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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Spring 2008
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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines Lecture 1

Engines
-There are two types of engines:
1. Internal combustion - combustion occurs in the working fluid
- open cycle the working fluid is replenished in each cycle
- ie) exhaust gas is dumped into the atmosphere
2. External combustion use of heat exchanger to transfer energy to the
working fluid
- Open or closed cycle
- Ex) steam engine, sterling engine
History
1860 Lenoir engine
- air and fuel were hand pumped
-spark, or ignition was a candle / kerosene lamp done all by hand
- operated at about 10 RPM
- 500 sold
- 2 stroke
-ignition occurs while still in the expansion stage
limited expansion ratio
low efficiency (<5%)
area = work out
area = work in
V
(Graph: Lenoir and Otto engine shown, dashed portion shows Otto expansion)
1867 Otto engine (Nicholas Otto, Germany)

- used a rack and pinion flywheel as a crank
-efficiency was better than Lenoir (~11%)
- 4 stroke
1892 Diesel engine (Rudolf Diesel, Germany)
Other Developments
1870 Petroleum industry
1888 Pneumatic tires
1905 Spark plugs (Champion)
1920 Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) takes over steam engine for transportation
- main advantage dont need to carry around water
1920-1960 steady development
1960 Emission standards start
Heagen Smith smog mechanism
1970 Fuel crisis
1980 Global competition
1990 Greenhouse gases
2000 Fuel and CO2
4 stroke engine
intake
compression
(work in)
expansion
(work out)
exhaust
2 Stroke engine
pressurized
intake
scavenging
(intake)
compression
expansion
(exhaust)
Engine Size
-Piston bore ranges from 1 cm to 1m (large diesels)
-heat loss and friction are surface phenomenon bigger engine, less losses
Engine Geometry
Crank radius a
Connecting rod length l
Displacement volume - Vd =
B 2
4
Compression ratio (geometric) - C R =
VD + VC
Vc
Piston position - s ( ) = a cos + l 2 + a 2 sin 2

Instantaneous volume - V ( ) = VC +
B 2
4
V
1
= 1 + (CR 1) R + 1 cos ( R 2 sin 2 )0.5
VC
2
Piston velocity
sin 2
s( ) = sin
a
2
2
0.5
2( R sin )
where = 2N and N=RPM

Mean piston speed
S p = 2 NL
-typical numbers for engines
-L/B (stroke/bore) ~ 1 for passenger cars
-L/B ~0.2 for racing engines
-L/B ~ 2 for large engines
-R = l/a is 3~4 for typical passenger cars
Pressures normally aspirated 4 stroke SI
Heat release normally aspirated 4 stroke SI
Pressure - normally aspirated 4-stroke Diesel
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Spring 2008
Lecture 9
SI Engine Combustion
Movie of SI engine combustion

The spark discharge
The SI combustion flame propagation process
Heat release phasing
Heat release analysis from pressure data
Square piston flow visualization engine
Fig. 3.1 in Constanzo, Vincent M. A Visualization Study of

Mixture Preparation Mechanisms for Port Fuel Injected
Spark Ignition Engines. Masters Thesis, MIT. June 2004.
Bore
Stroke
Compression ratio
82.6 mm
114.3 mm
5.8
Operating condition
Speed
Fuel
Intake pressure
Spark timing
1400 rpm
0.9
propane
0.5 bar
MBT
Flame Propagation (Fig 9-14)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9-14 in Heywood, John B.
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
1400 rpm
0.5 bar inlet pressure
Burn duration
Burn duration as CA-deg. : measure of burn progress
in cycle
For modern fast-burn engines under medium speed,
part load condition:
0-10% ~ 15o
0-50% ~ 25o
0-90% ~ 35o
As engine speed increases,
burn duration as CA-deg. :
Increases because there is less time per CA-deg.
Decreases because combustion is faster due to
higher turbulence
Net effect: increases approximately as rpm0.2
Spark discharge
characteristics
Fig.9-39
Schematic of voltage and
current variation with
time for conventional coil
spark-ignition system.
Flame Kernel Development
(SAE Paper 880518)

=1, spk= 40oBTC,
1400 rpm, vol. eff. = 0.29
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Pischinger, Stefan, and John B.
Heywood. A Study of Flame Development and Engine Performance with Breakdown
Ignition Systems in a Visualization Engine. Journal of Engines 97 (February 1988): 880518.
Single cycle flame sequence
Flame from 4 consecutive cycles at fixed

time after spark
Energy associated
with Spark Discharge,
Combustion and Heat
Loss
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Pischinger, Stefan, and John B.
Heywood. A Study of Flame Development and Engine Performance with Breakdown
Ignition Systems in a Visualization Engine. Journal of Engines 97 (February 1988): 880518.
SAE Paper 880518
Schematic of SI engine flame propagation

Heat transfer
Work
transfer
Fig. 9-4 Schematic of flame propagation in SI engine: unburned gas (U) to left of
flame, burned gas to right. A denotes adiabatic burned-gas core, BL denotes
thermal boundary layer in burned gas.
Combustion produced pressure rise

Flame
u
Flame
b
m
time t
b
m
time t + t
1.
Pressure is uniform, changing with time
2.
For mass m: hb = hu (because dm is allowed to expand against

prevailing pressure)
3.
T rise is a function of fuel heating value and mixture composition
4.
e.g. at = 1, Tu ~ 700 K, Tb ~ 2800 K
Hence burned gas expands: b ~ u ; Vb ~ 4 Vu
Combustion produced pressure rise

5.
Since total volume is constrained. The pressure must

rise by p, and all the gas in the cylinder is compressed.
6.
Both the unburned gas ahead of flame and burned gas

behind the flame move away from the flame front
7.
Both the unburned gas and burned gas temperatures

rise due to the compression by the newly burned gas
8.
Unburned gas state: since heat transfer is relatively

small, the temperature is related to pressure by
isentropic relationship
9.
Tu/Tu,0 = (p/p0)(u-1)/u
Burned gas state:

Later burned gas,
lower Tb
u
Flame
Early burned gas,

higher Tb
Thermodynamic
state of charge
Fig. 9-5 Cylinder pressure,

mass fraction burned, and
gas temperatures as
function of crank angle
during combustion.
Optimum Combustion Phasing
Heat release schedule has to phase correctly with

piston motion for optimal work extraction
In SI engines, combustion phasing controlled by spark
Spark too late
heat release occurs far into expansion and work
cannot be fully extracted
Spark too early
Effectively lowers compression ratio
increased heat transfer losses
Also likely to cause knock
Optimal: Maximum Brake Torque (MBT) timing
MBT spark timing depends on speed, load, EGR, ,
temperature, charge motion,
Torque curve relatively flat: roughly 5 to 7oCA retard
from MBT results in 1% loss in torque
Spark timing effects
Fig. 9-3 (a) Cylinder pressure versus crank angle for overadvanced spark timing
(50o BTDC), MBT timing (30o BTDC), and retarded timing (10o BTDC). (b) Effect
of spark advance on brake torque at constant speed and A/F, at WOT
Control of spark timing

WOT
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 15-3 and 15-17 in Heywood,
John B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 15-17
Fig. 15-3
Obtaining combustion information from engine

cylinder pressure data
1.
Cylinder pressure affected by:

a) Cylinder volume change
b) Fuel chemical energy release by combustion
c) Heat transfer to chamber walls
d) Crevice effects
e) Gas leakage
2.
Obtaining accurate combustion rate information requires

a) Accurate pressure data (and crank angle indexing)
b) Models for phenomena a,c,d,e, above
c) Model for thermodynamic properties of cylinder contents
3.
Available methods
a) Empirical methods (e.g. Rassweiler and Withrow SAE
800131)
b) Single-zone heat release or burn-rate model
c) Two-zone (burned/unburned) combustion model
Typical
piezoelectric
pressure
transducer spec.
Image and data table removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see
http://www.intertechnology.com/Kistler/pdfs/Pressure_Model_6125B.pdf
6.2mm
Kistler 6125
Sensitivity of NIMEP to crank angle phase error

SI engine;1500 rpm, 0.38 bar intake pressure
Percent error in NIMEP

15
10
5
0
-3
-2
-1
0
-5
-10
-15
Crank angle phase error (deg)
Simple heat release analysis
Single zone, perfect gas, idealized model

d

(mc v T) = Q
gross Qht loss pV
d
PV
mc v T =
1
1

whence Q
pV +
pV + Q
gross =
ht loss
1
1
Mass fraction burned:

Q
gross
xb =
mf LHV
Other effects:
Crevice effect
Blowby
Real gas properties
Non-uniformities (significant difference between burned and
unburned gas)
Unknown residual fraction
Cylinder pressure
Fig. 9-10 (a) Pressure-volume diagram; (b) log p-log(V/Vmax) plot; 1500 rpm,
MBT timing, IMEP = 5.1 bar, = 0.8, rc = 8.7, propane fuel.
Burned mass analysis

Rassweiler and Winthrow
(SAE 800131)
Advantage: simple
Need only p(), p0, pf and n
xb always between 0 and 1
During combustion v = vu + vb
Unburned gas volume, back tracked

to spark (0)
Vu,0 = Vu (p / p )1/ n
0
Burned gas volume, forward tracked

to end of combustion (f)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Rassweiler, Gerald M., and
Lloyd Withrow. Motion Pictures of Engine Flames Correlated with Pressure Cards.
SAE Transactions 33 (1938): 185-204. Reprinted as SAE Technical Paper 800131.
Vb,f = Vb (p / p )1/ n
f
Mass fraction bunred

xb = 1
Vu,0
V0
Vb,f
Vf
Hence, after some algebra

xb =
p1/ n V p01/ n V0
pf1/ n Vf p01/ n V0
Results of heat-release analysis
Pintake
Fig. 9-12 Results of heat-release analysis showing the effects of heat

transfer, crevices and combustion inefficiency.
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Spring 2008
Lecture 10
SI Combustion (continue)
SI Engine Knock
Entrainment-and-Burn Model for SI engine combustion

Cycle-to-cycle fluctuation of SI engine heat release
SI engine knock
Spark knock and surface ignition

Spark knock mechanism
Knock chemistry and fuel effects
Knock control
Model of turbulent combustion

Schematic of entrainment-and-burn model
Fig. 14-12
SI engine flame propagation

Entrainment-and-burn model
Rate of entrainment:
dme
= u A f SL + u A f uT (1 e t / b )
dt
Laminar diffusion
through flame front
Turbulent entrainment
Rate at which mixture burns:
dmb
me mb
= u A f SL +
;
b
dt
Laminar frontal burning
Critical parameters: uT and AT
AT
b =
SL
Conversion of entrained mass

into burned mass
Cycle-to-cycle variations
Crank angle (o ATDC)
Crank angle (o ATDC)
Fig. 9-31
Measured cylinder pressure and calculated gross heat-release rate for ten
cycles in a single-cylinder SI engine operating at 1500 rpm, = 1.0, MAP = 0.7
bar, MBT timing 25oBTC
Cycle-to-cycle change in combustion phasing
SI ENGINE CYCLE-TO-CYCLE VARIATIONS

Phases of combustion
1. Early flame development
2. Flame propagation
3. Late stage of burning
Factors affecting SI engine cycle-to-cycle variations:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
Spark energy deposition in gas (1)

Flame kernel motion (1)
Heat losses from kernel to spark plug (1)
Local turbulence characteristics near plug (1)
Local mixture composition near plug (1)
Overall charge components - air, fuel, residual (2, 3)
Average turbulence in the combustion chamber (2, 3)
Large scale features of the in-cylinder flow (3)
Flame geometry interaction with the combustion chamber (3)
Cycle distributions
Fig,. 9-36 (b)
Fig,. 9-33 (b)
Charge variations
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9-33b and 9-36b in Heywood,
John B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Charge and
combustion
phasing
variation
Very Slow-burn cycles
Partial burn substantial combustion

inefficiency (10-70%)
Misfire
significant combustion
inefficiency (>70%)
(No definitive value for threshold)
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Auto-ignition and knock
1. Knock and surface ignition
2. Knock fundamentals
3. Fuel factor
Abnormal Combustion:
Knock and surface-Ignition
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 9-58 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion
Engine Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
SI Engine Knock
1.
Knock is most critical at WOT and at low speed because of its

persistence and potential for damage. Part-throttle knock is a
transient phenomenon and is a nuisance to the driver.
2.
Whether or not knock occurs depends on engine/fuel/vehicle

factors and ambient conditions (temperature, humidity). This
makes it a complex phenomenon.
3.
To avoid knock with gasoline, the engine compression ratio is

limited to approximately 12.5 in PFI engines and 13.5 in DISI
engines. Significant efficiency gains are possible if the
compression ratio could be raised. (Approximately, increasing
CR by 1 increases efficiency by one percentage point.)
4.
Feedback control of spark timing using a knock sensor is

increasingly used so that SI engine can operate close to its
knock limit.
Knock damaged pistons
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see p. 6 in "The Internal Combustion: Modeling Considers All Factors."
Lawrence Livermore National Lab, December 1999.
Also see any other photos of knock damage to pistons, such as: http://cameronassociates.org.uk/assets/images/autogen/a_
Piston_Damage.jpg
From Lichty, Internal Combustion Engines
From Lawrence Livermore website
Pressure oscillations observed in engine knock
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 9-59 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine
Fundamentals. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Single cylinder engine, 381 cc displacement; 4000 rpm, WOT
End Gas Geometry, Knock, and Pressure Signal
(SAE 960827,Stiebels, Schreiber, and Sakak)
Images (12 s
apart) of flame
luminescence
and pressure
trace; RON= 90,
2400 rpm, ign. at
35o BTC; white
circle indicating
first autoignition
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Stiebels, B., et al. "Development of a New Measurement Technique for the
Investigation of End-gas Autoignition and Engine Knock." SAE Transactions 105 (February 1996): 960827.
Knock Fundamentals
Knock originates in the extremely rapid release of much of the fuel

chemical energy contained in the end-gas of the propagating
turbulent flame, resulting in high local pressures. The non
uniform pressure distribution causes strong pressure waves or
shock waves to propagate across and excites the acoustic modes
of the combustion chamber.
When the fuel-air mixture in the end-gas region is compressed to
sufficiently high pressures and temperatures, the fuel oxidation
process starting with the pre-flame chemistry and ending with
rapid heat release can occur spontaneously in parts or all of the
end-gas region.
Most evidence indicates that knock originates with the autoignition of one or more local regions within the end-gas.
Additional regions then ignite until the end-gas is essentially fully
reacted. The sequence of processes occur extremely rapidly.
Knock chemical mechanism
CHAIN BRANCHING EXPLOSION

Chemical reactions lead to increasing number of radicals,
which leads to rapidly increasing reaction rates
Chain Initiation

RH + O R + HO
2
Formation of Branching Agents

2
Chain Propagation
, etc.
R + O 2 RO
2
+ RH ROOH + R
RO
2
RCHO + RO

RO
2
Degenerate Branching
+O
H
ROOH RO
O + HO

RCHO + O RC
2
FUEL FACTORS
The auto-ignition process depends on the fuel

chemistry.
Practical fuels are blends of a large number
of individual hydrocarbon compounds, each
of which has its own chemical behavior.
A practical measure of a fuels resistance to
knock is the octane number. High octane
number fuels are more resistant to knock.
Types of hydrocarbons
NAPHTHENES
(See text section 3.3)

PARAFFINS
Cyclohexane
Cyclopentane
Butane
AROMATICS
OLEFINS
Benzene
ISOMERS
Cis-2-Butane
Knock tendency of
individual
hydrocarbons
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 9-69 in

Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig 9-69
Critical compression ratio for
incipient knock at 600 rpm and
450 K coolant temperature for
hydrocarbons
Fuel anti-knock rating
(See table 9.6 for details)
Blend primary reference fuels (iso-octane and normal heptane) so

its knock characteristics matches those of the actual fuel.
Octane no. = % by vol. of iso-octane
Two different test conditions:
Research method: 52oC (125oF) inlet temperature, 600 rpm
Motor method:
149oC (300oF) inlet temperature, 900 rpm
ON
Road ON = (RON+MON) /2
Research ON
Sensitivity
Motor ON
Engine
severity
Less severe test condition scale
More severe test condition
Octane requirement
Cars on the road
Engine on test stand
103
Octane Requirement, RON
Octane Requirement
100
95
90
85
102
101
100
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
Slope ~ 5
92
7
10
Compression Ratio
11
91
90
89
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
Compression Ratio
Represents data from at least ten
cars of the same make and model
As above, from at least five cars
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Blackmore, D. R., and Thomas, A. Fuel Economy of the Gasoline
Engine: Fuel, Lubricant, and Other Effects. London, England: Macmillan, 1977.
From Balckmore and Thomas, Fuel Economy of the Gasoline Engine, Wiley 1977.
Remark: these are old data; modern engine octane requirement relates more to MON
Octane Requirement Increase
18
No additive (ORI = 15)
Octane requirement increase (ORI)
Test 1 (no additive)

14
Test 2 (with additive)

Test 3 (with additive)
Deposit removal
10
Deposit controlling additive (ORI = 10)
6
Clean combustion chamber only
2
0
-2
0
Clean combustion chamber and intake valves

50
100
150
200
Hours of operation
ACS Vol. 36, #1, 1991
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.
Knock control strategies
1. Provide adequate cooling to the engine

2. Use intercooler on turbo-charged engines
3. Use high octane gasoline
4. Anti-knock gasoline additives
5. Fuel enrichment under severe condition
6. Use knock sensor to control spark retard so as to
operate close to engine knock limit
7. Fast burn system
8. Gasoline direct injection
Anti-knock Agents
Alcohols
Methanol
Ethanol
TBA (Tertiary Butyl Alcohol)
CH3OH
C2H5OH
(CH3)3COH
Ethers
MTBE (Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether) (CH3)3COCH3

ETBE (Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether)
(CH3)3COC2H5
TAME (Tertiary Amyl Methyl Ether) (CH3)2(C2H5)COCH3
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Spring 2008
SI Engine Mixture Preparation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Requirements
Fuel metering systems
Fuel transport phenomena
Mixture preparation during engine transients
The Gasoline Direct Injection engine
MIXTURE PREPARATION
Fuel
Metering
Air
Metering
Fuel
Air
Mixing
EGR
Control
EGR
Combustible
Mixture
Engine
MIXTURE PREPARATION
Parameters
Impact
-Fuel Properties
-Air/Fuel Ratio
-Residual Gas
Fraction
- Driveability
- Emissions
- Fuel Economy
Other issues: Knock, exhaust temperature, starting and

warm-up, acceleration/ deceleration transients
Equivalence ratio and EGR strategies
(No emissions constrain)
Enrichment to
improve idle stability
Enrichment to prevent
knocking at high load
Rich
=1
Lean
Lean for good fuel economy

Load
EGR to decrease
NO emission and
EGR
pumping loss
No EGR to
No EGR to maximize air

improve idle
flow for power
stability
Load
Requirement for the 3-way catalyst
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 11-57 in Heywood, John B.
FUEL METERING
Carburetor
A/F not easily controlled
Fuel Injection
Electronically controlled fuel metering
Throttle body injection
Port fuel injection
Direct injection
Injectors
PFI injectors
Single 2-, 4-,, up to 12-holes
Injection pressure 3 to 7 bar
Droplet size:
Normal injectors: 200 to 80 m
Flash Boiling Injectors: down to 20 m
Air-assist injectors: down to 20 m
GDI injectors
Shaped-spray
Injection pressure 50 to 150 bar
Drop size: 15 to 50 m
PFI Injector targeting
Geometrical Issues
Fuel Injector
70
7
Intake Valve
40
Arrangement of fuel injector and intake valve

Engine
management
system
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see any

illustration of an engine control system, such as that in the
Bosch Automotive Handbook. London, England: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
From Bosch Automotive
Handbook
Fuel Metering
A/F ratio measured by sensor (closed loop operation)

feedback on fuel amount to keep =1
Feed-forward control (transients):

To meter the correct fuel flow for the targeted A/F target, need to
know the air flow
Determination of air flow (need transient correction)

Air flow sensor (hot film sensor)
Speed density method
Determine air flow rate from MAP (P) and ambient temperature
(Ta) using volumetric efficiency (v) calibration
a = VD N v (N,)
m
2
=P
RTa
Displacement vol. VD,

rev. per second N,
gas constant R
ENGINE EVENTS DIAGRAM
Intake
Exhaust
Injection
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
TC
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
180
360
540
720
900
1080
1260
1440
Cyl.#4
Cyl.#3
Cyl.#2
Cyl.#1
Cyl. #1 CA (0
o is BDC compression)
Effect of Injection
Timing on HC
Emissions
Engine at 1300 rpm

275 kPa BMEP
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Stache, I., and
Alkidas, A. C. "The Influence of Mixture Preparation on the HC Concentration
Histories from an S.I. Engine Running Under Steady-state Conditions."
SAE Transactions 106 (October 1997): 972981.
Injection
timing refers
to start of
injection
Mixture Preparation in PFI engine
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Nogi, Toshiharu, et al. "Mixture Formation of Fuel Injection
Systems in Gasoline Engines." SAE Transactions 97 (February 1988): 880558.
Intake flow phenomena in mixture preparation
(At low to moderate speed and load range)

Reverse Blow-down Flow
IVO to EVC:
Burned gas flows from exhaust port because Pe>Pi
IVO to Pc = Pi:
Burned gas flows from cylinder into intake system until cylinder and
intake pressure equalize
Forward Flow
Pc = Pi to BC:
Forward flow from intake system to cylinder induced by downward piston
motion
Reverse Displacement Flow

BC to IVC:
Fuel, air and residual gas mixture flows from cylinder into intake due to
upward piston motion
Note that the reverse flow affects the mixture preparation

process in engines with port fuel injection
Mixture Preparation in Engine Transients
Engine Transients
Throttle Transients
Accelerations and decelerations
Starting and warm-up behaviors

Engine under cold conditions
Transients need special compensations

because:
Sensors do not follow actual air delivery into cylinder
Fuel injected for a cycle is not what constitutes the

combustible mixture for that cycle
Manifold pressure charging in throttle transient
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Aquino, C. F. "Transient A/F Control Characteristics of the 5
Liter Central Fuel Injection Engine." SAE Transactions 90 (February 1981): 810494.
Fuel-Lag in Throttle Transient
The x- Model
dMf
f Mf
= xm
dt
.
mf
Mf/
Mf

mc = (1- x)m f +
.
xmf
f = Injected fuel flow rate

m
c = Fuel delivery rate
m
Mf
to cylinder
Mf = Fuel mass in puddle
Fuel transient in throttle opening
Fig 7-28
Uncompensated A/F behavior in throttle transient
Engine start
up behavior
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 1 in Santoso, Halim, and Cheng, Wai K.
"Mixture Preparation and Hydrocarbon Emissions in the First Cycle of SI Engine Cranking."
SAE Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 111 (October 2002): 2002-01-2805.
2.4 L, 4-cylinder
engine
Engine starts
with Cyl#2
piston in mid
stroke of
compression
Firing order
1-3-4-2
Pertinent Features of DISI Engines
1. Precise metering of fuel into cylinder

Engine calibration benefit: better driveability and
emissions
2. Opportunity of running stratified lean at part load
Fuel economy benefit (reduced pumping work; lower

charge temperature, lower heat transfer; better
thermodynamic efficiency)
3. Charge cooling by fuel evaporation

Gain in volumetric efficiency
Gain in knock margin (could then raise compression
ratio for better fuel economy)
Both factors increase engine output
Toyota DISI Engine (SAE Paper 970540)
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Harada, Jun, et al. "Development of Direct-injection
Gasoline Engine." SAE Journal of Engines 106 (February 1997): 970540.
Charge cooling by in-air fuel evaporation
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Anderson, R. W., et al. "Understanding the Thermodynamics of
Direct-injection Spark-ignition (DISI) Combustion Systems: An Analytical and Experimental Investigation." SAE Journal of Engines
105 (October 1996): 962018.
Full load performance benefit
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Iwamoto, Y., et al. "Development of
Gasoline Direct Injection Eengine." SAE Journal of Engines 106 (February 1997): 970541.
Part load fuel economy gain
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Kume, T., et al. "Combustion Control Technologies for
Direct Injection SI Engine." SAE Journal of Engines 105 (February 1996): 960600.
DISI Challenges
1.
2.
High cost
With the part-load stratified-charge concept :

3.
4.
Particulate emissions at high load

Liquid gasoline impinging on combustion chamber walls

5.
Hydrocarbon source
Lubrication problem
Injector deposit

6.
High hydrocarbon emissions at light load

Significant NOx emission, and lean exhaust not amenable to
3-way catalyst operation
Special fuel additive needed for injector cleaning
Cold start behavior

Insufficient fuel injection pressure

Wall wetting
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Spring 2008
Diesel Engine Combustion
1. Characteristics of diesel combustion

2. Different diesel combustion systems
3. Phenomenological model of diesel
combustion process
4. Movie of combustion in diesel systems
5. Combustion pictures and planar laser

sheet imaging
DIESEL COMBUSTION PROCESS
PROCESS
Liquid fuel injected into compressed charge
Fuel evaporates and mixes with the hot air
Auto-ignition with the rapid burning of the fuelair that is premixed during the ignition delay
period
Premixed burning is fuel rich
As more fuel is injected, the combustion is

controlled by the rate of diffusion of air into the
flame
DIESEL COMBUSTION PROCESS
NATURE OF DIESEL COMBUSTION
Heterogeneous
liquid, vapor and air
spatially non-uniform
turbulent
diffusion flame
The Diesel Engine
Intake air not throttled

Load controlled by the amount of fuel injected
>A/F ratio: idle ~ 80
>Full load ~19 (less than overall stoichiometric)
No end-gas; avoid the knock problem
High compression ratio: better efficiency
Combustion:
Turbulent diffusion flame
Overall lean
Diesel as the Most Efficient Power Plant
Theoretically, for the same CR, SI engine has higher f; but

diesel is not limited by knock, therefore it can operate at
higher CR and achieves higher f
Not throttled - small pumping loss
Overall lean - higher value of - higher thermodynamic
efficiency
Can operate at low rpm - applicable to very large engines
slow speed, plenty of time for combustion
small surface to volume ratio: lower percentage of parasitic
losses (heat transfer and friction)
Opted for turbo-charging
Large Diesels: f~ 55%

~ 98% ideal efficiency !
Disadvantages of Diesel Engines
Cold start difficulty

Noisy - sharp pressure rise: cracking noise
Inherently slower combustion

Lower power to weight ratio
Expensive components
NOx and particulate matters emissions
Diesel Engine Characteristics
(compared to SI engines)
Better fuel economy

Overall lean, thermodynamically efficient
Large displacement, low speed lower FMEP
Higher CR
> CR limited by peak pressure, NOx emissions, combustion and
heat transfer loss
Turbo-charging not limited by knock: higher BMEP over domain of
operation, lower relative losses (friction and heat transfer)
Lower Power density

Overall lean: would lead to smaller BMEP
Turbocharged: would lead to higher BMEP
> not knock limited, but NOx limited
> BMEP higher than SI engine
Lower speed: overall power density (P/VD) not as high as SI engines
Emissions: more problematic than SI engine

NOx: needs development of efficient catalyst
PM: regenerative and continuous traps
Applications
Small (7.5 to 10 cm bore; previously mainly IDI; new

ones are high speed DI)
passenger cars
Medium (10 to 20 cm bore; DI)
trucks, trains
Large (30 to 50 cm bore; DI)
trains, ships
Very Large (100 cm bore)
stationary power plants, ships
Common Direct-Injection Compression-Ignition Engines

(Fig. 10.1 of text)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-1 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine
(a)
(b)
(c)
Quiescent chamber with multihole nozzle typical of larger engines

Bowl-in-piston chamber with swirl and multihole nozzle; medium to small size engines
Bowl-in-piston chamber with swirl and single-hole nozzle; medium to small size engines
Common types of small Indirect-injection diesel engines

(Fig. 10.2 of text)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-2 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine
(a) Swirl prechamber
(b) Turbulent prechamber
Common Diesel Combustion Systems (Table 10.1)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Table 10-1 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion
(bar)
Typical Large Diesel Engine Performance Diagram
BMEP: 14.3 bar
Configurations
4 cyl: 11.8 MW (16000 bhp)
5 cyl: 14.7 MW (20000 bhp)
6 cyl: 17.7 MW (24000 bhp)
7 cyl: 20.6 MW (28000 bhp)

8 cyl: 23.5 MW (32000 bhp)
9 cyl: 26.5 MW (36000 bhp)
10 cyl: 29.4 MW (40000 bhp)
12 cyl: 35.3 MW (48000 bhp)
( oC)
Piston speed 6.46 m/s
Max Pressure
Compression
Pressure
Scavenge Air Pressure (gauge)
Exh. Temp, Turbine Inlet and Outlet
(kg/kWh)
Rating:
Speed: 102 Rev/ min
(g/kWh)
1.9 m stroke; 0.9 m bore
(bar)
Sulzer RLB 90 - MCR 1
Turbo-charged 2-stroke Diesel
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
13
12
11
10
8
7
210
205
200
195
190
185
180
Specific air quantity
Specific fuel consumption
10
12
BMEP (bar)
8
14
16
Diesel combustion process direct injection
1)
2)
3)
4)
Ignition delay no significant

heat release
Premixed rapid combustion
Mixing controlled phase of
combustion
Late combustion phase
Note:
(2) is too fast;
(4) is too slow
Rate of Heat Release in Diesel Combustion

(Fig. 10.8 of Text)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-9 in Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion
A Simple Diesel Combustion Concept (Fig. 10-8)
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Spring 2008
Diesel injection, ignition, and fuel air mixing
1. Fuel spray phenomena

2. Spontaneous ignition
3. Effects of fuel jet and charge motion on mixingcontrolled combustion
4. Fuel injection hardware
5. Challenges for diesel combustion
DIESEL FUEL INJECTION
The fuel spray serves multiple purposes:

Atomization
Fuel distribution
Fuel/air mixing
Typical Diesel fuel injector
Injection pressure: 1000 to 2200 bar

5 to 20 holes at ~ 0.15 - 0.2 mm diameter
Drop size 0.1 to 10 m
For best torque, injection starts at about 20o BTDC
Injection strategies for NOx control

Late injection (inj. starts at around TDC)
Other control strategies:
Pilot and multiple injections, rate shaping, water emulsion
Diesel Fuel Injection System
(A Major cost of the diesel engine)

Performs fuel metering
Provides high injection pressure
Distributes fuel effectively
Spray patterns, atomization etc.
Provides fluid kinetic energy for charge mixing
Typical systems:
Pump and distribution system (100 to 1500 bar)
Common rail system (1000 to 1700 bar)

Hydraulic pressure amplification
Unit injectors (1000 to 2500 bar)
Piezoelectric injectors (to 1800 bar)
Electronically controlled
EXAMPLE OF DIESEL INJECTION
(Hino K13C, 6 cylinder, 12.9 L turbo-charged diesel

engine, rated at 294KW@2000 rpm)
Injection pressure = 1400 bar; duration = 40oCA
BSFC 200 g/KW-hr
Fuel delivered per cylinder per injection at rated
condition
0.163 gm ~0.21 cc (210 mm3)
Averaged fuel flow rate during injection
64 mm3/ms
8 nozzle holes, at 0.2 mm diameter
Average exit velocity at nozzle ~253 m/s
Fuel Atomization Process
Liquid break up governed by balance between

aerodynamic force and surface tension
Webber Number (Wb ) =
gasu 2 d
Critical Webber number: Wb,critical ~ 30; diesel fuel

surface tension ~ 2.5x10-2 N/m
Typical Wb at nozzle outlet > Wb,critical; fuel shattered
into droplets within ~ one nozzle diameter
Droplet size distribution in spray depends on further
droplet breakup, coalescence and evaporation
Droplet size distribution
f(D)
Size distribution:
f(D)dD = probability of finding
particle with diameter in
the range of (D, D + dD)
1 = f(D)dD
0
Average diameter
Volume distribution
1 dV
=
V dD
D = f(D) D dD
0
f(D) D3
3
f(D)
D
dD
Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD)
D 32 =
3
f
(D
)
D
dD
2
f
(D
)
D
dD
Droplet Size Distribution
Fig. 10.28 Droplet size distribution measured well downstream; numbers on the curves are
radial distances from jet axis. Nozzle opening pressure at 10 MPa; injection into air at 11 bar.
Droplet Behavior in Spray
Small drops (~ micron size) follow gas stream;

large ones do not
Relaxation time d2
Evaporation time d2
Evaporation time small once charge is ignited
Spray angle depends on nozzle geometry and

gas density : tan(/2) (gas/liquid)
Spray penetration depends on injection
momentum, mixing with charge air, and droplet
evaporation
Spray Penetration: vapor and liquid (Fig. 10-20)
Shadowgraph image
showing both liquid
and vapor penetration
Back-lit image
showing liquidcontaining core
Auto-ignition Process
PHYSICAL PROCESSES (Physical Delay)
Drop atomization
Evaporation
Fuel vapor/air mixing
CHEMICAL PROCESSES (Chemical Delay)
Chain initiation
Chain propagation
Branching reactions
CETANE IMPROVERS
Alkyl Nitrates
0.5% by volume increases CN by ~10
Ignition Mechanism: similar to SI engine knock
CHAIN BRANCHING EXPLOSION

Chemical reactions lead to increasing number of radicals,
which leads to rapidly increasing reaction rates
Formation of Branching Agents
Chain Initiation

RH + O R + HO
2
+ RH ROOH + R
RO
2
RCHO + RO

RO
2
Chain Propagation
Degenerate Branching
, etc.
R + O2 RO
2
+O
H
ROOH RO
O + HO

RCHO + O RC
2
Cetane Rating
(Procedure is similar to Octane Rating for SI Engine; for details,
see10.6.2 of text)
Primary Reference Fuels:

Normal cetane (C16H34): CN = 100
Hepta-Methyl-Nonane (HMN; C16H34): CN = 15
(2-2-4-4-6-8-8 Heptamethylnonane)
Rating:
Operate CFR engine at 900 rpm with fuel
Injection at 13o BTC
Adjust compression ratio until ignition at TDC
Replace fuel by reference fuel blend and change blend proportion to
get same ignition point
CN = % n-cetane + 0.15 x % HMN
Ignition Delay
Ignit
i on delays measured in a
small four-stroke cycle DI
diesel engine with rc=16.5, as a
function of load at 1980 rpm, at
various cetane number
(Fig. 10-36)
Fuel effects on Cetane Number (Fig. 10-40)
Ignition Delay Calculations
Difficulty: do not know local conditions (species concentration
and temperature) to apply kinetics information
Two practical approaches:

Use an instantaneous delay expression
(T,P) = P-nexp(-EA/ T)
and solve ignition delay (id) from
1
dt
t si
(T(t),P(t))
Use empirical correlation of id based on T, P at an appropriate
charge condition; e.g. Eq. (10.37 of text)
1 = t si +id
1
1
21.2
0.63
id (CA) = (0.36 + 0.22Sp (m / s))exp E A ( ~
)+(
)
17190)
P(bar)
12.4
R
T(K)
EA (Joules per mole) = 618,840 / (CN+25)
Diesel Engine Combustion
Air Fuel Mixing Process
Importance of air utilization

Smoke-limit A/F ~ 20
Fuel jet momentum / wall interaction has a larger influence

on the early part of the combustion process
Charge motion impacts the later part of the combustion
process (after end-of-injection)
CHARGE MOTION CONTROL
Intake created motion: swirl, etc.
Not effective for low speed large engine
Piston created motion - squish
Interaction of fuel jet and the chamber wall
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-21 in

Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Sketches of outer vapor boundary

of diesel fuel spray from 12
successive frames (0.14 ms apart)
of high-speed shadowgraph
movie. Injection pressure at 60
MPa.
Fig. 10-21
Interaction of fuel jet with air swirl
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 10-22 in

Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Schematic of fuel jet

air swirl interaction;
is the fuel equivalence
ratio distribution
Fig. 10-22
Rate of Heat Release in Diesel Combustion
(Fig. 10.8 of Text)
DIESEL FUEL INJECTION HARDWARE
High pressure system

precision parts for flow control
Fast action
high power movements
Expensive system
Injection pressure
Positive displacement injection system

Injection pressure adjusted to accommodate plunger
motion
Injection pressure rpm2
Injection characteristics speed dependent

Injection pressure too high at high rpm
Injection pressure too low at low rpm
CHALLENGES IN DIESEL COMBUSTION
Heavy Duty Diesel Engines
NOx emission
Particulate emission
Power density
Noise
High Speed Passenger Car Diesel Engines
All of the above, plus

Fast burn rate
MIT OpenCourseWare
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Spring 2008
Diesel Emissions and Control
Diesel emissions
Regulatory requirements
Diesel emissions reduction
Diesel exhaust gas after-treatment
systems
Clean diesel fuels
Diesel Emissions
CO not significant until smoke-limit is reached

Overall fuel lean
higher CR favors oxidation
HC not significant in terms of mass emission

Crevice gas mostly air
Significant effects:
Odor
Toxics (HC absorbed in fine PM)
Mechanisms:
Over-mixing, especially during light load
Sag volume effect
NOx very important

No attractive lean NOx exhaust treatment yet
PM very important
submicron particles health effects
Demonstration of over-mixing effect
Diesel HC
emission
mechanisms
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 11-35 and 11-36 in Heywood, John B.
Effect of nozzle sac vol. on HC emissions
NOx mechanisms
NO: Extended Zeldovich mechanism

N2 + O NO + N
N + O2 NO + O
N + OH NO + H
Very temperature sensitive: favored at high temperature
Diffusion flame: locally high temperature
More severe than SI case because of higher CR
NO2 : high temperature equilibrium favors NO, but NO2 is
formed due to quenching of the formation of NO by mixing
with the excess air
NO + HO2 NO2 + OH
NO2 + O NO + O2
Gets 10-20% of NO2 in NOx
NOx formation in Diesel engines
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 11-15 and 11-16 in Heywood, John B.
Normalized NO concentration from

cylinder dumping experiment.
Injection at 27o BTC. Note most of the
NO is formed in the diffusion phase of
burning
NOx and NO emissions as a function of

overall equivalence ratio . Note that NO2
as a fraction of the NOx decreases with
increase of .
Diesel combustion
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Flynn, Patrick F., et al. "Diesel Combustion: An Integrated View Combining Laser
Diagnostics, Chemical Knetics, and Empirical Validation." SAE Journal of Engines 108 (March 1991): SP-1444.
Particulate Matter (PM)
As exhaust emission:
visible smoke
collector of organic and inorganic materials
from engine
Partially oxidized fuel; e.g. Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (PAH)
Lubrication oil (has Zn, P, Cu etc. in it)
Sulfates (fuel sulfur oxidized to SO2, and

then in atmosphere to SO3 which hydrates
to sulfuric acid (acid rain)
Particulate Matter
In the combustion process, PM formed

initially as soot (mostly carbon)
partially oxidized fuel and lub oil condense
on the particulates in the expansion,
exhaust processes and outside the engine
PM has effective absorption surface area of
200 m2/g
Soluble Organic Fraction (SOF) 10-30%

(use dichloromethane as solvent)
Elementary soot particle structure
Source: Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.
Dehydrogenation
Oxidation
Surface growth
Dehydrogenation
Oxidation
Agglomeration
Dehydrogenation
Oxidation
Adsorption,
condensation
In-cylinder
Nucleation
In atmosphere
Time
PM formation processes
Diesel NOx/PM regulation

1
US
1990
EU
1991-93
PM(g/bhp-hr)
Euro II (1998)
Euro III(2000)
0.1
1994
1998
2004
Euro IV(2005)
Euro V(2008)
Euro VI (proposed-2013)
0.01
2007
0.1
10
NOx (g/bhp-hr)
(Note: Other countries regulations are originally in terms of g/KW-hr)
Diesel Emissions Reduction
1. Fuel injection: higher injection pressure; multiple

pulses per cycle, injection rate shaping; improved
injection timing control
2. Combustion chamber geometry and air motion
optimization well matched to fuel injection system
3. Exhaust Gas Recycle (EGR) for NOx control
Cooled for impact
4. Reduced oil consumption to reduce HC contribution
to particulates
5. Exhaust treatment technology: NOx, PM
6. Cleaner fuels
Effect of EGR
1.35 L single cylinder engine,

Direct Injection, 4-stroke
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Uchida, Noboru, et al. "Combined Effects of EGR and Supercharging on Diesel
Combustion and Emissions." SAE Journal of Engines 102 (March 1993): 930601.
Split Injection
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Nehmer, D. A., and Reitz, R. D. "Measurement of the Effect of Injection
Rate and Split Injections on Diesel Engine Soot and NOx Emissions." SAE Journal of Engines 103 (February 1994): 940668.
PM Control
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Zelenka, P., et al. "Ways Toward the Clean
Heavy-duty Diesel." SAE Journal of Engines 99 (February 1990): 900602.
Post injection filter regeneration
Regeneration needs ~550oC

Normal diesel exhaust under city
driving ~150-200oC
Need oxidation catalyst (CeO2) to
lower light off temperature
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 8 in Salvat, O., et al. Control engine torque
"Passenger Car Serial Application of a Particulate Filter System on a Common
Minimized fuel penalty
Rail Direct Injection Diesel Engine." SAE Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 109
(March 2000): SP-1497.
Peugeot SAE 2000-01-0473
Increase exhaust gas temperature by injection of

additional fuel pulse late in cycle.
Diesel particulate filters use porous ceramics
and catalyst to collect and burn the soot
Please see slide 9 in Johnson, Tim. "Diesel Exhaust Emission Control." Environmental Monitoring, Evaluation, and Protection in
New York: Linking Science and Policy, 2003.
State-of-the Art SCR system has NO2 generation and

oxidation catalyst to eliminate ammonia slip
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see p. 9 in "Recent Developments in Integrated Exhaust Emission
Control Technologies Including Retrofit of Off-Road Diesel Vehicles." Manufacturers of Emissions Controls Association,
February 3, 2000.
Integrated DPF and NOx trap
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 3 in Nakatani, Koichiro, et al. "Simultaneous PM and NOx
Reduction System for Diesel Engines." SAE Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 111 (March 2002): SP-1674.
From Toyota SAE Paper 2002-01-0957
Clean Diesel Fuels
1. Lower sulfur levels

350 ppm 15 ppm
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lower percentage aromatics
Oxygenated fuels
Higher cetane number
Narrower distillation range
Diesel Emission Control
Summary
Emission regulations present substantial
challenge to Diesel engine system
Issues are:
performance and sfc penalty
cost
reliability
infra-structure support
MIT OpenCourseWare
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Spring 2008
Engine Heat Transfer
1.
2.
3.
4.
Impact of heat transfer on engine operation
Heat transfer environment

Energy flow in an engine
Engine heat transfer
Fundamentals
Spark-ignition engine heat transfer
Diesel engine heat transfer
5. Component temperature and heat flow
Engine Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is a parasitic process that

contributes to a loss in fuel conversion
efficiency
The process is a surface effect
Relative importance reduces with:
Larger engine displacement
Higher load
Engine Heat Transfer: Impact
Efficiency and Power: Heat transfer in the inlet decrease volumetric

efficiency. In the cylinder, heat losses to the wall is a loss of
availability.
Exhaust temperature: Heat losses to exhaust influence the
turbocharger performance. In- cylinder and exhaust system heat
transfer has impact on catalyst light up.
Friction: Heat transfer governs liner, piston/ ring, and oil
temperatures. It also affects piston and bore distortion. All of these
effects influence friction. Thermal loading determined fan, oil and
water cooler capacities and pumping power.
Component design: The operating temperatures of critical engine
components affects their durability; e.g. via mechanical stress,
lubricant behavior
Engine Heat Transfer: Impact
Mixture preparation in SI engines: Heat transfer to the fuel

significantly affect fuel evaporation and cold start calibration
Cold start of diesel engines: The compression ratio of diesel
engines are often governed by cold start requirement
SI engine octane requirement: Heat transfer influences inlet
mixture temperature, chamber, cylinder head, liner, piston and
valve temperatures, and therefore end-gas temperatures, which
affect knock. Heat transfer also affects build up of in-cylinder
deposit which affects knock.
Engine heat transfer environment
Gas temperature: ~300 3000oK

Heat flux to wall: Q /A <0 (during intake) to 10 MW/m2
Materials limit:
Cast iron ~ 400oC
Aluminum ~ 300oC
Liner (oil film) ~200oC
Hottest components
Spark plug > Exhaust valve > Piston crown > Head
Liner is relatively cool because of limited exposure to burned
gas
Source
Hot burned gas
Radiation from particles in diesel engines
Energy flow diagram for an IC engine
Energy flow distribution for SI and Diesel
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Table 12-1 in Heywood, John B.
Energy distribution in SI engine
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 12-4 in Heywood, John B.
Heat transfer process in engines
Areas where heat transfer is important

Intake system: manifold, port, valves

In-cylinder: cylinder head, piston, valves, liner
Exhaust system: valves, port, manifold, exhaust pipe
Coolant system: head, block, radiator
Oil system: head, piston, crank, oil cooler, sump
Information of interest
Heat transfer per unit time (rate)
Heat transfer per cycle (often normalized by fuel heating
value)
Variation with time and location of heat flux (heat transfer
rate per unit area)
Schematic of temperature distribution and heat flow across
the combustion chamber wall (Fig. 12-1)
Combustion Chamber Heat Transfer
Turbulent convection: hot gas to wall

.
Q = Ah g (T g Twg )
Conduction through wall

.
Q = A (Twg Twc )
tw
Turbulent convection: wall to coolant
.
Q = Ah c (Twc T c )
Overall heat transfer

.
Q = Ah (T g T c )
Overall thermal resistance: three resistance in series

1
1 tw
1
=
+
+
h hg
hc
( alum
~180 W/m-k
cast iron ~ 60 W/m-k
stainless steel ~18 W/m-k)
Turbulent Convective Heat Transfer Correlation
Approach: Use Nusselt- Reynolds number correlations similar to

those for turbulent pipe or flat plate flows.
e.g. In-cylinder:
Nu =
hL
= a (Re) 0 .8
h = Heat transfer coefficient
L = Characteristic length (e.g. bore)
Re= Reynolds number, UL/
U = Characteristic gas velocity
= Gas thermal conductivity
= Gas viscosity
= Gas density
a = Turbulent pipe flow correlation coefficient
Radiative Heat Transfer
Important in diesels due to presence of hot

radiating particles (particulate matters) in the flame
Radiation from hot gas relatively small
4

Q
rad = Tparticle
= Stefan Boltzman Constant (5.67x10-8 W/m2-K4)

= Emissivity
where
Tcyl. ave < Tparticle < Tmax burned gas
Radiation spectrum peaks at max
max T = constant (max = 3 m at 1000K)
Typically, in diesels:
Qrad

Q
rad, max
0.2Qtotal

0.4Q
total,max
(cycle cum)
(peak value)
IC Engine heat transfer
Heat transfer mostly from hot burned gas

That from unburned gas is relatively small
Flame geometry and charge motion/turbulence

level affects heat transfer rate
Order of Magnitude
SI engine peak heat flux ~ 1-3 MW/m2
Diesel engine peak heat flux ~ 10 MW/m2
For SI engine at part load, a reduction in

heat losses by 10% results in an
improvement in fuel consumption by 3%
Effect substantially less at high load
SI Engine Heat Transfer
Unburned Zone
Burned Zone
Cooling Surface Area

Acij
Heat transfer dominated by that

from the hot burned gas
Burned gas wetted area determine
by cylinder/ flame geometry
Gas motion (swirl/ tumble) affects
heat transfer coefficient
Heat transfer
=
Burned zone: sum over area wetted Q
b
by burned gas
Unburned zone: sum over area
wetted by unburned gas
h (Tb Tw,i )
ci,b b
= A h (T T )
Q
ci,u u u w,i
u
i
Note: Burned zone heat flux >> unburned zone heat flux
SI engine heat transfer environment
Fig. 14-9 5.7 L displacement, 8 cylinder engine at WOT, 2500 rpm; fuel equivalence
ratio 1.1; GIMEP 918 kPa; specific fuel consumption 24 g/kW-hr.
SI engine heat flux
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Gilaber, P., and P. Pinchon. "Measurements and Multidimensional
Modeling of Gas-wall Heat Transfer in a S.I. Engine." SAE Journal of Engines 97 (February 1988): 880516.
Heat transfer scaling
Nu correlation: heat transfer rate

Time available (per cycle)
Fuel energy
BMEP
0.8N0.8
1/N
Thus Heat Transfer/Fuel energy
BMEP-0.2N-0.2
Diesel engine heat transfer
Fig. 12-13 Measured surface heat fluxes at different locations in cylinder head and
liner of naturally aspirated 4-stroke DI diesel engine. Bore=stroke=114mm; 2000
rpm; overall fuel equivalence ratio = 0.45.
Diesel engine radiative heat transfer
Fig. 12-15
Radiant heat flux as

fraction of total heat flux
over the load range of
several different diesel
engines
Heat transfer effect on component temperatures
Temperature distribution in head
Fig. 12-20 Variation of cylinder head temperature with measurement location n SI

engine operating at 2000 rpm, WOT, with coolant water at 95oC and 2 atmosphere.
Heat transfer paths from piston
Fig. 12-24 Heat outflow form various zones of piston as percentage of heat flow in
from combustion chamber. High-speed DI diesel engine, 125 mm bore, 110 mm
stroke, CR=17
Piston Temperature Distribution
Figure 12-19
Isothermal contours (solid lines) and heat flow paths (dashed lines) determined from measured
temperature distribution in piston of high speed DI diesel engine. Bore 125 mm, stroke 110
mm, rc=17, 3000 rev/min, and full load
Thermal stress
Simple 1D example : column constrained at ends
Stress-strain relationship
T1
T2>T1 induces
compression
stress
x=[x-(y+z)]/E + (T2-T1)
REAL APPLICATION - FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Complicated 3D geometry
Solution to heat flow to get temperature distribution
Compatibility condition for each element
Example of Thermal
Stress Analysis:Piston
Design
Heat Transfer Analysis
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Castleman, Jeffrey L. "Power Cylinder Design Variables and Their
Effects on Piston Combustion Bowl Edge Stresses." SAE Journal of Engines 102 (September 1993): 932491.
Thermal-Stress-Only
Loading Structural Analysis
Power Cylinder Design

Variables and Their
Effects on Piston
Combustion Bowl Edge
Stresses
J. Castleman, SAE 932491
Heat Transfer Summary
1.
2.
Magnitude of heat transfer from the burned gas much greater than in
any phase of cycle
Heat transfer is a significant performance loss and affects engine
operation
3.
4.
Loss of available energy
Volumetric efficiency loss
Effect on knock in SI engine
Effect on mixture preparation in SI engine cold start
Effect on diesel engine cold start
Convective heat transfer depends on gas temperature, heat transfer

coefficient, which depends on charge motion, and transfer area,
which depends on flame/combustion chamber geometry
Radiative heat transfer is smaller than convective one, and it is only
significant in diesel engines
MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu

Spring 2008
Engine Friction and Lubrication
Engine friction
terminology
Pumping loss
Rubbing friction loss
Engine Friction: terminology
Pumping work: Wp
Work per cycle to move the working fluid through the engine
Rubbing friction work: Wrf

Accessory work: Wa
Total Friction work: Wtf = Wp + Wrf + Wa
Normalized by cylinder displacement MEP
tfmep = pmep + rfmep + amep
Net output of engine

bmep = imep(g) tfmep
Mechanical efficiency
m = bmep / imep(g)
Friction components
1. Crankshaft friction
Main bearings, front and rear bearing oil seals
2. Reciprocating friction
Connecting rod bearings, piston assembly
3. Valve train
Camshafts, cam followers, valve actuation mechanisms
4. Auxiliary components
Oil, water and fuel pumps, alternator
5. Pumping loss
Gas exchange system (air filter, intake, throttle, valves,

exhaust pipes, after-treatment device, muffler)
Engine fluid flow (coolant, oil)
Engine Friction
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Fig. 13-1 in

Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1988.
Fig. 13-1
Comparison of major categories of
friction losess: fmep at different
loads and speeds for 1.6 L fourcylinder overhead-cam automotive
Spark Ignition (SI) and
Compression-Ignition (CI) engines.
Pumping loss
Fig. 13-15 Puming loop diagram for SI engine under firing

conditions, showing throttling work Vd(pe-pi), and valve flow work
Sliding friction mechanism
Energy dissipation processes:

Detaching chemical binding between surfaces
Breakage of mechanical interference (wear)
Bearing Lubrication
Stribeck Diagram
for journal bearing
Motoring break-down analysis
Fig. 13-14
Motored fmep versus engine speed for engine breakdown tests.

(a) Four-cylinder SI engine.
(b) Average results for several four- and six-cylinder DI diesel engines
Breakdown of engine mechanical friction
Typical
Rings
4800 r/min
Full Load
Rings
4800 r/min
Full Load
Motoring r/min Motoring r/min
Piston
Rings
Rod
Piston + Rod
Piston + Rod
Crankshaft
18
F.A. Martin, Friction in Internal Combustion

Engines, I.Mech.E. Paper C67/85, Combustion
Engines Friction and Wear, pp.1-17,1985.
19
T. Hisatomi and H. Iida, Nissan Motor Companys

New 2.0 L. Four-cylinder Gasoline Engine, SAE
Trans. Vol. 91, pp. 369-383, 1982; 1st engine.
19
2nd engine.
6000
4000
Rings + Piston
Rod
20
2000
M. Hoshi, Reducing Friction Losses in Automobile

Engines, Tribology International, Vol. 17, pp 185
189, Aug. 1984.
4000
Rings + Piston + Rod
2000
0
20
40
Valvetrain
60
80
21
100
Mechanical Friction (%)

J.T. Kovach, E.A. Tsakiris, and L.T. Wong, Engine

Friction Reduction for Improved Fuel Economy,
SAE Trans. Vol. 91, pp. 1-13, 1982
Valve train friction
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see illustrations of "Valve Timing-gear Designs."
In the Bosch Automotive Handbook. London, England: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
Valve train friction depends on:

Total contact areas
Stress on contact areas
Spring and inertia loads
Low friction valve train
Valve train friction reduction
Engine speed (x1000 rpm)

Friction loss reduction by new lighter valve train system,
JSAE Review 18 (1977), Fukuoka, Hara, Mori, and Ohtsubo
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.
Piston ring pack
Hydrodynamic
lubrication of the
piston ring
Friction force and associated power loss
Force (N)
150
100
50
Power (N-m/s)
0
800
Intake
Compression
Expansion
Exhaust
600
400
200
0
TDC
BDC
TDC
BDC
TDC
Crank Angle
Major-Thrust Side
Minor-Thrust Side
Piston slap
15 BTDC
TDC
5 ATDC
Piston motion near TDC firing with piston-pin offset toward

major-thrust side.
Bore distortion
Cylinder Distortion
th
nd
nd
rd
4 Order 2 Order 2 Order 3 Order
2nd Order
Top deck of hypothetical engine.

3rd Order
4th Order
Three orders of bore distortion.

Lubricants
Viscosity is a strong function of temperature
Multi-grade oils (introduced in the 1950s)

Temperature sensitive polymers to stabilize
viscosity at high temperatures
Cold: polymers coiled and inactive
Hot: polymers uncoiled and tangle-up:
suppress high temperature thinning
Stress sensitivity: viscosity is a function of

strain rate
Viscosity
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Linna, Jan-Roger, et al. "Contribution of Oil Layer Mechanism to the
Hydrocarbon Emissions from Spark-ignition Engines." SAE Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 106 (October 1997): 972892.
Modeling of engine friction
Overall engine friction model:

tfmep (bar) = fn (rpm, Vd, , B, S, .)
See text, ch. 13, ref.6; SAE 900223, )
Detailed model
tfmep = ( fmep )components

With detailed modeling of component friction as a function of rpm, load,
FMEP distribution
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: Patton, Kenneth J., et al. "Development and Evaluation of a Friction
Model for Spark-ignition Engines." SAE Journal of Engines 98 (February 1989): 890836.
Distribution of FMEP for a 2.0L I-4 engine; B/S = 1.0, SOHC-rocker arm, flat
follower, 9.0 compression ratio
C = crankshaft and seals
R = reciprocating components
V = valve train components
A = Auxiliary components
P = Pumping loss
MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu

Spring 2008
Engine Turbo/Super Charging
Super and Turbo-charging
Why super/ turbo-charging?

Fuel burned per cycle in an IC engine is air limited
(F/A)stoich = 1/14.6
Torq =
f m f QHV
2nR
Power = Torq 2N
m f = F V a,0 VD
A
( )
f,v fuel conversion and volumetric

efficiencies
mf fuel mass per cycle
QHV fuel heating value
nR 1 for 2-stroke, 2 for 4-stroke engine
N revolution per second
VD engine displacement
a,0 air density
Super/turbo-charging: increase air density
Super- and Turbo- Charging
Purpose: To increase the charge density

Supercharge: compressor powered by engine output
No turbo-lag
Does not impact exhaust treatment
Fuel consumption penalty
Turbo-charge: compressor powered by exhaust turbine
Uses wasted exhaust energy

Turbo- lag problem
Affects exhaust treatment
Intercooler
Increase charge density (hence output power) by cooling the
charge
Lowers NOx emissions
Charge-air pressure regulation with

wastegate on exhaust gas end. 1.Engine,
2. Exhaust-gas turbochager, 3. Wastegate
Exhaust-gas turbocharger for trucks

1.Compressor housing, 2. Compressor
impeller, 3. Turbine housing, 4. Rotor, 5.
Bearing housing, 6. inflowing exhaust gas, 7.
Out-flowing exhaust gas, 8. Atmospheric fresh
air, 9. Pre-compressed fresh air, 10. Oil inlet,
11. Oil return
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see illustrations of "Charge-air Pressure Regulation with Wastegate on Exhaust
Gas End", and "Exhaust-gas Turbocharger for Trucks." In the Bosch Automotive Handbook. London, England: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
From Bosch Automotive Handbook
Compressor: basic thermodynamics
Compressor efficiency c

W
ideal
c =

W

W

m
actual
T
2

c p T1
Wideal = m
1
T1
T
P2
Ideal
process
2
T2 P2
=
T1 P1
P1
Actual
process
P
1
2

c p T1
W
m
1
actual =
c
P1

W
T2 = T1 + actual
cp
m
Turbine: basic thermodynamics
Turbine efficiency t

W
t = actual

W

W
3
ideal
T
1 4

W
=
m
c
T
ideal
p 3
T3

m
T
P3
1
P4

T4
=
T3 P3
Ideal
process
P4
4
4
Actual
process
P

c p T3 1 4
Wactual = t m
P3

W
T4 = T3 actual
cp
m
Properties of Turbochargers
Power transfer between fluid and shaft RPM3
Typically operate at ~ 60K to 120K RPM
RPM limited by centrifugal stress: usually tip

velocity is approximately sonic
Flow devices, sensitive to boundary layer (BL)
behavior
Compressor: BL under unfavorable gradient
Turbine: BL under favorable gradient
Typical super/turbo-charged engine parameters
Peak compressor pressure ratio 3.5
BMEP up to 22 bar
Limits:
compressor aerodynamics
cylinder peak pressure
NOx emissions
Compressor/Turbine Characteristics
Delivered pressure P2
,RT ,P ,N,D,, , geometric ratios)
P2 = f(m
1 1
Dimensional analysis:
7 dimensional variables (7-3) = 4 dimensionless parameters
(plus and geometric ratios)

P2
N
m
= f(
,
,Re, , geometric ratios)
RT1 / D P1
P1
RT1D 2
RT1
Velocity
Density
Velocity
High Re number flow weak Re dependence

For fixed geometry machinery and gas properties
T1
P2 N m
= f
,
P1
P1
T1
Compressor Map
3.4
7250
3.2
6960
3.0
72%
70%
2.6
2.0
65%
60%
it
2.4
2.2
6530
74%
Su
rg
el
im
Pressure ratio
2.8
75%
6070
1.8
5550
1.6
4840
1.4
4025 N/ T1
1.2
1.0
2650
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
.
"Corrected" Flow rate m T1/P1
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Haddad, Sam David, and Watson, N. Principles and Performance in Diesel Engineering.
Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood, 1984.
T1= inlet temperature (K); P1= inlet pressure (bar); N = rev. per min.; m = mass flow rate (kg/s)
(From Principles and Performance in Diesel Engineering, Ed. by Haddad and Watson)
Compressor stall and surge
Stall
Happens when incident flow angle is too large
(large V/Vx)
Stall causes flow blockage
Surge
Flow inertia/resistance, and compression system
internal volume comprise a LRC resonance system
Oscillatory flow behave when flow blockage occurs
because of compressor stall
reverse flow and violent flow rate surges
Turbine Map
2.8
2.6
tTS = .70
2.4
2.0
1.8
.65
Pressure ratio
2.2
1.6
.6
0
4000
3000
2500
.40
1.2
1.0
3500
5
N
T03
1500
500
0.5
1.0
.5
1.4
.50
1.5
2.0
.
Flow rate m T03/P03
2.5
3.0
T03=Turbine inlet temperature(K); P03 = Turbine inlet pressure(bar); P4= Turbine outlet
pressure(bar); N = rev. per min.; m = mass flow rate (kg/s)
(From Principles and Performance in Diesel Engineering, Ed. by Haddad and
Watson)
Compressor Turbine Matching Exercise
For simplicity, take away

intercooler and wastegate
Given engine brake power
) and RPM,
output (W
E
compressor map, turbine map,
and engine map
Find operating point, i.e. air
flow ( m a ), fuel flow rate ( m f )
turbo-shaft revolution per
second (N), compressor and
turbine pressure ratios (c and
t) etc.
4
T
m f
3
Engine

W
E

Q
L
Compressor/
turbine/engine matching
solution
Procedure :
1. Guess c ; can get engine inlet conditions :
1
T1
P2 = c P1
T2 =
1
(c )
c
2. Then engine volumetric efficiency calibration

a that can be ' swallowed'
will give the air flow m
Compressor
3.4
7250
3.2
6960
3.0
72%
70%
2.6
6530
74%
2.4
it
65%
60%
rg
e
lim
2.2
2.0
75%
Su
Pressure ratio
2.8
a and c , the compressor speed N can be

3. From m
6070
1.8
5550
1.6
obtained from the compressor map

f may be obtained from the
4. The fuel flow rate m
4840
1.4
4025 N/ T1
1.2
1.0
2650
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
.
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Haddad, Sam David, and Watson, N. Principles
and Performance in Diesel Engineering. Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood, 1984.
2.8
2.6
2.4
tTS = .70
6. Guess t , then get turbine speed Nt from turbine map

7. Determine turbine power from turbine efficiency on map
= 1 1
W
t
t
2.0
.65
1.8
4000
.60
1.0
3000
1500
500
0.5
1.0
=W
and N = N
8.Iterate on the values of c and t until W
t
c
t
c
3500
2500
1.2
.5
5
N
T03
.4 0
Pressure ratio
2.2
1.4
5. Engine exhaust temperature T3 may be obtained from

energy balance (with known engine mech. eff. M )

a +m
f )c p T3 = m
a c p T2 + m
f LHV WE Q
(m
L
M
Turbine
1.6
engine map :
=m
,A/F)
f LHV f (RPM,W
W
E
E
.50
1.5
2.0
.
Flow rate m T03/P03
2.5
3.0
Compressor/ Engine/ Turbine Matching
0.65
3.0
0.67
2.5
0.60
0.70
0.55
ns
ad
Co
nst
ant
Co
t lo
tan
sp e
ed
it
el
im
2.0
Su
rg
Pp/P1
0.72
Mass flows through compressor, engine,

turbine and wastegate have to be
consistent
Turbine inlet temperature consistent with
fuel flow and engine power output
Turbine supplies compressor work
Turbine and compressor at same speed
1.5
C
1.0
m T1
p1
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Haddad, Sam David,
and Watson, N. Principles and Performance in Diesel Engineering.
Compressor characteristics, with airflow

requirements of a four-stroke truck engine
superimposed.
(From Principles and Performance in Diesel
Engineering, Ed. by Haddad and Watson)
Inter-
Cooler
Wastegate
Engine
Advanced turbocharger development
Electric assisted
turbo-charging
Concept
Put motor/ generator on
turbo-charger
reduce wastegate function
Benefit
InterCooler
increase air flow at low
engine speed
auxiliary electrical output
at part load
Motor/
Generator
Wastegate
Engine
Battery
Electrical turbo-charger
Battery
Concept
turbine drives generator;
compressor driven by motor
Benefit
decoupling of turbine and
compressor map, hence much more
freedom in performance optimization
Auxiliary power output
do not need wastegate; no turbo-lag
Motor
InterCooler
Engine
Generator
Challenges
Interaction of turbo-charging system with
exhaust treatment and emissions
Especially severe in light-duty diesel market
because of low exhaust temperature
Cost
MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu

Spring 2008
Assessment of Future Automotive Power Plant Technology
Fuel and engine alternatives
Prof. Wai K. Cheng

Sloan Automotive Lab
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Transportation/Mobility
Transportation/mobility is a vital to
modern economy
Transport of People
Transport of goods and produce
People get accustomed to the ability to
travel
Transportation takes energy
Quadrillion (1015) BthU
US use of energy per year by sectors
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1970
Total
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
Transportation
1980
1990
Year
2000
2010
Source: US Dept. of Energy
Transportation needs special kind of

energy source
Vehicles need to carry source of energy on
board
Hydrocarbons are unparalleled in terms of
energy density
For example, look at refueling of gasoline
~10 gallon in 2 minutes (~0.25 Kg/sec)
Corresponding energy flow

= 0.25 Kg/sec x 44 MJ/Kg
= 11 Mega Watts
Petroleum !
What is in a barrel of oil ?

(42 gallon oil ~46 gallon products)
Typical US output
Lubricants
0.90%
Other Refined Products
1.50%
Asphalt and Road Oil
1.90%
Liquefied Refinery Gas
2.80%
Residual Fuel Oil
3.30%
Marketable Coke
5.00%
Still Gas
5.40%
Jet Fuel
12.60%
Distillate Fuel Oil
15.30%
Finished Motor Gasoline
51.40%
Source: California Energy Commission, Fuels Office
US Use of Petroleum by sector

Millions of Barrels/day
25
Electric utilities
Commercial
Residential
20
15
Industrial
10
Transportation
5
0
1970
1980
1990
Year
2000
2010
Transportation energy use
Energy use (x1015 BThU)
(does not include military transportation)
30
NonHighway
Heavy
trucks
25
20
15
Light trucks
10
Passenger cars
5
0
1970
1980
1990
Year
2000
2010
2003
Source: US Dept. of Energy, Transportation
Energy Data Book: Edition 26-2007.
Size of the Automotive Industry

Sales (US) ~ 18 millions new vehicles/year
Approximately 72,000 vehicles produced per day
(1.2 seconds / vehicle)
PRODUCT HAS TO BE ECONOMICALLY VIABLE ON ITS OWN
High capital cost in manufacturing

~$3 Billion or more for a new line
NEED HIGH VOLUME TO MAKE MONEY
Petroleum Industry
Very capital intensive
Exploration and production
Refinery
Distribution system
Inertia of the industry
Utilization of capital
Need for capital expense to depreciate
Technology takes time to develop and
implemented
Example: vehicle powertrain
a. Incremental changes: Design needs to be
completed 3-4 years before production
b. Significant changes: Add 5-10 years of
development time to (a)
c. Drastic changes: Add 15 to 20 years to (a)
d. Radical changes: Add ? years to (a)
Market penetration
Technology
penetration
Diesel sales fraction in

Europe 1999-2005. (DI
diesel introduced in
1997; sales fraction
constant at 14% from
1987-1991.) Source:
DOE
(after significant sales)
Source: Heavenrich, LightDuty Automotive Technology

and Fuel Economy Trends,
1975-2005, EPA420-R-05-001
CUSTOMER NEEDS
VEHICLE
Reasonable Cost
Reliability
Comfort
Performance
Aesthetics - Look and Feel
FUEL
Cost
Availability
Ease of refueling
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Air quality
NOx
CO
Ozone
Particulate matters
Toxics
Noise
Green House Effect (CO2, methane)
Kyoto Agreement (USA): 7% reduction of CO2 from
1990 level
Congestion
FUELS
Reformulated Gasoline
Methanol
Ethanol and other bio-fuels
Hydrogen
Transportation Fuels
Fuels
Density
LHV/mass*
LHV/Vol.**
Gasoline
Diesel
(Kg/m3)
750
810
(MJ/Kg)
44
42
(MJ/m3)
3.3x104
3.4x104
Natural Gas
@1 bar
@100 bar
LNG (180K, 30bar)
0.72
71
270
45
3.2x101(x)
3.2x103
1.22x104
3.25
Methanol
Ethanol
792
785
20
26.9
1.58x104
2.11x104
3.19
3.29
Hydrogen
@1bar
@100 bar
Liquid (20K, 5 bar)
0.082
8.2
71
120
0.984x101(x)
0.984x103
8.52x103
2.86
*Determines fuel mass to carry on vehicle

**Determines size of fuel tank
***Determines size of engine
LHV/Vol. of Stoi.Mixture
@1 atm, 300K***
(MJ/m3)
3.48
3.37
Relative CO2 production from different

fuel molecules
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Amann,

Charles A. The Passenger Car and The Greenhouse Effect.
SAE Journal of Passenger Cars 99 (October 1990): 902099.
C. Amann, SAE Paper 9092099
REFORMULATED FUELS
Modify fuel properties to improve air

quality (does not significantly impact
CO2 emissions)
Introduce oxygenates (MTBE, ethanol,
etc.) in gasoline to lower CO and HC
emissions (US: 2% oxygenate
required)
Lower sulfur content
improve catalyst performance in
gasoline vehicles
lowers sulfate emissions in diesels
Lower aromatic content to reduce toxic
emissions
Lower Reid vapor pressure in gasoline
to reduce diurnal emissions
25
Improvement in CO emission (%)
20
15
10
5
1.1
COMPATIBLE WITH
CURRENT ENGINES IN
EXISTING FLEET
Gasoline with 11% MTBE
1.2
1.3
1.4
Note: for modern engine with feedback,

oxygenate effect on emissions is minimal
1.5
ALTERNATIVE FUEL: METHANOL
GOOD COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS

High octane number (ON=99)
Cleaner exhaust: Lower CO and HC emissions
PROBLEMS
Smaller heating value (~1/2 of that of gasoline)
toxic and corrosive
Difficulty in cold-start
PRODUCTION - From natural gas and coal
Not efficient use of original fossil fuel: methanol is essentially a
partially oxidized product
OUTLOOK
Not an attractive intermediate alternatives because:
needs expensive retrofit of existing engine
Not good long term prospect; not efficient use of energy source
ALTERNATIVE FUEL: ETHANOL
GOOD COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS

High octane number (ON=107)
Cleaner exhaust: Lower CO for older vehicles
PROBLEMS
Smaller heating value (61% of that of gasoline)

Water absorption/corrosion/volatility problem
Need special hardware
Difficulty in cold-start
PRODUCTION
Mostly from starch crops (corn, barley, wheat etc.) by fermenting
and distilling
Cellulosic ethanol (from tree, grass, etc.)
E85 (85 liq. vol. % ethanol) is used as a practical fuel

Needs flexible fuel vehicle for practical operation because
of uncertainty in fuel supply
ALTERNATIVE FUEL:
ETHANOL, bio-fuel for the future?

Fresh whole milk retail price (up to May, 08)
4
3.8
Annual average or averaged
up to current month
$ per gallon
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
2.8
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
2.2
2
1995
2.6
2.4
400
350
300
U.S. All Grades Conventional Retail

Gasoline Prices (Cents per Gallon)
)
250
200
150
100
May 08 spot price: $2.50/gal
Retail price: $3.80/gal
50
Jan 08
Jan 07
Jan 06
Jan 05
Jan 04
Jan 03
Jan 02
Jan 01
Jan 00
Jan 99
Jan 98
Jan 97
Jan 95
0
Jan 96
Spot price 5/12/08:

$ 2.50/gal
Cents per gal
Millions of barrels
Annual fuel ethanol production

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Source: California Energy Commission, 2006
Bio-Fuel for the future?

Current US demand for ethanol is driven by
government regulations and incentives
Ethanol flex-fuel vehicles produced because of the 74%
credit towards CAFE requirement
(E85 vehicle equivalent mph = mpg x 1.74)

Gasoline oxygenate mandate, and phase out of MTBE
Energy bill (Aug. 05) mandated a threshold of 7.5 billion
gallons (180 million barrels) production by 2012
Tax subsidy
blenders tax credit $0.51/gallon alcohol
$0.051/gallon fuel tax exemption for gasohol
minimum 10 vol % alcohol
Is corn-based ethanol the bio-fuel of the future?

Substantial increase in US food price
Bio-Fuel for the future?

Ethanol from corn
Several studies of the overall energy budget
P = energy used in production
feedstock production/ transport + processing
E = Energy of the ethanol output

Return (%) = (E P) / E
Studies
Verdict:
Substantial
environmental
and economic
cost; return not
clear
Pimentel and Patzek (2003, 2005): negative return

Return = - 29%
USDA (Shapouri et al 2002, 2004): positive return

Return* = +5.6%
Return* = +40% if by products (Corn gluten meal, etc.)
are accounted for
* For comparison purpose, these figures were converted from the

values of (E-P)/P of +5.9% and +67% in the original publication
Other bio-fuels
Pimentel and Patzek also estimated energy
budget for other bio-fuels. Returns:
Ethanol from switchgrass = -50%
Ethanol from wood biomass = -57%
Bio-diesel from soybean = -27%
Bio-diesel from sunflower = -118%
Outlook: NOT CLEAR
New technology needed to change the
picture
ALTERNATIVE FUEL: HYDROGEN
Excellent fuel for combustion engines or fuel cells

No green house gas emissions/ hydrocarbon emissions
Strictly, hydrogen is not a fuel, but an energy storage medium
Not an efficient use of the original energy source
Efficiency loss in generating and in using the hydrogen
PROBLEMS
Storage (cryogenic, high pressure cylinders, metal hydride matrix) Bulky and expensive
At 200 bar storage pressure, pumping loss is 13% of LHV
Infra-structure for fuel supply
Safety
OUTLOOK: not attractive
On-board hydrogen storage: not a desirable option
Hydrogen from fuel reforming
Complex process with efficiency loss
Does not alleviate green house gas
ENGINES
Spark Ignition Engines
Good fuel efficiency, reasonable cost
Improving emissions characteristics
Diesel Engines
Better fuel economy
higher cost
NOx / particulate emissions
Electric/ Hybrid/ Plug-in-hybrid Vehicles
Fuel Cell
Hybrid vehicles
Configuration:
IC Engine + Generator + Battery + Electric Motor
Concept
Eliminates external charging
As load leveler
Improved overall efficiency
Regeneration ability
Plug-in hybrids: use external electricity supply
Hybrid Vehicles
Series Hybrid
ENGINE
GENERATOR
BATTERY
MOTOR
DRIVETRAIN
Parallel Hybrid
ENGINE
GENERATOR
BATTERY
MOTOR
DRIVETRAIN
Examples: Toyota Prius (full hybrid); Honda Insight (electric assist)
Hybrid Vehicles: Market

On the market since 1997 (Japan)
Currently available in US:
Toyota Prius (~$20K)
Honda Insight, Civic Hybrid (~$19-20K)
Ford Escape ($27K)
Note:
No. of EV sold world wide since their introduction 30
years ago is < 30,000 units, and has flattened out
No. of Prius sold in three years(1997-2000)
34,000 units
Toyota Hybrid sale (2004) 130,000 units
(source: Toyota)
Toyota Prius
Honda Insight
Photos removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see any

promotional photos of the Toyota Prius and the Honda Insight.
66/43 mpg on
Japan/US driving cycle
80/60 mpg on
Japan/US driving cycle
ELECTRIC HYBRID VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY

Toyota Prius
Engine: 1.5 L, Variable Valve Timing, Miller Cycle (13.5
expansion ratio), Continuously Variable Transmission
58 HP at 4000 rpm
Motor - 40 HP
Battery - Nickel-Metal Hydride, 288V
Fuel efficiency:
66 mpg (Japanese cycle)
43 mpg (EPA city driving cycle)
41 mpg (EPA highway driving cycle)
Efficiency improvement (in Japanese cycle) attributed to:

50% load distribution; 25% regeneration; 25% stop and go
Cost: ~$20K (subsidized)
Cost factor
If
$ is price premium for hybrid vehicle

P is price of gasoline (per gallon)
is fractional improvement in mpg
Then mileage (M) to be driven to break even is
$ x mpg
M=
Px
(assume that interest rate is zero)
Cost Factor
Example:
Honda Civic and Civic-Hybrid
Price premium ($, MY08 listed)
mpg (city and highway av.)
hybrid improvement in mpg(%)
= $7155 ($22600-15445)
= 29 mpg (42 for hybrid)
= 45%
At gasoline price of $4.00 per gallon, mileage (M) driven

to break even is
$7155 x 29
= 115,000 miles
M=
$4 x 45%
(excluding interest cost)
Barrier to Hybrid Vehicles

Cost factor
difficult to justify especially for the small,
already fuel efficient vehicles
Battery replacement (not included in the previous
breakeven analysis)
California ZEV mandate, battery packs

must be warranted for 15 years or 150,000
miles : a technical challenge
Hybrid Vehicle Outlook

Hybrid configuration will capture a fraction of the
passenger market, especially when there is significant
fuel price increase
Competition
Customers downsize their cars
Small diesel vehicles
Plug-in hybrids?
Weight penalty (battery + motor + engine)
No substantial advantage for overall CO2 emissions
Limited battery life
400
300
200
100
% of new light duty vehicle sale
Sales (thousands)
Sales figure for hybrid vehicles
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
What is a fuel cell?
2H2
4e-
excess
H2
4H+
4e-
Porous Cathode
Fuel
Electrolyte
2H2 + O2 2H2O
Potentially much
higher efficiency
than IC engines
Porous Anode
Direct conversion
of fuel/oxidant to
electricity
H2 - O2 system
O2
O2
2H2O
H2O +
excess
O2
History of Fuel Cell

Sir William Grove demonstrated the first fuel cell in
1839 (H2 O2 system)
Substantial activities in the late 1800s and early 1900s
Theoretically basis established
Nerst, Haber, Ostwald and others
Development of Ion Exchange Membrane for application

in the Gemini spacecraft in the 1950/1960
W.T. Grubb (US Patent 2,913,511, 1959)
Development of fuel cell for automotive use (1960s to

present)
The Grove Cell (1839)

Important insights to
fuel cell operation
H2-O2 system (the most
efficient and the only
practical system so far)
Platinum electrodes (role
of catalyst)
recognize the importance
of the coexistence of
reactants, electrodes and
electrolyte
W.R.Grove, On Gaseous Voltaic Battery, Pil. Mag., 21,3,1842
As appeared in Liebhafsky and Cairns, Fuel Cells and Fuel Batteries, Wiley, 1968
Types of fuel cell

Classification by fuel
Direct conversion
Hydrogen/air (pre-dominant)
Methanol/air (under development; electrode
poisoning problem)
Indirect conversion
reform hydrocarbon fuels to hydrogen first
Classification by charge carrier in electrolyte

H+, O2- (important difference in terms of product
disposal)
Types of fuel cell (cont.)

By electrolyte
Solid oxides: ~1000oC
Carbonates: ~600oC
H3PO4: ~200oC
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM): ~80oC
Automotive application
Modern PEM fuel cell stack
Diagram of a PEM fuel cell stack removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see http://www.technopr.com/download/Figure1-FuelCellConstruction.jpg
(From 3M web site)
Voltage(V); Power density(W/cm2);Efficiency
Current PEM H2/O2 Fuel Cell Performance

1
Output Voltage
0.8
0.6
Efficiency
Note: Efficiency
does not include
power required
to run supporting
system
0.4
Power density
0.2
0
Output voltage with CO poisoning
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Current density (A/cm2)
1.2
1.4
The Hydrogen problem:

Fundamentally H2 is the only feasible fuel for fuel
cell in the foreseeable future
Strictly, hydrogen is not a fuel, but an energy

storage medium
Difficulty in hydrogen storage
Difficulty in hydrogen supply infra structure
Hydrogen from fossil fuel is NOT an efficient
energy option
Environmental resistance for nuclear and
hydroelectric options
The hydrogen problem:

H2 from reforming petroleum fuel
Air
Hydrocarbon
Catalyst
Air
Note:
H2
CO
Catalyst
Fuel Cell
H2
CO2
Electricity
N2,CO2
H2O
HC to H2/CO process is exothermic;

energy loss ~20% and needs to cool stream
(Methanol reforming process is energy neutral, but
energy loss is similar when it is made from fossil fuel)
Current best reformer efficiency is ~70%

Problems:
CO poisoning of anode
Sulfur poisoning
Anode poisoning requires S<1ppm
Reformer catalyst poisoning requires S<50ppb
Fuel cell powerplant with fuel reforming
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see photos

of the Chevrolet S-10 Gen III gasoline fuel cell vehicle, such as
http://www.pickuptrucks.com/html/news/fuelcells10.html
Practical Problems
Start up/shut down
Load Control
Ambient temperature
Durability
GM (May, 2002) Chevrolet S-10 fuel cell

demonstration vehicle powered by
onboard reformer
Fuel cell as automotive powerplant
30g for a 60kW stack (2007

price ~$1300)
(automotive catalyst has ~23g)
System efficiency (with

reformer) 30%
$600/kW (compared to
passenger car at $10/kW)
2500
Price of platinum $
2000
1500
1000
500
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
Current (2006) Fuel cell

characteristics
1A/cm2, 0.5-0.7 V operating
voltage
0.5-0.7 W/cm2 power density
stack power density 0.7 kW/L
Platinum loading ~0.3 mg/cm2
$ / troy ounce
Future of Petroleum fueled fuel cell

Is the emperor
wearing any
clothes?
Not an attractive option:

Cost
Fuel utilization
Fuel cell is NOT the
technological solution
Courtesy Open Clip Art Library, http://openclipart.org
US vehicles fuel economy
World Oil Production
35
Miles per gallon
Million Barrels/day
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
25 CAF
std
1.0
20
0.6
0.8
0.4
15
50
Light truck fraction 0.2
45
40
1970
1980
1990
Year
2000
2010
10
1970
1980
1990
Year
2000
0.0
2010
(Cafe target: 35 mpg average by 2020)
Truck fraction
MPG cars
combined
30 light trucks
90
Progress in gas mileage !
Image and text removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see

"Numbers" in Time Magazine, June 16, 2003.
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1005048,00.html
From Time Magazine, June 2003
TRANSPORTATION EFFICIENCY
" Useful people mile"
Transportation Efficiency =
Fuel energy
=
"Useful people mile" People mile Vehicle mile Road work

x
x
x
People mile
Vehicle mile Road work Fuel energy
Personal efficiency
Route, traffic pattern

Vehicle weight/speed
Vehicle utilization
efficiency
Engineering
Options?
Alternative Fuels and Power Plants ?
Alternative Life Styles ?
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Spring 2008
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical Engineering
2.615 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Homework Set #1
Due:
2/14/08
The purpose of this set of homework is to give you a feel for the design values of practical engines. Not all the
relevant numbers are given in the problem statement. Make reasonable estimates and engineering judgments of the
unknown parameters.
You have to calculate a lot of numbers. Use Matlab or Spreadsheet to do the calculations.
Problems:
1.2 Draw a free body diagram of the piston. Also calculate the magnitude of the gas loading force and
the side thrust force due to the connecting rod at = 45o for the following:
(a) A SI engine with an 85 mm bore at a cylinder pressure of 20 bar (at = 45o).
(b) A turbo-charged CI engine with a 150 mm bore at a cylinder pressure of 100 bar (at = 45o).
(You may also want to express the results also in lb-force or kg-force to appreciate the magnitude.)
2.5 Note the relative magnitude of the different terms in the road power requirement. Also estimate the
force for accelerating the vehicle from 40 to 60 mph in 5 seconds.
2.8
2.11
2.13 See Figure 1-8 for timing information. (Note that the pressure values in that figure are for part-load
and not for WOT operation. We are, however, only interested in the timing of the various processes;
so the information is still useful.)
Exercise that you do to enrich yourselves but you do not have to hand in anything:
Go to the 2.61 web site and under good_stuff, look at the engine performance specifications spread
sheet. Explore the spread sheet by sorting the data according to years, BMEP, peak power density, etc.
Note some of the outliers, e.g. the Honda Formula One race engine. Get a feel for the peak power density
and the max BMEP of the typical engines. (There are separate sheets for SI and light duty Diesel
engines.)
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Spring 2008
Homework Set #2
Due:
2/26/08
Problems:
5.3 Assume that cV=900 J/kg. Also calculate the ratio of the imep of the turbo-charged engine to that of
the naturally aspirated engine. (This is a rather long problem, but straight forward. It is a good
exercise in doing cycle analysis.)
3.1 Also calculate the power output, assume fuel conversion efficiency is 0.3.
3.3 Exercise in exhaust gas analysis.
3.13 This problem gives you some feel for what comes out in the exhaust pipe. T
he reason for doing the
dry versus wet analysis is because water vapor is usually removed from the exhaust gas before
the CO and CO2 measurements (to prevent condensation on the instruments). Use Matlab or a
spread sheet to calculate the numbers.
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Spring 2008
Homework Set #3
Due: 3/4/08.
Problems:
1)
The NOX emission from automobiles is a mixture of NO and NO2. At high temperatures, the mixture is
mostly NO, and at low temperatures, mostly NO2. Consider a mixture with elemental composition of 1
mole of nitrogen atom and 2 moles of oxygen atoms at a fixed pressure of 1 atmosphere. Plot the
equilibrium mole fraction of NO as a function of temperature in the 600 to 1000 K range. (The actual
exhaust gas is not in equilibrium; therefore, the equilibrium value of NO is a lower bound.) Note that at
equilibrium above 1000 K, most of the gas is NO.
The equilibrium constants from the JANAF table are:
T(K)
Log10Kp for NO
600
-7.210
700
-6.086
800
-5.243
900
-4.587
1000
-4.062
2)
Log10Kp for NO2

-6.111
-5.714
-5.417
-5.185
-5.000
Problem 3.8 of text

(In part (c), the equilibrium constant should be 1010.2 instead of 10.2. Also, assume that there is no
dissociation of the N2 and H2O.)
3)
Problem 4.1 of text

Calculation of exhaust composition under fuel rich condition is a tedious exercise which is usually
computerized. You can use the exhaust composition program on the web (under good stuff). Look at
the source listing to see what is involved. If you want to, you can set K=3.5 instead of 3.7; it does not
make that much difference. You can also do it using the information on p. 104-105 of the text, especially
table 4-3. Then you have to solve the quadratic equation 4.6 yourselves the Matlab program on the
web, exhaust_compo, essentially does that.)
4)
Problem 4.9 of text
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Spring 2008

Homework Set #4
Due: 3/11/08
Problems:
1) Problem 6.1 of text book. Think about under the same engine speed and BMEP, why would the inlet
manifold pressure and thus the Pumping MEP be different for the two fuels.
2) This problem is an exercise to get an idea of the flame propagation environment under typical engine
condition. In the problem set directory, the simulation results for operating an engine under vehicle cruise
condition (see engine specification below) are tabulated in the ascii file si_sim.oum. The columns are
explained in the matlab m-file si_sim.m and also documented below. (If you are using matlab, executing
the m-file si_sim.m will automatically load the data file into the various variables; if you want to use Excel,
you can import the file into a spread sheet.)
Engine specification:
1500 rpm; intake pressure=38 kpa; =1; ignition at 30o BTC

Bore = 86 mm; stroke = 86 mm; con-rod to bore ratio = 1.58
Clearance vol.=58.77 cc.
Plot the following quantities as a function of the mass burned fraction. Use Eq. 9.36 for the laminar flame
speed calculation. The residual gas mole fraction is 20%. After the plots (by the computer), take a look at
the values to appreciate the magnitude of the various quantities. (Good engineers/scientists should always
know the numbers for the phenomena they are working on.)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
The unburned and burned gas temperatures

The pressure
The laminar flame speed
The laminar flame expansion velocity
The mass fraction burn rate d(xb)/d
The volume of burned gas as a fraction of the charge volume
Assuming that the engine has a flat head and a flat piston, and assuming that the burned gas occupies a
cylindrical volume of radius R and a height equals to the combustion chamber height, plot the ratio of 2R/B
where B is the bore. (In reality, the flame ball is more likely to be roughly hemispherical at first until it
touches the piston; then it will transition into a cylindrical geometry.)
3) Problem 9.4 of text book. The problem illustrates the effects of spark plug location and combustion
chamber shape on burn rate.
_________________________________________________________________
For Problem 2, the columns of data in the file si_sim are:
theta=si_sim(:,1);
p
=si_sim(:,2);
tu
=si_sim(:,3);
tb
=si_sim(:,4);
m_int=si_sim(:,5);
m_exh=si_sim(:,6);
viv =si_sim(:,7);
vexh =si_sim(:,8);
xb
=si_sim(:,9);
x_net=si_sim(:,10);
qdot_h=si_sim(:,11);
w_pist=si_sim(:,12);
%crankangle
%pressure (bar)
%unburned gas temp (k)
%bunred gas temp (k)
%cumulative mass inducted (g)
%cumulative mass exhausted (g)
%velocity at intake valve (m/s)
%velocity at exhaust valve (m/s)
%mass fraction burned
%net ht rel / (LHV*fuelmass)
%heat transfer (J/deg)
%work transfer to piston (Kj)
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Spring 2008

Homework Set #5
Due:
3/18/08
Problems
1) Many inventors claim that they have invented a high energy spark plug which would substantially
improve combustion and engine efficiency. Typical commercial spark discharge system puts out ~30 mJ
per pulse; because of heat loss to electrodes, only about 10% of this energy gets delivered to the charge.
(For a stoichiometric mixture, only ~0.2 mJ is needed for ignition.) For a high energy spark plug (300 mJ
per pulse ten times the energy delivered by the commercial system), say 30 mJ is delivered to the
charge. To see whether this has substantial effect on the overall combustion behavior, estimate the size
of the flame such that the heat release from the burned gas is equivalent to 30 mJ. (You may assume a
spherical flame ball and determine its radius. The mixture is stoichiometric with 20% residual)
2) One strategy to prevent the engine from knocking is to enrich the mixture to a fuel equivalence ratio of
=1.2. There are two effects: (a) the lowering of the charge temperature by more fuel being evaporated;
(b) the value of for the unburned mixture decreases with . Compared to the case of =1, estimate the
decrease in compression temperature due to the effects of (a) and (b). You may assume a compression
ratio of 9, and = 1.33 and 1.30 for = 1 and 1.2, and make other reasonable assumptions.
3) The large local pressure and temperature rises due the very fast compression ignition of the end gas
(knocking) could cause severe damage to the combustion chamber. To estimate the magnitude of these
quantities, consider the constant volume combustion of a mass element of stoichiometric gasoline
mixture with 10% residual gas at TDC of a naturally aspirated SI engine operating at WOT. The
effective compression ratio is 9 (the effective compression ratio is due to that IVC is not at BDC).
Assume that the density of the trapped charge is 1 kg/m3at IVC, and that the charge may be considered as
an ideal gas with = 1.33.
(a) What is the pressure rise due to the constant volume combustion of the mixture?
(b) If the pressure before knocking is 20 bar, what is the temperature of this burned gas?
(The actual temperature is lower because of dissociation.)
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Spring 2008
Homework Set #6
Due:
4/1/08
Problems:
1) The fuel injector flow rate (mass per unit time) is constant so that the amount of fuel delivered is
controlled by the pulse width. This flow rate is sized by the requirements that at idle, the injector should
meter the fuel accurately (thus the lower the flow rate the better, since the corresponding pulse width will
be longer and the metering error will be less), and at WOT and max engine speed, there is enough fuel
delivered within the time constrain of a cycle.
For a four-cylinder 2L displacement engine, with a max speed of 6500 rpm
(a) Estimate the smallest injector flow rate that will do the job
(b) What is the fuel pulse width at idle? (Idle intake pressure ~0.3 bar.)
2)
Consider the discrete form of the x- model. At cycle i, the following definitions are used:
fi
mass of fuel injected
Mi puddle mass
k
fraction of puddle mass evaporated; can be interpreted as t/ where t is the time per cycle
mi
mass of fuel vapor delivered to cylinder
x
fraction of injected fuel going into puddle
The fuel puddle dynamics may then be described by the finite difference equations
Puddle increment : Mi Mi1 = xfi kMi1

Vapor to cylinder : mi = (1 x)fi + kMi1
(a) if the fuel injection amount is a constant equal to f0, what are the equilibrium values for the puddle
mass M0 and the fuel delivered to the cylinder m0?
(b) If the fuel injection has a step change from f0 to f1, the fuel delivered will not jump to the new
equilibrium value instantaneously. Simulate on the computer the time history of mi and Mi . The
numerical values for a typical 2L, 4-cylinder engine are f0=10 mg, f1=35 mg, k=.05, x=0.7. (You can
also work out the problem analytically.)
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Spring 2008
Homework Set #7
Due:
4/8/08
Problems:
1)
Problem 11.3 of text book. Interpret the HC measurement as hydrocarbon with H/C ratio of 1.85.
2)
Problem 11.9 of text book, but change the dimensions such that the top land height is 6 mm instead of
9.52 mm, and the piston/bore clearance is 0.1 mm instead of 0.3 mm. (The values given in the problem
are for much older cars.)
3) Problem 11.10 of text book. This problem gives you an idea of the time scale for NO formation under
engine combustion condition. For the last part of the problem, see Eq. 4-32 and Fig. 4-17 for gas
properties.
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Spring 2008

Homework Set #8
Due:
5/6/08
Problems:
1)
The following exercise is for you to get a feel for the magnitude of things for a modern turbo-charged
truck diesel engine. The Hino K13C 4-stroke turbo-charged diesel engine has the following specifications:
No. of cylinders
Total displacement
Bore x Stroke
Compression ratio
Rated power
bsfc @ rated power
Injection: common rail; max pressure
Nozzles
Compressor pressure ratio at rated power
Intercooler outlet temperature at rated power
6
12882 cc
135 mm x 150 mm
16.5
294 KW @2000 rpm
200 g/KW-hr
1400 bar
8 per injector @ 200 m diameter each
2.5
120o C
At rated power, the volumetric efficiency is approximately 0.8. The fuel pulse width is 40o crank angle.
Well assume that the injection rate is constant (at the average value) for the following analysis. (The
actual needle lift profile has a triangular shape.)
Compute the following quantities at rated power: (You may assume that the cylinder condition at the time
of injection to be 50 bar and 800K.) Diesel fuel at 120o C (the fuel operating temperature) has s.g. = 0.78
and viscosity = 5x10-4 N-s/m2.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
2)
(a)
(b)
What are the air mass flow rate and the average fuel flow rate for the engine? What is the A/F?
On a per cylinder, per cycle basis, what are the air mass, the fuel mass and fuel volume injected per cycle?
(You should get a mental picture of these quantities.)
What is the average flow velocity through each nozzle hole?
If the nozzle hole has a length to diameter ratio of 10, what is the pressure drop? Is this drop significant?
What is the average discharge coefficient for each nozzle?
If the critical Webber number is 30, what is the average droplet diameter of the diesel spray? (The surface
tension of the diesel fuel at the injection condition is 0.025 N/m.)
If all the drops are of the same size as calculated in (f), how many drops are there? If these drops are to be
distributed uniformly in the cylinder at TDC, what is the average distance between the drops? What is the
implication of these facts on the air/fuel mixing process? (Neither assumption is a good one, but the
estimates give a picture of the difficulty of air utilization.)
The compression ratio of a diesel engine must be high enough for fast auto-ignition. An acceptable
ignition delay is 20o crank angle. Well use the ignition delay equations Eq. (10-37, 38 and 39) to study
this. (Note that there is a typo in Eq. 10-37; see errata sheet on the web.) The inlet pressure and
temperatures are 1 bar and 20oC (253K). The cranking speed is 200 rpm. The fuel has a cetane number
of 45.
For a truck engine with a 135 mm stroke, the polytropic exponent (n) for compression is 1.2. Plot the
ignition delay as a function of compression ratio (CR) in the range of 12 to 25. Determine the minimum
CR required.
For a small passenger car diesel engine with a stroke of 80 mm, because of the higher heat loss, n = 1.12.
Plot the ignition delay on the same graph as in (a) and determine the minimum CR required.
3)
The soot burn-up rate may be obtained by the Nagle and Strickland-Constable formula which is given by
Eq. (11.41),(11-42) and Table 11.10 of the text. The value w in the formula is the surface oxidation rate in
g/cm2-s. Since the data for the correlation were obtained from graphite oxidation experiments, the rate is
the value for carbon. Well assume that the oxidation of soot particle is at the same rate as that of carbon.
Also the density of the soot is assumed to be 2 g/cc.
Do the calculations for the following conditions:
(a) p=100 bar and T = 2500 K
(b) p=70 bar and T = 2000 K
(c) p=30 bar and T = 1400 K
The three conditions represent roughly at the peak pressure point, at the end of combustion, and late in the
expansion process.
(i)
To show that mass transport is not the limiting process for oxidation of small particles, calculate the
transport time ( = d2/D) for particle diameter d of 10, 100 and 1000 nm. The mass diffusivity D is:
p
T
D(m 2 / s) = 1.8x10 5 ( 0 )( )1.81 where p 0 = 1bar and T0 = 300K
p T0
(ii)
Calculate the time to oxidize particle of diameter 100 nm for oxygen mole fractions of 0.1%, 1% and 10%.
Note that to have fast oxidation, sufficient oxygen has to be available at high temperatures.
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Spring 2008

Homework Set #9
Due: 5/13/08
Problems:
1.
The purpose of this problem is to let you have a feel for the magnitudes of the heat load under typical engine
condition. Use the spark ignition engine data from HW4 (on the web) for your calculation; assume that the
volumetric efficiency based on intake condition is 0.7. The overall heat transfer correlation is given by
= hA(T T )
Q
g
w
where A is the surface area (estimated by assuming a flat piston and a flat head), and h is calculated from the
Nusselt correlation
Nu = 0.35Re 0.8 Pr 0.4
The Reynolds number is based on the mean piston speed and bore diameter. The Prandtl number is 0.8. Note
that the heat transfer correlation used in the problem is based on the average gas temperature, which can be
estimated from the burned and unburned gas temperatures. To simplify the problem, you may use constant
values for the gas properties:
Specific heats cp,unburned =1.2 kJ/kg; cp,burned = 1.5 kJ/kg.
Viscosity = 7x10-5 kg/m-s
Thermal conductivity k = 0.15 W/m-K
Average molecular weight = 29
The average wall temperature is 400K.

and the cumulative heat transfer Q as a
Plot as a function of the crank angle, the values of: A, h, Tg - Tw , Q
function of crank angle from when the intake valve closes to when the exhaust valve opens. (In the data file,
TDC compression is 360o; IVC at 234o; EVO at 483o.)

Note that the Q you calculated is the overall heat transfer based on the average gas temperature. There is a Q
listed in the data file; that value is based on the heat transfer from the burned gas through the wetted area
the burned gas covers. You should compare the two values. You should also note that the Q values you
calculated are based on time and those listed in the file are crank angle based so that conversion is needed
before you can compare them.
2. The lubrication film under the top piston ring will break though somewhere near the end strokes where the the
piston velocity is low. The resulting boundary lubrication manifests as liner wear, of which the wear pattern can
be seen when the engine is disassembled. The wear near TDC is more severe than that near BDC because the ring
pressure is higher. This phenomenon could be interpreted by the Stribeck diagram (see Fig. 13-3). For the piston
ring, the non-dimensional Sommerfeld number S (which is graphed as the x-axis of the Stribeck diagram):
S=
U()
aP()
where is the lubricant viscosity, a is the piston ring thickness, and U() and P() are the instantaneous piston
speed and cylinder pressure at crank angle . Film break through occurs when S is less than a critical value Scritical.
For the pressure data of HW4, plot S as a function of for a = 1 mm; = 0.01 Kg/m-s. If Scritical = 1, where are
the transition points (in terms of CA) near TDC in the compression and expansion strokes under the following
conditions
(a)
(b)
(c)
Under the operating condition of the data file.

When the speed is increased from 1500 rpm to 4500 rpm at the same load
When the load is increased by a factor of 2.
In these calculation, the shape of P() may be considered the same; thus for part (c), the pressure curve will be
scaled by a factor of 2.
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Spring 2008
2.615 Internal Combustion Engine

Final Examination - Spring, 2008
Open book, 3 hour Exam
Problem 1 (20 points)
(i)
At engine operating temperature, automotive lubricants comprise long chain hydrocarbon molecules
which are normally tangled up, but align themselves at high shear rates. Thus the viscosity
decreases as the shear rate increases (shear- thinning). Explain why would this property help or hurt
engine lubrication. (2 points)
(ii) Experimentally, the frictional mean effective pressure (fmep) needed to overcome the valve train
friction decreases with engine speed; e.g., see Fig. 13-24 of text. Explain this trend. (2 points)
(iii) Synthetic diesel fuel (e.g. made by the Fischer Tropsch process which was invented in war time
Germany to derive liquid fuel from coal and wood) has a very high cetane number (CN~80
compared to the normal diesel fuel with CN in the high 40s). Give two comments on the impact of
this high CN value on diesel engine design and operation. (2 points)
(iv) An inventor proposed that a turbo-compound diesel engine be which uses an additional power
turbine to extract mechanical energy out of the exhaust gas to the drive shaft. The novelty of the
proposal was that much of the shaft power was to be derived from the power turbine instead of the
engine. Give two comments on whether the concept is good or bad (each comment could either be
positive or negative respectively). (2 points)
(v) Give two reasons why retarding the spark timing at constant idle speed at cold start would make the
catalyst to light-off faster. (2 points)
(vi) Give two consequences from operating a SI engine on Miller cycle (i.e. with a configuration such
that the compression ratio is less than the expansion ratio. (2 points)
(vii) Give two reasons why for a given maximum power output of a SI engine, turbo-charging would lead
to better fuel economy. (2 points)
(viii) The US Army is interested in developing a diesel engine that does not use liquid coolant. T
he
primary reason for such an engine is the elimination of the radiator which is vulnerable at combat.
Give two detrimental effects to the engine operation if such a configuration is used. (2 points)
(ix) Why would one pursue a cylinder-deactivation strategy, i.e. deactivate some of the cylinders in
certain part of the engine map? (1 point). Do you want to keep the valves open or closed for the
deactivated cylinders and why (1 point).
(x) One way to lower NOx emissions in diesel engines is to add water to the fuel. Since water is not
mixable with diesel fuel, it has to been emulsified by a surfactant. Explain how it works and why
this arrangement is more effective than injecting water in the intake manifold (2 points).

There has been substantial interest in using fuel cells as power sources in automobiles. The only practical reactants
for current fuel cell systems are hydrogen and oxygen. It is difficult to use hydrogen directly in a vehicle because
of the problems of storage and refueling. A proposed concept is to use gasoline as the fuel on-board and make
hydrogen out of it. See press release below.
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Akre, Brian S. "Chrysler Developing Electric Car Using Gasoline to Power Fuel Cell."
Los Angeles Daily News, January 7, 1997.
The method is to partially oxidize the fuel to CO and H2 first. Then the CO is reacted with the H2O (which is one
of the end products in the exhaust) by the Water-Gas shift reaction to form H2 and CO2. The H2 is used in the fuel
cell.
You are to analyze the energetics of the process (i.e., energy balance analysis only; ignoring all the irreversibility
losses). You may represent the gasoline as iso-octane and assume ideal reactions, i.e. the partial oxidation only
forms CO and H2., and that all CO is converted to CO2 and H2 in the Water-Gas shift reaction.
(a) On the basis of the energetics of the reactions, what is the maximum energy conversion efficiency of such a
system?
(b) How would your answer change if the fuel is not iso-octane but ethanol? (What is the major difference?)

To examine the behavior of turbocharging, we shall consider the following example of a four stroke 2.0 L
displacement passenger car diesel engine turbocharged with a single stage centrifugal compressor, and a single
stage turbine. For simplicity, there is no waste-gate and no inter-cooler. You may assume the following:
The ambient conditions are T1=300K and P1=1 bar. The working fluid may be assumed to have constant
properties of = 1.35 and molecular weight of 29.
The turbine and compressor have constant efficiencies: t = 0.85 and c = 0.65. You may also assume that
the Mach no. is small so that the kinetic energy of the fluid is negligible.
The compressor and turbine maps are shown in the accompanied figures. (For this simplified example,
ignore the actual values of the c contours on the compressor map and assume c to be constant.)
The reference conditions of these maps are the same as the ambient conditions: Tref = T1; Pref= P1.
The engine volumetric efficiency based on the intake manifold condition is constant: v = 0.8.
The heating value of the diesel fuel is 43 MJ/kg.
Assume that 30% of the fuel energy is lost as heat transfer in the engine
The engine indicated net fuel conversion efficiency is f = 0.33
We shall look at the engine operating at 3000 rpm with A/F ratio = 22, and compressor pressure ratio (c) of 1.5.
(a) What is the compressor outlet temperatures (T2) at compressor pressure ratios c = 1.5?
(b) What is the engine intake air mass flow rate at this value of c?
(c) What is the compressor speed at this value of c?
(d) Draw on the compressor map the operating point corresponding to your answers of (b).
(e) What is the corresponding turbine inlet temperature?
(f) What is the turbine pressure ratio (t)-1 that is required to power the compressor? (Assume that all mechanical
losses are already incorporated into the definition of the compressor/turbine efficiencies.)
(g) The turbine and compressor run at the same speed. From the turbine map, using the result of (f), determine the
mass flow rate required by the turbine to power the compressor.
(h) Put this point also on the compressor map; i.e. plot the mass flow rate required by the turbine versus the
compressor pressure ratio c. Does this point match up to the point plotted in part (d)?
cc
3.4
7250
6960
3.0
72%
2.8
70%
2.6
2.0
75%
1.6
Ignore 6070
c contours.
Assume
5550 c = 0.65
everywhere
4840
1.4
1.2
1.0
65%
60%
it
2.2
1.8
Simple turbo-charged
diesel engine
6530
74%
2.4
Su
rg
el
im
Pressure ratio
Pressure ratio c
3.2
2650
Compressor
orpressor
ssor
Compressor
4025 N/ssor
T1Map
Map
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
.
corrected
m
Corrected
mass
flowrate
, kg/s
Correctedc
mass
flowrate
m
, kg/s
corrected
orrected
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Adapted from Haddad, Sam David, and Watson,
.
..
N. Principles
and Performance
in Diesel
Engineering
N. Principles
and Performance
in Diesel
Engineering.
-1 -1
((
=P3/P4
=P3/P4
t) t)=P3/P4
ref
Pref=1Pbar
T
ref
re
Tref = 300K
Turbine
Tu
rbineMap
Map
Turbine
N/(T3/Tref)
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Spring 2008

Quiz (1 hour), March 20, 2008
(You may use your text book, your lecture notes, and calculator.)
Problem 1
Spark Ignition engine compression ratio is limited by knocking. A strategy to abate this limitation is to
operate the engine in the Miller cycle. In this arrangement, the intake valve is close late in the compression
process so that the effective compression ratio is smaller than the geometric one. Thus the compressed
temperature is reduced, thereby reducing the knock tendency, while the efficiency, which is mainly governed
by the expansion ratio, is not significantly affected.
In the following ideal cycle calculations, assume that the working fluid has specific heat ratio of 1.33.
(a) Carefully sketch the pressure volume diagram for an ideal Constant Volume combustion cycle under
Wide-Open-Throttle (WOT) condition; then sketch on the same figure, the Miller cycle with the
intake valve closed at 90o crank angle after BDC.
(b) If the geometric compression ratio is 14 and the inlet temperature is 300o K, what are the
corresponding compression temperatures (in the ideal cycle analysis) for the regular cycle and for the
Miller cycle in part (a)?
(c) A draw back for the Miller cycle is that by closing the valve late, less charge is trapped and therefore,
there is a corresponding power loss. Name two strategies that would compensate for this power loss.
(d) For an ideal Constant Volume combustion cycle, what is the fuel conversion efficiency at
compression ratio of 14?
(e) (Do not do this part if you run out of time.) For a Miller cycle with effective compression ratio (r) of
7 and expansion ratio () of 14, if the intake temperature is 300o K and the temperature rise in the
constant volume combustion process is 3000o K, what is the fuel conversion efficiency? Compare
this answer with part (d).
Problem 2
In the drag racing business, it is known that substantial power increase may be obtained by injecting nitrous
oxide (N20) into the intake manifold.
(i) Explain qualitatively the above power increases.
Use isooctane as fuel, we want to compare the power output of the same engine using a stoichiometric
isooctane/ air mixture and a stoichiometric mixture of isooctane and a gas comprising of 70% air and 30%
nitrous oxide by volume. You may assume that the pressure and temperature of the charge at the point of
Intake-Valve-Close are the same, and that all the isooctane has vaporized; neglect any residual gas fraction.
The heat of formation of N20 (hf0) is +82.5KJ/mole; those for other species are listed in Table D2 of text.
(ii)
What is the heating value per unit mass of the stoichiometric iso-octane/ air mixture?
(iii) What is the heating value per unit mass of the stoichiometric iso-octane/ air/ N2O mixture?
(iv) What is the ratio of the power output of this engine operating by using these two different oxidizers?
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2.61 Internal Combustion Engine Laboratory Session

Engine Disassembly
2/07/08 (Thursday)
1:00 3:00 PM
Please report to Vikram Mittal and Thane Dewitte in the Sloan Automotive Lab.
Everybody should wear safety glasses.

_________________________________________________________________________________________
The purpose of this session is to get some hands-on experience on the mechanical aspect of the engine. You should learn
the mechanical construction of the engine, how the different components are arranged, and get a feel for the size and
weight of the components. It is important to know the numbers. Do weigh and measure the components.
There are two engines. Both are Ford 4-cyliner, 16-valve engines for the compact size vehicles. The more modern one has
a plastic intake manifold to reduce cost and NVH (Noise, Vibration and Harshness). The class will be divided into two
groups; each group is responsible to disassemble one engine. However the whole class should participate in the initial
looking at each of the whole engine and the final study of all the parts for both engines.
Before disassembly, take a look at the engines as a whole, note the arrangement of the different components, the gas
exchange circuit: intake, exhaust, EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation), and PCV (Positive Crankcase Ventilation) system; the
coolant circuit; the fuel flow circuit. Understand the function of these components.
When the engine is opened, look at the valve train arrangement, the lubrication circuit, the EGR route, the coolant passage,
and the piston/ crank/ balance weight arrangement.
____________________________________________________________________
Record the following on the next page. The measurements may be shared by the group, but the comments and calculations
should be done by each individual.
Measure the intake runner length and the size of the manifold (these values do not have to be precise). Calculate the organ
pipe frequency (wave length = 4*runner length) of the former and the ratio of the latter to the displacement volume.
Measure the Bore, the stroke, and the connecting rod lengths.
Measure the mass and dimensions of the piston (see figure). (Why are the values of B1, B2, B3 and Bs different?)
Estimate the inertia force required to move the piston at 6000 rpm. Estimate the temperature at which the top land
(diameter B1) would be touching the liner which is kept by the coolant to be at 100o C.
Measure the valve diameters and the lifts. (The latter may be obtained from the cam measurements.) Why are the valve
diameters different?
Measure the valve masses. Estimate the spring force required to operate at 1000 and 6000 rpm.
B1/2
g1
g2
g3
h1
d1
h2
d2
h3
d3
Bs/2
hs
w1
B2/2
B3/2
w2
t1 Top ring
t2 Second ring
Engine (just fill in this form for the

engine that you are working on)
Intake runner length
organ pipe frequency (lowest)
Manifold volume
Ratio of above to displacement
Bore
Stroke (2a)
Connecting Rod Length ( A )
Displacement (VD)
Piston mass
Piston diameter at first land (B1)
Inertia force required to move piston
at 6000 rpm
Piston diameter at second land (B2)
Piston diameter at third land (B3)
Piston diameter at skirt (Bs)
Top land height (h1)
Second land height (h2)
Third land height (h3)
Skirt height (hs)
Top ring groove gap (g1)
Second ring groove gap (g2)
Control ring groove gap (g3)
Top ring groove depth (d1)
Second ring groove depth (d2)
Control ring groove depth (d3)
Top ring width (w1)
Top ring thickness (t1)
Second ring width (w2)
Second ring thickness (t2)
Temperature at which
interferes with liner
top
land
Intake valve mass

Intake valve diameter
Intake valve Lift
Spring force estimate for 1000 rpm
Exhaust valve mass
Exhaust valve diameter
Exhaust valve lift
Measurements
(units required)
Comments
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Spring 2008
2.61: Internal Combustion Engine - Engine Laboratory Exercise

(Lab report due 4/24/08)
Spring, 2008
OBJECTIVE
The objective of the laboratory is to provide the students with some familiarity to how does a real engine
behave, to operate the engine and the exhaust gas emissions measurement system, and to acquire and explain the
engine data.
ORGANIZATION
The class will be divided into a Tuesday (4/15/08) group and a Thursday (4/17/08) group. Each group will
work on the engine for one afternoon from 1 to 2:30 pm. The data gathering is a team effort, with the raw data to be
shared by all members of the group. Each student, however, has to write a lab report individually based on
independent analysis of the raw data.
The report title will be "The Load/ Speed Dependence of SI Engine Emission Behaviors". The data
presented in the report should have been reduced to meaningful results. It is important that the results be explained
according to your understanding of the physical phenomena involved.
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
The engine is a 4-cylinder, 4-valve per cylinder production spark ignition engine. (The engine is the
DaimlerChrysler (DCX) 2.4L engine, which powers the Minivan. The specifications are:
Bore
Stroke
Compression Ratio
Connecting Rod Length
Rated Power:
Peak Torque
Firing Order
87.5 mm
101.0 mm
9.4
136.5 mm
117 KW @ 5000 rpm
227 n-m @4000 rpm
1-3-4-2
IVO
IVC
EVO
EVC
1o BTC
51o ABC
52o BBC
8o ATC
The fuel used is Certification gasoline HF437; the fuel properties can be found on the course web site. The
fuel is injected in the intake port. The equivalence ratio is changed by varying the injection duration which is
controlled by the DaimlerChrysler ECU using the information from the Exhaust Gas Oxygen (EGO) sensor at the
exhaust. Note that this sensor gives only an on-off type of signal; therefore, an additional Universal Exhaust Gas
Oxygen (UEGO) sensor is used to read the air fuel ratio. Also note that the ECU modulates the equivalence ratio at 2
Hz, in the range of = 0.975 to 1.025; the UEGO displays the averaged value.
(a) At 1600 rpm, 46 N-m brake torque operation, check that the emission measurements are consistent by
determining the equivalence ratio from a carbon balance and compare that with the UEGO sensor output. (Note
that this is the standard light load condition employed by DaimlerChrysler to check out all their engines.)
(b) Produce the Engine-Out emission maps for the engine for the following and explain the observed trends. (You
should use brake- specific values which are the values normalized by the energy output of the engine.)
Brake- specific CO emission
Brake- specific HC emissions
Brake- specific NO emission
Brake- specific fuel consumption (based on carbon balance)
Note: the map is a contour plot of the specific quantities as a function of the engine brake torque and rpm. It should
include points on the WOT line and have data points reasonably spaced. Roughly a 4x4 data matrix will suffice.
You could plot the contours by hand, using interpolation. It is not necessary to use a computer program to plot these
contours. Point out the features on these plots and explain why the engine exhibits such behaviors.
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Spring 2008
Corrections to text (current printing): (JBH 10/29/01)

p. 77
Table 3.2. The enthalpies of formation for C8H18 are for n-octane. For isooctane they are 224.1
and 259.3 MJ/kmol for gas and liquid C8H18 , respectively.
p. 89: Middle of page: xCO 2 , xCO and x 02 should be xCO 2 , xCO , and x O2 .
p. 122: Figure 4-10 is a repeat of Fig. 4-3 due to an editing error, though Fig. 4-10 is correctly labeled
burned mixture properties. A correct Fig. 4-10 is attached. It is only slightly different: e.g., at
1000 K the burned mixture us for = 1.2 is 4% lower than the unburned mixture value, and hs is
1% lower than the unburned mixture value. These differences scale, approximately, with .
p. 151 Underneath Eq (4.65) insert:
K is given by Eq. (4.63)
p. 152: Line 5. C mH nOr should be C nHm Or .
p.188 In Eq. (5.66c), m is omitted. It should read:
T
T
S3b S2 = mcv ln 3 a + mc p ln 3b
= mcv ln + mc p ln
T2
T3a
p. 306: Equation (7.18): The sign at the beginning of the second line of the equation (a minus sign) should
be a plus sign.
p. 388: Equation (9.27). The sign in front of the third term in the square bracket should be , not + :
T
T
1 1
ln
i.e., +
Tw Tw ( 1) bTw 1
p. 553: Equation (10.37). There should be a + sign between the two round brackets within the square
bracket., i.e.,
0.63
1
1 21.2
id (CA) = (0.36 + 0.22Sp )expE A
+

RT 17,190 p 12.4
p. 620: The reference for Fig. 11-33 should be Yu, R.C., Wong, V.W., and Shahed, S.M., Sources of
Hydrocarbon Emissions from Direct Injection Diesel Engines, SAE paper 800048, SAE Trans.,
vol. 89, 1980. (This is a new reference; make it reference 87 and add it to p. 667.)
p. 679: In the inserted graph in Figure 12-5, the scale for thermal conductivity k g is not correct. The values
should be multiplied by 5 x 105: e.g., the peak value of 10 x 10-8 = 10-7 W/m.K should be 10-7 x (5
x 105) = 5 x 10-2 W/m.K.
p. 880 In Fig. 15-45, the units for pressure (middle left) should be kPa and not MPa.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY ON INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1.
F. Obert, Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution, Intext Educational Publishers, 1973
edition.
(A good basic text on engines from the 1950s with modest updating in 1968; much excellent
descriptive material.)
2.
C. Fayette Taylor and Edward S. Taylor, The Internal Combustion Engine, International Textbook
Company, 1961.
(A basic text now out of print and somewhat dated.)
3.
C.F. Taylor, The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice. Volumes I and II, M.I.T.
Press, 1966 and 1968. Reissued in paperback in 1977, and in 1985 as Second Edition with minor
modifications.
(A much expanded version of reference 2; an advanced text with extensive material on engine
design practice of the 1950s and 60s).
4.
A.R. Rogowski, Elements of Internal Combustion Engines, McGraw-Hill, 1953.

(An elementary text used primarily for undergraduate teaching.)
5.
L.C. Lichty, Combustion Engine Processes, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 6th edition, 1967.
(A good basic text on all types of combustion engines, now somewhat dated.)
6.
M. Khovakh (general editor) Motor Vehicle Engines. English translation form Russian. MIR
Publishers, Moscow, 1976.
(A Russian text with an excellent ordering of subject material.)
7.
D.J. Patterson and N.A. Henein, Emission from Combustion Engines and their Control, Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc., 1972.
(A comprehensive text on engine emissions; now somewhat dated.)
8.
Robert U. Ayres and Richard P. McKenna, Alternatives to the Internal Combustion Engines, Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1972.
(A fundamental text on the alternative engines to the internal combustion engine.)
9.
M.J. Nunney, The Automotive Engine, Newnes-Butterworths, London, 1974.

(A book which reviews modern automotive engine practice; contains descriptions of design and
operation of engines and engine components.)
10.
Kenichi Yamamoto, Rotary Engine, Toyo Kogyo Co., Ltd., 1969.

(Excellent text on the design and operation of Wankel engines.)
11.
R.F. Ansdale, The Wankel RC Engine: Design and Performance, Iliffe Books, Ltd., London, 1968.
(Contains much technical and historical information on the Wankel engine.)
12.
G.S. Springer and D.J. Patterson, editors, Engine Emissions:

Pollutant Formation and
Measurement. Plenum Press, New York, London, 1973.
(A set of contributed chapters on different emissions topics; some chapters are still useful.)
2
13. G. Sitkei, Heat Transfer and Thermal Loading in Internal Combustion Engines, Akademiai
Kaido:Budapest, 1974.
(A monograph on heat transfer in spark-ignition and diesel engines and temperature distributions in
engine components.)
14. W.J. Annand and G.E. Roe, Gas Flow in the Internal Combustion Engine, Haessner Publishing, Inc.,
1974.
(A review of selected topics related to gas flow in IC engine intake and exhaust systems.)
15. Should We Have a New Engine? An Automobile Power Systems Evaluation, Volume I. Summary,
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, JPL SP 43-17, Augusdt 1975.
(Popular summary of study which evaluates the internal combustion engine and its alternatives.)
Should We Have a New Engine? An Automobile Power Systems Evaluation, Volume II, Technical
Reports, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, JPL SP 43-17, August 1975.
(Extensive study of design and operating characteristics of internal combustion engines and
alternative engines for automobile use.)
16. E.M. Goodger, Hydrocarbon Fuels; Production, Properties and Performance of Liquids and Gases,
Macmillan, London, 1975.
(Useful review of fuels, automotive and non-automotive.)
17. Lyle Cummins, Internal Fire: The Internal Combustion Engine 1673 - 1900 Revised Edition, 2nd
Edition, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1976.
(Excellent and readable history of the internal combustion engine by the son of the founder of the
Cummins Engine Company.)
18. A History of the Automotive Internal Combustion Engine, Society of Automotive Engineers special
publication, SP-409, 1976.
(A set of four SAE papers reviewing the history of IC engine developments.)
19. D.R. Blackmore and A. Thomas, Fuel Economy of the Gasoline Engine, John Wiley & Sons, 1977.
(A useful introduction to how fuel properties affect spark-ignition engine operation.)
20. W. Thomson, Fundamentals of Automotive Engine Balance, Mechanical Engineering Publications,
Ltd., London, 1978.
(A short straightforward monograph on the balancing of various arrangement reciprocating
engines.)
21. R.S. Benson and N.D. Whitehouse, Internal Combustion Engines, Volumes 1 and 2, Pergamon
Press, Inc. 1979.
(A modern text, limited in scope, with special emphasis on computer simulations of engine flow and
combustion processes.)
22. N. Watson and M.S. Janota, Turbocharging the Internal Combustion Engine, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1982.
(An extensive and excellent professional reference text on turbochargers, and turbocharged engine
performance.)
23. R.S. Benson, The Thermodynamics and Gas Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines, Volume I,
edited by J.H. Horlock and D.E. Winterbone, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1982.
(Extensive and detailed monograph on unsteady engine intake and exhaust flow processes.)
3
24. J.H. Horlock and D.E. Winterbone, editors, The Thermodynamics and Gas Dynamics of Internal
Combustion Engines, Volume II, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986.
(Extensive and detailed monograph on in-cylinder engine processes and methods of analysis.)
25. J.C. Hilliard and G.S. Springer, editors, Fuel Economy in Road Vehicles Powered by Spark Ignition
Engines. Plenum Press, New York, London, 1984.
(A set of contributed chapters on engine and vehicle factors which affect fuel economy; some are
excellent.)
26. R. Stone, Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines, MacMillian Publishers, Ltd., 1985. Second
edition, 1992.
(An introductory text appropriate to a survey undergraduate course on engines.)
27. C.R. Ferguson, Internal Combustion Engines--Applied Thermosciences, John Wiley & Sons, 1986.
(A new text focusing primarily on Thermal/Fluids Science aspects of engine operation.)
28. Bosch Automotive Handbook, 5th edition, published by Robert Bosch GmbH and distributed by
SAE, 2000.
(A concise and useful summary of technical data on engine and vehicle components and systems.)
29. J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, 1988.
(An extensive text and professional reference on the fundamentals behind engine operation and
design.)
30. Bosch Automotive Electric/Electronic Systems, published by Robert Bosch GmbH and distributed
by SAE, 1988.
(A practical guide to and description of automotive electrical systems.)
31. C. Arcoumanis, editor, Internal Combustion Engines, Academic Press, 1988.
(A collection of contributed chapters on gasoline and diesel engines, turbocharged engines and
automotive fuels; some are good.)
32. G. Blair, The Basic Design of Two-Stroke Engines, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1990.
(A monograph with simple programs focused on two-stroke gasoline engine design issues and their
underlying principles.)
33. K. Owen and T. Coley, Automotive Fuels Handbook, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1990.
(An extensive compilation of information on gasolines and diesel fuels and their effects on engine
operation.)
34. K. Newton, W. Steeds and T.K. Garrett, The Motor Vehicle, Butterworth, Eleventh edition, 1989.
(A useful source of practical information on engines, transmissions and vehicles.)
35. H.P. Lenz, Mixture Formation in Spark-Ignition Engines, Springer-Verlag, 1990.
(A resource for detailed information on gasolines, carburetors, fuel injection systems, and the
mixture formation process.)
36. J.I. Ramos, Internal Combustion Engine Modeling, Hemisphere Publishing Co., 1989.
(A review and useful introduction to the various models now available for engine processes.)
37. R.M. Heck and R.J. Farranto, Catalytic Air Pollution Control, Van Nostrand, Reinhold, 1995.
(A readily understandable review of catalyst fundamentals and application to vehicles.)
38. G.P. Blair, Design and Simulation of Two-Stroke Engines, SAE, 1996.
(An update and extension of Blairs earlier book; extensive information on small high-performance
two-stroke spark-ignition engines.)
39. E. Sher (editor), Handbook of Air Pollution from Internal Combustion Engines: Pollutant
Formation and Control, Academic Press, 1998.
(An extensive set of chapters, by different authors, on four-stroke and two-stroke cycle sparkignition and diesel engine operation and emissions, and fuel effects.)
40. W.W. Pulkrabek, Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1997.
(An introductory text on IC engine fundamentals.)
41. G.L. Borman and K.W. Ragland, Combustion Engineering, WCB McGraw-Hill, 1998.
(A valuable reference volume on combustion processes in different practical systems, including IC
engines, with extensive information on fuels.)
42. J.B. Heywood and E. Sher, The Two-Stroke Cycle Engine: Its Development, Operation and Design,
SAE, Taylor & Francis, 1999.
(A comprehensive summary of the technical literature on two-stroke cycle engine processes which
govern its operation and its design.)
43. R.C. Flagan and John H. Seinfeld, Fundamentals of Air Pollution Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1988.
(A review of air pollutant formation processes and sources, and control approaches.)
44. H.P. Lenz and C. Cozzarini, Emissions and Air Quality, SAE, 1999.
(A concise handbook with data on transportation emissions, their impact, and ways to control their
magnitude.)
45. B. Challen and R. Baranescu, Editors, Diesel Engine Reference Book, Second Edition, published by
SAE, 1999.
(An extensive handbook on the theory, design, and applications of diesel engines.)
46. Bosch Gasoline-Engine Management, 1st Edition, published by Robert Bosch GmbH and distributed
by SAE, 1999.
(A handbook with extensive practical details on gasoline spark-ignition engines and their
management and control.)
47. Bosch Diesel-Engine Management, 2nd Edition, published by Robert Bosch GmbH and distributed
by SAE, 1999.
(A handbook witih extensive practical details on diesel engines, their emissions, and their
management and control.)
48. C. Stan, Editor, Direct Injection Systems for Spark-Ignition and Compression-Ignition Engines,
published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, distributed by SAE, 1999.
(Multi-author volume on direct injection gasoline and diesel engines, focusing on the different
practical approaches to direct injection of liquid fuel into the cylinder.)
5
49. D.E. Winterbone and R.J. Pearson, Theory of Engine Manifold Design, SAE, 2000.
(A text on the theory and methodology for analyzing unsteady gas flows in engine manifolds.)
50. D.E. Winterbone and R.J. Pearson, Design Techniques for Engine Manifolds, SAE, 1999.
(A comparison text to #49, focusing on application of unsteady gas flow analysis tools to engine
manifold design.)
51. G.P. Blair, Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke Engines, SAE, 1999.
(A description of engine simulations, largely developed in the authors laboratory, and their
application to four-stroke engine performance prediction and design.)
52. C.R. Ferguson and A.T. Kirkpatrick, Internal Combustion Engines Applied Thermosciences, Second
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.
(A new edition of #27: An introductory text focusing on the thermal science processes important to
internal combustion engine operations.)
53. M. Nuti, Emissions from Two-Stroke Engines, SAE, 1998.
(A monograph on two-stroke cycle gasoline engines, the origins of their emissions and methods of
control.)
54. P. Eastwood, Critical Topics in Exhaust Gas Aftertreatment, Research Studies Press Ltd., 2000.
(A detailed monograph on engine exhaust gas treatmentcatalysts, particulate filtersas well as
exhaust treatment system issues.)
55. A. Makartchouk, Diesel Engine Engineering: Thermodynamics, Dynamics, Design, and Control,
Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, Basel, 2002.
(Analysis based text, focused primarily on engine dynamics, structural design, and automated diesel
engine control.)
56. F. Zhao, D.L. Harrington, and M-C. Lai, Automotive Gasoline Direct-Injection Engine, SAE, 2002.
(An extensive review of the literature on GDI engine performance, combustion, efficiency, and
emissions, and the state of GDI engine development.)
MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu

Spring 2008
Bio-fuels and hybrids
Prof. Wai Cheng

Sloan Automotive Lab, MIT
1
The backdrop
Transportation and Mobility
Transportation/mobility is a vital to
modern economy
Transport of People
Transport of goods and produce
People get accustomed to the ability to
travel
3
Transportation needs special kind of energy source
Vehicles need to carry source of energy on

board
Hydrocarbons are unparalleled in terms of
energy density
For example, look at refueling of gasoline
~40 Liters in 2 minutes (~0.25 Kg/sec)
Corresponding energy flow

= 0.25 Kg/sec x 44 MJ/Kg
= 11 Mega Watts
Liquid hydrocarbons !
4
What is in a barrel of oil ?

(42 gallon oil ~46 gallon products)
Typical US output
Lubricants
0.90%
Other Refined Products
1.50%
Asphalt and Road Oil
1.90%
Liquefied Refinery Gas
2.80%
Residual Fuel Oil
3.30%
Marketable Coke
5.00%
Still Gas
5.40%
Jet Fuel
12.60%
Distillate Fuel Oil
15.30%
Finished Motor Gasoline
51.40%
Source: California Energy Commission, Fuels Office
US Use of Petroleum by sector
Millions of Barrels/day
25
Electric utilities
Commercial
Residential
20
15
Industrial
10
Transportation
5
0
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Year
6
Oil Supply (annual average up to 2007)

100
Million Barrels/day
90
80
70
60
Others
50
40
30
20
OPEC
10
US
0
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Year
Hubbert peak
Source: EIA
The world Hubbert peak

(excluding OPEC & Russian production)
2003
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 9 in Zittel, Werner, and Jrg Schindler.
"Future World Oil Supply." Salzburg, Germany: International Summer School on the Politics and Economics of
Renewable Energy, July 2002.
Source: http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/npr/publications/npr_strategic_significancev1.pdf
Petroleum price
Decrease in demand, increase in
non-OPEC supply
120.00
100.00
Saudi increase
production
Constant 2004$
$/Barrel
$ of the day
80.00
6/6/08
@$118/Barrel
Iran/Iraq War
Iranian Revolution
Yom Kippur War
Arab Oil Embargo
60.00
40.00
2008 av. value

up to June;
Gulf
War
20.00
Iraq war
Demand of
emerging
market;
limited
refinery
capacity
0.00
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
9/11
Oil from North Sea, Alaska
Sources:
Data from EIA; event labels from WTRG Economics
CO2 emissions from fossil fuel

Million metric tons of Carbon/year
104
8000
7000
103
6000
Total
5000
Total
4000
3000
102
Liquid fuel
2000
Liquid fuel
10
1000
0
1750
1800
1850
1900
Year
1950
2000
1
1750
1800
1850
1900
1950
2000
Year
Source: EIA
10
The drive to bio-fuel

Increasing demand of liquid fuel for transportation
Population
Society affluence
Drive for lower CO2 production
Perceived decline of petroleum reserve
Fuel price
Government Policy
Tax credit
Required bio-fuel content
11
What is bio-fuel?
12
Dominant biofuels
Sugar based
(corn, sugarcane, )
Cellulosic based
(switchgrass, wood, )
Crop based
(rapeseed, soybean, )
Wasted oil/ animal fat
Usage
Ethanol
E10, E20, E85,
Compatible with current engine

technology and fuel infra structure
Bio-diesel
B10, B20, .
Algae
(BTL fuel not included in this discussion)13
Example: Ethanol production from corn
Ethanol fuel
Resources:
Energy
Materials
Ethanol + CO2
Labor
Sugar
Purification
(removal of water, )
Fermentation
Starch
Corn
By-products
14
Example: bio-diesel production

Bio-diesel (esters)
Resources:
Energy
Materials
Labor
Purification
(removal of glycerol,
alkaline, fatty acid, )
Esters and glycerol
Transesterification using alcohol

(methanol) with alkaline catalyst
Oil (tri-glyceride)
Mechanical or solvent (hexane)
extraction + water removal
Soy,
rapeseed,
Tri-glyceride
Alkaline
Catalyst
(KOH)
Esters
Glycerol
CH2-OOC-R1
R-OOC-R1
|
CH-OOC-R2 +3ROH R-OOC-R2 +(CH2OH)2-CHOH
|
CH2-OOC-R3
R-OOC-R3
(typically 8-22 C to 2 O)
15
Combustion characteristics of bio-fuel
Diesel
Soybean oil methylester
Rapeseed oil methylester
Sunflower oil methylester
Frying oil ethylester
Cetane
number
s.g.
LHV
(MJ/kg)
LHV
(MJ/L)
B10 LHV
(MJ/L)
45-55
50.9
52.9
49
61
0.820
0.885
0.882
0.880
0.872
43.22
37.01
37.30
38.53
37.19
35.44
32.76
32.90
33.91
32.41
35.17
35.19
35.29
35.14
s.g.
LHV
(MJ/kg)
LHV
(MJ/L)
E10 LHV
(MJ/L)
34.32
21.12
33.00
Octane
number
Gasoline
Ethanol
95
107
0.780
0.785
44.00
26.90
B20 LHV LHV B10/ LHV B20/

(MJ/L)
Diesel Diesel (by
(by vol.)
vol.)
34.91
34.93
35.14
34.84
0.992
0.993
0.996
0.991
0.985
0.986
0.991
0.983
E85 LHV LHV E10/ LHV E85/

(MJ/L) Gasoline Gasoline
(by vol.) (by vol.)
23.10
0.962
0.673
Bio-ester data from Graboski and McCormick, Prog. Energy Comb. Sc., Vol. 24, 1998
16
Stoichiometric requirement for different fuels

18
(A/F)
stoiciometric
16
Gasoline
and diesel

O/C = 0
14
O/C ratios of bio-diesel

esters ~ 0.12
B100
12
Gasoline with 10% Ethanol
10
Ethanol
E85
O/C = 0.5
8
O/C = 1
Methanol
4
2
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Fuel H to C ratio
3.5
4
17
Relative CO2 production from burning different fuel molecules
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Amann, Charles A. The Passenger Car and The Greenhouse Effect.
SAE Journal of Passenger Cars 99 (October 1990): 902099.
C. Amann, SAE Paper 9092099 18
Effects of Oxygenates on PM emission
100% Methanol
80
60
100% Dimethyl ether (DME),

100% Ethanol
Water/Diesel emulsion (15 to 20% water)
40
100% Rapeseed methyl ester (RME)

20
Soot reduction - %
100
Diglyme, methylal added to diesel fuel

(6 to 14% wt.)
10
20
30
40
50
Fuel oxygen content - %

AVL Publication (by Wofgang Cartellieri in JSME 1998 Conference in Toykyo)

19
Bio-fuel combustion properties

Bio-diesels and ethanol are fundamentally clean and
attractive fuels to be used in engines
The use of these fuels as supplements to petroleum
base fuel are compatible with current engine
configuration and fuel infra-structure
Practical issues can be adequately handled by
engineering
Fuel quality
Engine calibration
Materials compatibility, viscosity,
Burning the fuel is the least of the problem !!!
20
Status of bio-fuel production
21
World liquid fuel production (2005)

HYDROCARBONS
RENEWABLES
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see p. 2 in Budny, Daniel. "The Global Dynamics of Biofuels."
Brazil Institute Special Report. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, April 2007.
22
Millions of barrels per day oil equivalent
Liquid fuel supply projection

120
100
80
60
40
20
Source: ExxonMobil JSAE meeting, Kyoto, July 23-26, 2007
0
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
23
US bio-fuel capacity
US biofuels
US harvested crop land (US agriculture census 2002), hectare 1.23E+08
US all distillate use (diesel+jet+power gen etc.) EIA2007; L/yr 3.34E+11
US gasoline use, EIA 2007; L/yr
5.40E+11
Limit of
Limit of Energy
production production ratio of
(gal)
(L)
limit to
gal/acre L/hectare
demand
bio-diesel
palm oil
coconut
rapeseed
soy
peanut
sunflower
jatropia (SE Asia)
algae (?)
5.08E+02 4,756
2.30E+02 2,153
1.02E+02
955
6.00E+01
562
9.00E+01
843
8.20E+01
768
2.00E+02 1,872
1.80E+03 16,850
1.54E+11
6.99E+10
3.10E+10
1.82E+10
2.73E+10
2.49E+10
6.08E+10
5.47E+11
5.85E+11
2.65E+11
1.17E+11
6.91E+10
1.04E+11
9.44E+10
2.30E+11
2.07E+12
1.63
0.74
0.33
0.19
0.29
0.27
0.64
5.78
ethanol
corn
sugar cane (Brazil)
3.44E+02
8.00E+02
1.04E+11 3.96E+11
2.43E+11 9.21E+11
0.71
1.71
3,217
7,489
Crop based bio-fuels do not have enough

capacity to meet the liquid fuel demand !!!
Yield dependent on location and weather
24
Algae: micro-seaweeds
Issues
Production
Need high lipid
content
species
Need fast
growth species
Growth in
dense
environment
Harvest techniques
Oil extraction
Courtesy of Robert Dibble. Used with permission.

25
Current largest algae plant

(production of algae for salmon feeding)
Hawaii
Courtesy of Robert Dibble. Used with permission.
26
Sustainability
27
Energy balance
Example: Corn ethanol in US
Ethanol from corn

Several studies of the overall energy budget
P = energy used in production
feedstock production/ transport + processing
E = Energy of the ethanol output

Return (%) = (E P) / E
Studies
Verdict:
Substantial
environmental
and economic
cost; return not
clear
Pimentel and Patzek (2003, 2005): negative return

Return = - 29%
USDA (Shapouri et al 2002, 2004): positive return

Return* = +5.6%
Return* = +40% if by products (Corn gluten meal, etc.)
are accounted for
* For comparison purpose, these figures were converted from the

values of (E-P)/P of +5.9% and +67% in the original publication
28
Other bio-fuels
Pimentel and Patzek also estimated energy budget for other biofuels. Returns:
Ethanol from switchgrass = -50%
Ethanol from wood biomass = -57%
Bio-diesel from soybean = -27%
Bio-diesel from sunflower = -118%
Other more positive estimates:
Bio-diesel from rapeseed = +32% (EU)
Bio-diesel production = +324% (US National Bio-diesel Board)
Outlook: NOT CLEAR
New technology needed to change the picture
29
Technical difficulties of producing liquid fuel from plants

Glucose fermentation produces significant CO2 out and energy loss
Hf per mol C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 219.2 KJ
of carbon
atom
-67.8 KJ
-117.3 KJ
- 393.5 KJ
Cellulose much more difficult to break down than sugar
Glucose
Source: Wikipedia
Cellulose
30
Effect of government policy on bio-fuel

Current US demand for ethanol is driven by
government regulations and incentives
Ethanol flex-fuel vehicles produced because of the 74%
credit towards CAFE requirement
(E85 vehicle equivalent mph = mpg x 1.74)

Gasoline oxygenate mandate, and phase out of MTBE
Energy bill (Aug. 05) mandated a threshold of 7.5 billion
gallons (180 million barrels) production by 2012
Tax subsidy
blenders tax credit $0.51/gallon alcohol
$0.051/gallon fuel tax exemption for gasohol
minimum 10 vol % alcohol
31
Economic impact of crop-based bio-fuel

Example: Corn ethanol in US (~20% of total corn production in 2007)
Fresh whole milk retail price (up to May, 08)
4
3.8
Annual average or averaged
up to current month
$ per gallon
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
2.8
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
2.2
2
1995
2.6
2.4
400
Spot price 5/12/08:

$ 2.50/gal
350
300
Cents per gal
U.S. All Grades Conventional Retail

Gasoline Prices (Cents per Gallon)
)
250
200
150
100
May 08 spot price: $2.50/gal
Retail price: $3.80/gal
50
Source: California Energy Commission, 2006
Jan 08
Jan 07
Jan 06
Jan 05
Jan 04
Jan 03
Jan 02
Jan 01
Jan 00
Jan 99
Jan 98
Jan 97
Jan 96
0
Jan 95
Millions of barrels
Annual fuel ethanol production

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
32
Carbon intensity
(net mass of CO2 produced per unit fuel energy)
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel
33
Carbon intensity
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel
34
Other environmental impact
Water resources
Fertilizer
Soil
Bio-diversity
Plant waste treatment
35
Closure
Bio-diesel and alcohols are excellent fuels for
transportation use
Good combustion characteristics
Compatible with current engine technology
Sustainability
Bio-fuels from crops are not likely to make any
significant impact on the global liquid fuel supply
picture
Land capacity
Effect on food price
Further development on other feed stocks needed

Algae for bio-diesel production
Cellulosic alcohol
36
Closure (continue)
Sustainability issues
Energy budget
Water use
CO2 intensity especially with land use
replacement
Bio-diversity
Other issues
Bio-fuel plant waste treatment
Resources requirement
37
Hybrid vehicles
Configuration:
IC Engine + Generator + Battery + Electric Motor
Concept
Eliminates external charging
As load leveler
Improved overall efficiency
Regeneration ability
Plug-in hybrids: use external electricity supply
38
Hybrid Vehicles
External charging for plug-ins
Regeneration
Battery/ ultracapacitor
Parallel Hybrid
MOTOR
DRIVETRAIN
ENGINE
Series Hybrid
ENGINE
GENERATOR
MOTOR
DRIVETRAIN
Power split
Hybrid
ENGINE
Regeneration
GENERATOR
Regeneration
MOTOR
DRIVETRAIN
Examples: Parallel hybrid: Honda Insight

Series hybrid: GM E-Flex System
Power split hybrid: Toyota Prius
39
Hybrids and Plug-in hybrids

Hybrids (HEV)
Stored fuel centered
Full hybrid
Mild hybrid /power assist
Plug-in hybrids (PHEV)

Stored electricity centered
Blended PHEV
Urban capable PHEV
AER/ E-REV
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 5 and 7 in Tate, E. D., Michael O. Harpster, and Peter J. Savagian.
"The Electrification of the Automobile: From Conventional Hybrid, to Plug-In Hybrids, to Extended-Range Electric Vehicles."
SAE International Journal of Passenger Cars - Electronic and Electrical Systems 1 (April 2008): 2008-01-0458.
40
Engine/ motor sizing
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 14 in

Komatsu, Masayuki, et al. "Study on the Potential Benefits of PlugIn Hybrid Systems." SAE International Journal of Passenger Cars Electronic and Electrical Systems 1 (April 2008): 2008-01-0456.
and
Fig. 8 in Tate, E. D., Michael O. Harpster, and Peter J. Savagian.
"The Electrification of the Automobile: From Conventional Hybrid,
to Plug-In Hybrids, to Extended-Range Electric Vehicles."
SAE International Journal of Passenger Cars - Electronic
and Electrical Systems 1 (April 2008): 2008-01-0458.
The optimal component

sizing and power
distribution strategy
depend on the required
performance, range,
and drive cycle
41
The reduced load/ speed dynamic range required from the engine offers
design opportunities
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 3 in Aoki, Kaoru, et al.
"Development of an Integrated Motor Assist Hybrid System: Development of the 'Insight', a Personal Hybrid Coupe."
SAE Journal of Engines 109 (June 2000): 2000-01-2216.
42
HEV TECHNOLOGY
Toyota Prius
Engine: 1.5 L, Variable Valve Timing, Atkinson/Miller
Cycle (13.5 expansion ratio), Continuously Variable
Transmission
57 KW at 5000 rpm
Motor - 50 KW
Max system output 82 KW
Battery - Nickel-Metal Hydride, 288V; 21 KW
Fuel efficiency:
66 mpg (Japanese cycle)
43 mpg (EPA city driving cycle)
41 mpg (EPA highway driving cycle)
Efficiency improvement (in Japanese cycle) attributed to:

50% load distribution; 25% regeneration; 25% stop and go
Cost: ~$20K
43
Efficiency improvement:
Toyota Hybrid System (THS)
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see Fig. 2 in Inoue, Toshio, et al.
"Improvement of a Highly Efficient Hybrid Vehicle and Integrating Super Low Emissions."
SAE Journal of Fuels and Lubricants 109 (October 2000): 2000-01-2930.
44
Operating map in LA4 driving cycle

Toyota THS II
Data from SAE 2004-01-0164
Typical passenger car engine

8
BMEP (bar)
BMEP (bar)
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Speed (rpm)
0
500
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
45
Cost factor
If
$ is price premium for hybrid vehicle

P is price of gasoline (per gallon)
is fractional improvement in mpg
Then mileage (M) to be driven to break even is
$ x mpg
M=
Px
(assume that interest rate is zero)
46
Cost Factor
Example:
Honda Civic and Civic-Hybrid
Price premium ($, MY08 listed)
mpg (city and highway av.)
hybrid improvement in mpg(%)
= $7155 ($22600-15445)
= 29 mpg (42 for hybrid)
= 45%
At gasoline price of $4.00 per gallon, mileage (M) driven

to break even is
$7155 x 29
= 115,000 miles
M=
$4 x 45%
(excluding interest cost)
47
Barrier to Hybrid Vehicles

Cost factor
difficult to justify especially for the small,
already fuel efficient vehicles
Battery replacement (not included in the previous
breakeven analysis)
California ZEV mandate, battery packs

must be warranted for 15 years or 150,000
miles : a technical challenge
48
Hybrid Vehicle Outlook

Hybrid configuration will capture a fraction of the
passenger market, especially when there is significant
fuel price increase
Competition
Customers downsize their cars
Small diesel vehicles
Plug-in hybrids?
Weight penalty (battery + motor + engine)
No substantial advantage for overall CO2 emissions
Limited battery life
49
400
300
200
100
% of new light duty vehicle sale
Sales (thousands)
Sales figure for hybrid vehicles
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
50
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Spring 2008
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see any illustration of an engine control system,
such as that in the Bosch Automotive Handbook. London, England: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
Intake
Exhaust
Injection
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
TC
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
TC
Ign
BC
TC
BC
180
360
540
720
900
1080
1260
1440
Cyl.#4
Cyl.#3
Cyl.#2
Cyl.#1
Cyl. #1 CA (0 o is BDC compression)
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http://ocw.mit.edu/terms.
Effect of Engine Size
Brake-Fuel-Conv.-Eff.
0.6
Sulzer
(Value at best efficiency point)
RTA58
0.5
Audi
HSDI
RTA84
RTA38
P11C, K13C
Hino
Isuzu 6HE1
0.4
Volvo TD70
DI engines
IDI Engines
SI Engine
0.3
0.2
0.1
10
Displ./ cyl. (L)
100
1000
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Emission requirements
(Gasoline engines)
1975
1977
1975
1977
1981
1994 US
Euro 3
1994 TLEV
0.1
Euro 4
Euro 5
1997 TLEV
NOx(g/mile)
NMOG (g/mile)
1
1
1981
1994 TLEV
Euro 3
Euro 4
1997-2003 ULEV
0.1
Euro 5
1997-2003 ULEV
0.01
2004 SULEV2
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Starting year of implementation
2004 SULEV2
0.01
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Starting year of implementation
Historic trend: Factor of 10 reduction every 15 years
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Hydrocarbon Pathway - Steady State, cruise condition

Fuel (100%)
91%
9%
Flame converts fuel to

CO2, CO, H2O, H2 etc.
HC Mechanisms
---------------- Fuel Only ---------------Liq. Fuel

1.2%
Deposits
(1%)
--------------- Fuel- Air Mixture --------------Quenching

(0.5%)
Oil Layers
(1%)
4.6%
Crankcase (0.7%)
- Recycled -
2.5%
Crevices
(5.2%)
5.1%
Exh. Valve
Leakage (0.1%)
Blow-by (0.6%)
- Recycled -
In-Cylinder Oxidation
1/3 Oxidized
2/3 Oxidized
1.7%
1.7%
3.4%
Exhaust Oxidation (0.8%)
1/3
2.3%
1/3
Unburned HC in Residual
(1.3%) - Recycled -
1.5%
Engine- out HC (1.6%)
Fully Burned Exhaust
Tailpipe- out HC (0.1-0.4%)
Catalyst
HC Sources: Magnitudes and
Percent of Total Engine-out Emissions
Source
Crevices
% Fuel Escaping
Normal Combustion
5.2
Fraction Emitted
as EOHC
0.15*
% Fuel as HC
Emissions
0.682*
% of Total EOHC
Emissions
42.6
Quench
0.5
0.15
0.074
4.6
Oil Layers
1.0
0.09**
0.090**
5.6
Deposits
1.0
0.30
0.300
18.7
Liquid Fuel
1.2
0.30
0.356
22.2
Valve Leakage
0.1
1.00
0.100
6.3
Total
9.0
1.60
100
*
**
Blowby (0.6%) subtracted

Amount to crank case (0.7%) subtracted
MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu

Spring 2008
Gasoline fuel rich combustion
(Fixed amount of air)
0.20
Mole fraction
0.15
CO
CO2
0.10
H2
0.05
0.00
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Combustion efficiency
or relative energy released
1.0
0.8
Relative energy
released
0.6
Combustion
efficiency
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu
______________

Spring 2008
18
(A/F)stoiciometric
16
Gasoline
O/C = 0
14
12

Ethanol
10
O/C = 0.5
8
O/C = 1
Methanol
4
2
1
1.5
2.5
Fuel H to C ratio
3.5
MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu
______________

Spring 2008
FTP 23 cycles Each cycle consists of idle, accel., cruise, and decel. Three test phases:
Transient phase (0-505s); stabilized phase (505 to 1376s); warm start (repeat of first 505 s test after 10 min. shut down)
miles/hr
Stabilized Phase
50
80
40
60
30
40
20
10
20
250
500
time (sec)
750
Air Conditioning Cycle:

10 min. soak, 95oF ambient temperature, 40% relative humidity,
850W/m2 solar load, AC max cooling
1000
1250
km/hr
Transient Phase
60
MIT OpenCourseWare
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______________

Spring 2008
VVT technology
Variable cam phasing

Many companies (Fiat, Nissan, Toyota )
Cam switching
Honda VTEC
Valve-lift geometry control

BMW Valvetronic
Hydraulic/electro-hydraulic lift control
Jacobs VVT
Lotus/Eaton
Electromagnetic valve
FEV EMV, Visteon EVA
VVT technology
Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Moriya, Yoshihito, et al. "A Newly Developed Intelligent Variable Valve Timing System."
SP-1171, Journal of Engines 105 (February 1996): 960579.
VVT technology
Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see: Hosaka, Takefumi, and Minoru Hamazaki. "Development of the Variable Valve Timing and
Lift (VTEC) Engine for the Honda NSX." P-238, Journal of Engines 100 (January 1991): 910008.
Yasuda, Makoto, and Hirotsugu Maruyama. "A New 1.6-liter Twin-cam 16-valve Nissan Engine." SP-864,
Journal of Engines 100 (February 1991): 910677
BMW Valvetronic
Photo removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see any photo of the BMW Valvetronic engine, such as
http://www.autozine.org/technical_school/engine/valvetronic_cut.jpg
AEI, February 2003
The Jacobs VVT loss motion system
Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see patents related to the Jacobs variable valve actuator
and lost motion system, such as: 7484483, 7059282, 7152576.
Lotus research AVT
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see slide 8 in Milovanovic, Nebosja, and Jamie Turner. "Requirements for the Valve
Train and Technologies for Enabling HCCI Over the Entire Operating Range." Diesel Engine Emissions Reduction Conference, 2005. (PDF)
Lotus/Eaton electro-hydraulic system
Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see slide 6 in Milovanovic, Nebosja, and Jamie Turner. "Requirements for the Valve
Train and Technologies for Enabling HCCI Over the Entire Operating Range." Diesel Engine Emissions Reduction Conference, 2005. (PDF)
Electromagnetic Valves
Advantage
flexibility
Challenges
Significant force required
F (RPM)2
Seating velocity
Noise
Packaging
Cost
Visteon VVT System
US Patent 6,681,731 B2

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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

2.61 Internal Combustion Engines Lecture 1

area = work out

1867 Otto engine (Nicholas Otto, Germany)

Compression ratio (geometric) - C R =

Piston position - s ( ) = a cos + l 2 + a 2 sin 2

where  = 2N and N=RPM

Pressures normally aspirated 4 stroke SI

Heat release normally aspirated 4 stroke SI

Pressure - normally aspirated 4-stroke Diesel

2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Movie of SI engine combustion

Square piston flow visualization engine

Fig. 3.1 in Constanzo, Vincent M. A Visualization Study of

Flame Propagation (Fig 9-14)

Flame Kernel Development

(SAE Paper 880518)

Single cycle flame sequence

Flame from 4 consecutive cycles at fixed

SAE Paper 880518

Schematic of SI engine flame propagation

Combustion produced pressure rise

Pressure is uniform, changing with time

For mass m: hb = hu (because dm is allowed to expand against

T rise is a function of fuel heating value and mixture composition

e.g. at = 1, Tu ~ 700 K, Tb ~ 2800 K

Hence burned gas expands: b ~ u ; Vb ~ 4 Vu

Combustion produced pressure rise

Since total volume is constrained. The pressure must

Both the unburned gas ahead of flame and burned gas

Both the unburned gas and burned gas temperatures

Unburned gas state: since heat transfer is relatively

Burned gas state:

Early burned gas,

Fig. 9-5 Cylinder pressure,

Optimum Combustion Phasing

Heat release schedule has to phase correctly with

Spark timing effects

Control of spark timing

Obtaining combustion information from engine

Cylinder pressure affected by:

Obtaining accurate combustion rate information requires

Sensitivity of NIMEP to crank angle phase error

Percent error in NIMEP

Crank angle phase error (deg)

Simple heat release analysis

Single zone, perfect gas, idealized model

Burned mass analysis

Unburned gas volume, back tracked

Burned gas volume, forward tracked

Mass fraction bunred

Hence, after some algebra

Results of heat-release analysis

Fig. 9-12 Results of heat-release analysis showing the effects of heat

2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Entrainment-and-Burn Model for SI engine combustion

Spark knock and surface ignition

Model of turbulent combustion

SI engine flame propagation

Rate at which mixture burns:

Critical parameters: uT and AT

where = 2N and N=RPM