(r 2i 2)
(5.3)
2. Refraction Light by Parallel Plan

Parallel plan is glass with certain thickness bounded by two parallel planes. The
parallel planes is refracting field. In parallel plan, with the law of refraction using nu sin i =
nk sin r, nk can be calculated (index of refraction of the glass).
Figure 5.2 Propagation of light in a parallel plan

By using the formula shift plan parallel glass rays (t):
t=
With the:
d sin (ir )
cos r
(5.4)
d = thickness of the glass

i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction
t = shift plan parallel glass rays
Refraction Light by Prism
1. Put a thick cardboard (Styrofoam) on the table and a sheet of paper on it.
2. Put prism on paper and draw a line along three sides.
3. Paint the normal line perpendicular to the side of the prism that has been previously
painted.
4. Paint an incident ray PQ with the angle of incidence is 40.
5. Plug pin on points P and Q and then put the prism in initially place.
6. Review of direction through a prism and plug pin R and S such that P, Q, R, S looks
as though is located in a straight line.
7. Extend PQ and RS so that intersect and makes an angle deviation.
8. Repeat steps 3 s/d 7 with the angle of incidence 50 and 60.
9. Write down observations in the following observation table.
27
Table 5.1 Refraction Light by Prism

No.
i1 ( )
r1 ( )
i2 (
r2 ( )
( )
( )
)
1.
2.
3.
40
50
60
Refraction Light by Parallel Plan

1. Place the cardboard (Styrofoam) on the table, then take graph paper and place it on
top of the cardboard.
2. Create a line right in the middle of the paper along the vertical and horizontal
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
directions.
Place the parallel plan glass on the graph paper and draw the edges of glass.
Draw a vertical line as a normal line (N).
Make the angle of incidence (i) and insert the value of the angle 25.
Plug the pin at point A and B at the specified angle.
Measure the angle of refraction (r), then enter the result in observation table.
Repeat steps 1-8 with a large angle of incidence of 30 and 35.
Write down observations in the following observation table.
Table 5.2 Refraction Light by Plan Parallel
No
i1 ( )
r1 ( )
i2 (
r2 ( )
d (cm)
t (cm)
.
)
1.
2.
3.
25
30
35
H. Task after Experiment

1. Based on experimental data obtained, determine the refractive index of the prism
material used!
2. How examples of refraction in prism and plan parallel application in daily life?
28
EXPERIMENT VI
OHMS LAW AND SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Understand the Ohms Law symptoms and its relations in daily life and apply the
concept of electricity in the resolution of electric problem and a variety of products
and technologies.
B. Basic Competence
String up the electric components (resistor) that set in series, parallel, and measure the
current and voltage of each resistor.
C. Indicators
1. Student able to set series and parallel circuits correctly.
2. Student able to measure the resistance, current, and voltage in a circuit.
D. Experiment Goals
1. Prove the Ohms Law.
2. Recognize the characteristics of series and parallel circuits.
Nb.
1
2
3
4
5
Tools / Materials
Resistor
Multimeter
Project Board
Connection Cable
Power Supply
Amount
3 pcs
1 pc
1 pc
2 pcs
1 pc
F. Basic Theory
1. Definition of Electric Current
An electric current is due to the flow of electrons in which each electron has a charge
of magnitude same. If object has a negative charge then the object has an excess of
electrons. Degrees of the object is measured by the number of excess electron. Capacity of
an electron is often expressed in the symbol of the pick q = 1.6 x 10-19 C.
The amount of electrical current to the units of number of electrons per second,
however this unit is not practical because the price is too small. Unit used Ampere.
i=
q
t
(6.1)
2. Definition of Voltage
For example, we have two tubes connected by two tubes. If the two tubes is on the
table, so in place on the surface of the water on the both of tubes will be the same and in
29
this case there is no water flow in the pipe. If one of tube removed so water will naturally
flow out of the tubes lower to tube. The higher tube in then the water flows through the
pipe. The occurrence of such flows can be understood by the concept of potential energy.
The high of tube shows the amount of potential energy possessed. The most important
thing in this case is the difference in the two tubes are at the same height determines the
magnitude of the potential difference. So the greater the potential difference is getting
heavy flow of water in the pipe. It should be noted that the potential difference measured
between the ends of a conductor. If we talk about the potential at a certain point then it is
we actually measure the potential difference at that point to a certain reference point. As a
standard reference point is usually chosen point land (ground).
3. Ohm's Law
Ohm's Law is: "The strength of an electric current flowing in an electrical load
straight proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the electric barriers."
Figure 6.1 the series of strong relationship of current, voltage, and resistance
4. Series and Parallel Circuits
Series circuit is one of the electrical circuits arranged in rows (series). The batteries
are in flashlights are generally arranged in a series circuit.
Parallel circuit is one of the electrical circuit are arranged in parallel. The lights were
installed in the home is generally a parallel circuit. Parallel circuit is an electrical circuit,
in which all components of the input comes from the same source. All components are
arranged parallel to one another. This has led to a parallel arrangement of the electrical
circuit to cost more (connecting cable is needed more). In addition to these weaknesses,
the parallel arrangement has certain advantages compared to the composition of the series.
The advantage is that if one component removed or damaged, then the other components
continue to function as it should.
Combined between series circuit and parallel circuit is called a series - parallel circuit
(sometimes referred to as a series of mix).
30
Series Circuit
Figure 6.2 Series Circuit

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
(6.3)
The number of series circuit total resistance equal to the amount of resistance of each
component (resistor).
Parallel Circuit
Figure 6.3 Parallel Circuit

1
R total
1 1
1
+ ++
R1 R2
Rn
(6.4)
The number of inverse parallel circuit the total resistance equals the sum of the
inverse obstacle each component (resistor).
Ohms Law
1. Prepare the instruments and materials according to the list of them. Use the resistor
with color of rings resistor is red, red, red and gold!
2. Set the circuit according to the figure
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Figure 6.4 Ohms Law Circuit

Source voltage is set by the power supply at 3 Volt.
Measure the current through the resistor.
Measure the voltage at the resistor.
Repeat steps 3 5 for source voltage is 4,5 Volt and 6 Volt.
Note the experiment result on table
Table 6.1 Table of Ohms Law Experiment Result
No
Resistance R
Voltage V
Current I
31
( Ohm )
Theory
( Volt )
Expr
Theory
1.
2.
4,5
3.
Series Circuit
(Ampere)
Expr
Theory (Vt/Rt)
Expr
1. Prepare the instruments and materials according to the list of them. Use 3 resistors
with color of rings of each resistor :
R1 = brown, red, red, gold
R3 = red, red, red, gold
R1
R2
R3
V2
V1
V3
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Figure 6.5 Series Circuit

Set the source voltage at 3 Volt.
Measure the voltage of each resistor.
Measure the current of each resistor.
Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the source voltage is 6 Volt.
Note the experiment result into table.
Table 6.2 Table of Series Circuit Experiment
No
1.
2.
T/E
R1
R2
R3
Rtot
Vtot
V1
V2
V3
Itot
I1
I2
I3
Theory
Expr
Theory
Expr
Parallel Circuit
1. Prepare the instruments and materials according to the list of them. Use 3 resistors
with color of rings of each resistor :
R3 = red, red, red, gold
32
Figure 6.6 Parallel Circuit

Set the source voltage at 3 Volt.
Measure the voltage of each resistor.
Measure the current of each resistor.
Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the source voltage is 6 Volt.
Note the experiment result into table.
Table 6.3 Table of Parallel Circuit Experiment
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
N
o
T/E
R1
R2
R3
Rtot
Vtot
V1
V2
V3
Itot
I1
I2
I3
Theory
1.
Expr
Theory
2.
Expr

1. Based on data of Ohms Law, make a graph of relation V and I!
2. How are the current and voltage of every resistors in the series circuit and parallel
circuit? Explain!
3. What is the application of series and parallel circuits in daily life?
EXPERIMENT VII
KIRCHOFF'S LAWS
Applying the concepts of electricity in a variety of problem-solving and technology
products.
B. Basic Competence
Stringing gauge power and use it on closed circuit is good and right.
C. Indicators
1. Being able to quantitatively prove Kirchhoffs Laws.
2. Being able to analyze the current strength in the circuit closed.
33
3. Able to prove Kirchhoffs Laws I and II in the experiment.

D. Experiments Goals
1. Determining a strong current in each branch in an electrical circuit
2. Determine the voltage between two points in an electric circuit
3. Proving the amount of voltage in closed loop is equal to zero
No
.
1
2
3
4
Tool / Material
Amount
Multimeter
Power Supply
Resistor 100 ohm
Cable Connector
1 Pcs
2 Pcs
3 Pcs
6 Pcs
F. Basic Theory
The voltage in each element and the current flowing through each element in an
electric circuit is governed by the second law Kirchhoff. Historically, Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff (1824 - 1887) in making his analysis of the law, carefully following the Faraday
induction in describing electrical, magnetic Oersted in connecting electricity, Ampere
force in connecting with the electric current, and Ohm in relating the voltage and current.
1.
Kirchhoffs I Law
The first law is also called Kirchhoff's Current Law, which reads: "At any node
(junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the
sum of currents flowing out of that node". This means that the number of strong currents in
all the branches that meet at a point equal to zero.
This law is a consequence of the law of conservation of charge. Charge coming into a
node must leave that node because the charge cannot accumulate at a node.
Mathematically, it can be written as follows:
toward the branching point
leave the branching point
(7.1)
For figure 1 current I1, I2, and I3 to point A, and then current I4 and I5 leave point A.
I4
I1
A
I2
I5
I3
General
Physics
Experiment
Figure 7.1
Currents
at each II
Point
34
toward the branching poin
I1 I 2 I 3
leave the branching poin
I 4 I5
(7.2)
2. Kirchhoffs II Law
The second law is also called Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, which reads: "The directed
sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed network is zero".
igure 7.2 Scheme series of experiments
This law is a consequence of conservation of energy and the conservative nature of the
electrical circuit. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law can be applied to the circuit by a few different
ways. A method that provide little more than an error of writing equations, consisting of
the movement around a closed circuit in the clockwise direction and direct write any
element of the terminal voltage (+) and found her writing negative for any voltage that
first encountered the sign (-).
Mathematically Kirchhoff's Voltage Law can be written as follows:
= 0
(7.3)
V I . R 0
(7.4)
Powerful current that flows can be determined by using

Some rules as follows:
a. Determine the direction of rotation for each current loop.
b. Currents in the direction of the parable is considered positive.
c. The current flowing from the negative to the positive pole on the element
considered positive.
d. If the result is positive, the current strength calculation metaphor right
direction, if the negative mean current direction opposite to the direction of
the parable.
35
1. By using existing ohmmeter on multimeters, each measuring resistance / barriers

are used, stated in ohms () and record as R1 , R2 and R3
2. With By using the existing voltmeter on multimeter, measure the voltage of each
is used, expressed in volts (V) and record as E1 and E2
3. Assembling tools and materials such as the above scheme
4. If the circuit is correct, press the ON button on the second power supply
5. Measuring the current strength in the I1, I2, and I3 and measuring the voltage in
the R1, R2, and R3 for E1 = 10 V and E2 = 8 V.
6. Measuring the current strength in the I1, I2, and I3 and measuring the voltage in
the R1, R2, and R3 for E1 = 12 V and E2 = 8 V.
7. Noting the results of measurements on table of observation results
Table of Observation Results
No
.
T/E
R1
R2
R3
E1
E2
I1
I2
I3
V1
V2
V3
Theory
1 Experimen
t
Theory
2 Experimen
t
Note:
-
At the time of measuring the voltage, the circuit gauge parallelized

When measuring current, measuring instruments with a series
When using a measuring instrument, use a measuring limit of the greatest
advance in order not to damage the gauge.

1. Compare Kirchhoff's laws are obtained with a known practice in theory!
2. Write down the sample applications Kirchhoff's laws in everyday life!
3. Write down those factors that allow differences in outcomes at experiment?
36
EXPERIMENT VIII
ELECTROMAGNETIC AROUND ELECTRICAL WIRE
Applying the concept of electricity and magnetism in a variety of problem solving and
product technology.
B. Basic Competence
Investigate the electromagnetic around electrical current carrying wire.
C. Indicators
1. Students can design and conduct experiments to prove the electromagnetic around
a straight current-carrying wire electric.
37
2. Students can find out the cause of the electromagnetic around a straight current
carrying wire electric.
D. Experiments Goals
1. Can determine the electromagnetic around a straight current-carrying wire
electrical.
2. Can understand the concept of electric and magnetic relationships.
3. Can determine the factors that cause the electromagnetic around a straight currentcarrying wire electric.
No
Tools / Materials
Amount
1.
Power Supply
1 pc
2.
Basic Statif
2 pcs
3.
Multimeter
1 pc
4.
Compass
1 pc
5.
Ruler
1 pc
6.
Copper Wire Transformer
7.
Rheostat
1 pc
8.
Cable
3 pcs
40 cm
9. Knife
1 pc
F. Basic Theory
1. Magnetic Field Around Power Lines
Hans Christian Oersted (1770-1850) was a Danish physicist who first discovered that
electric currents cause the magnetic force. Oersted laying a straight conductor wire above
and parallel to the needle of a compass. The area around a magnet where other objects
are still experiencing a magnetic force is called the magnetic field. The magnetic field
can be described by magnetic lines of force coming out of the North Pole and enter the
South Pole. Direction of the magnetic field surrounding the induction of electric current
depends on the direction of the electric current, can be determined by the right-hand rule;
As if the clasp conductor such that the straightened thumb indicates the direction of flow
and the other four fingers round declared field lines.
Figure 8.1 Outline Direction Terrain Using the Right Hand Rule
2. Biot-Savart law
38
Two French researcher, Jean Biot and Felix Savart trying to calculate the magnitude of
the electromagnetic around the conductor wire is electrified.
Figure 8.2 Electromagnetic Elements by Wire at point P

Review a very long conductive wire electrified I. through experiments conducted
Biot-Savart that the magnitude of the electromagnetic at the point P (dB) caused by wire
elements are:
a. Comparable to currents I.
b. Comparable to the length of the wire element dl.
c. Comparable to sinus formed by a line connecting the current direction of the
wire elements with point P, sin .
d. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the wire element
to the point P, r2.
The above statement is mathematically expressed by the formula:
dB=kI
dl sin
r2
(8.1)
Called Biot Savart law with constant k = 0/4 = 4.10-7 Wb / Am.

3. Electromagnetic Around Dissipation Straight
A very long straight electrified I. Review the P is a point of the wire. Direction of the
magnetic field strength (electromagnetic) at the point P is determined by the right hand
rule. Large electromagnetic B at the point P can be determined by using the Biot-Savart
law.
Figure 8.3 Electromagnetic in One point of dissipation Straight

Large electromagnetic at a point P near the wire is expressed by the equation:
B=
0 I
2 a
(8.2)
39
With B in tesla, _0 is the permeability of the vacuum chamber 4.10-7 Wb / Am, I

was current flowing in the circuit (amperes) and a is the distance from the point to the
wire conductor (cm).
1.
Provide the tools and materials used in this experiment.
2.
Scrape both ends of the copper wire along the 5 cm to exfoliate the outer layer
of wire.
3.
Relate each end of the wires on each basic statif and stretched so that in case
of a straight wire.
Leaving the compass under the copper wire with a distance of 1 cm.
Connect the end of the first wire with alligator shear resistance using clamp.
Connect the shear resistance with the positive pole of the power supply using
4.
5.
6.
alligator clamp.
7.
Connect the end of the second wire to the negative pole of the power supply
using alligator clamp.
Set the output voltage of 6V and pay attention to the angle formed by the
8.
compass needle.
Measure the output voltage, the greater the obstacles and current flowing in
9.
the circuit.
10.
Record the observations in the observation table.
11.
Repeat the procedure 1 to 9 for 8V and 10V voltage variations.
Table8.1Experimental Results
V (volt)
R (ohm)
I (ampere)
a (cm)
B (tesla)
6V
8V
10 V
1.
How changes in the angle of deviation occurs when the wire is given the flow
of electric current?
2.
How the direction of the deviation angle is is happening? What to do with an
electric current flowing in the circuit?
Calculate large electromagnetic occurred and describe the direction of the
3.
electromagnetic based on experiments carried out!
40

Theory of Errors in The Measurement

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THEORY OF ERRORS IN THE MEASUREMENT

1. Measurement and Uncertainty

To be clear, the measurement results should be expressed quantitatively, not

Instrumental, such as calibration tools are not perfect.

General Physics Experiment II

Random and systematic

the result of a single measurement and

x is times the smallest

measurement scale of the measuring instrument. Examples.

General Physics Experiment II

Repeated measurements produce a sample population

While for stated deviation measurement results (

) can be used the standard

deviation of the average value of sample:

The measurement results can be written as below:

(can also be written in percent)

Example of writing true

General Physics Experiment II

z , then the scale

should be measured first. Furthermore, the uncertainty of

determined by first outlining the function

z=z ( x , y ) be a differential or a Taylor series

Sometimes found a quantity determined by several measurements

. The average value of these quantities can be calculated

using weighted average:

With weighting factor:

General Physics Experiment II

The uncertainty of the weighted average is:

5. Creation of graphs and Linear Regression

linearly with data

x n (number of data n) associated

y n which can be expressed as below:

Best prices a and b can be found by the least squares method:

General Physics Experiment II

Or can be written as below:

General Physics Experiment II

Do a scientific studies to recognize the symptoms and characteristics of wave in

Short statif bar

Long statif bar

Burden/Load 100 gram

General Physics Experiment II

Figure 1.1 Spring Motion

Restoring force on the object motion is: F = -k . y

This equation is called simple harmonic motion differential equations.

where A, , and still have to look for the

If time (t) in equation of y = A sin ( t + ) is added with

So the function is repeated again after a time interval

General Physics Experiment II

Arrange the instruments and materials as figure below.

Figure 1.2 Experiment Construction

Hang the load of mass 500 gram of the spring

harmonic motion switch on the stopwatch.

Explain the factors that affect the oscillation period!

General Physics Experiment II

Make the graph of relation between period and mass of load!

Snell's Law of reflection that:

) always same with Angle of reflection rays (

= enclose angle of flat mirror

) start from 450,600, 900, 1200 and 1800.

General Physics Experiment II

Table 2.1 Observation of Shadows Formation

Repeat this experiment for several different angle

6. Complete experiment data in the table observation below :