Cap I - Curs 2 - 3 - 4 - General Sensory Systems 2014 - 2015 - PDF

Lect. univ. dr.
Loredana - Cristina MEREU

Laboratory of Biophysics & Med. Physics, Faculty of Physics, 'Alexandru Ioan Cuza' University of Iasi
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
General principles of sensory

physiology
The somatosensory System
Chemical Senses: Taste and
Olfaction
Vision
Hearing and
Equilibrium
I. General Principles of Sensory

Physiology
1. Biophysics of sensory perception
2. Receptor physiology
3. Sensory pathways
4. Sensory coding
5. Sensory Integration Dysfunction
1. Biophysics of sensory perception

Sensation is part of the complex processes of
perception, which involves the integration of
experience and comparison with other sensations, in
order to evaluate/compare the quality, intensity and
importance of sensations.
In fact, one of the most important functions of the

nervous system is to collect and interpret information
in a manner that results in appropriate mental and
motor responses. More than 99% of all sensory
information is discarded by the brain as irrelevant.
Biophysics of sensory perception
The Function of Each Sensory System Is to Provide

the CNS (Central Nervous System) with a
Representation of the External World.
Perception of a sensory experience can

change even though the input remains the
same.
Detection of a stimulus and recognition
that an event has occurred usually are
called sensation.
Interpretation and appreciation of that
event constitute perception.
Methods for studying sensory processing:

1. Psychophysics - Is the Quantitative Study of
Sensory Performance - use behavioral testing to
establish the sensitivity of a sensory system and the
rules of its operation.
A psychophysical experiment determines the
quantitative relationship between a stimulus and a
sensation in order to establish the limits of sensory
performance (Stevens, 1957)
The basic law of psychophysics emerges: how an
observer perceives a stimulus is a linear function of the
intensity of that stimulus.
Methods for studying sensory processing:
2. Electrophysiological recording from the single

neurons or small groups of neurons along the
sensory pathway to find out how the neural
circuitry gives rise to the perceptual abilities.
3. Imaging in humans that are doing perceptual

tasks to identify the brain areas responsible.
Sensory systems appear to be very diverse.

Yet they all solve the same task:
they convert environmental signals
into neural activity that can influence
the motor system of the animal.
Sensory perception reception and perception of

information from outer and inner medium.
From outer medium: Vision, hearing, smell, taste
and sense of touch
From inner medium: information on position, active
and passive movement (vestibular organ, nerveendings in the musculoskeletal system). Also:
changes in composition of inner medium and
pain.
Complex feelings: hunger, thirst, fatigue etc.

Brain and spinal cord
Somatic General - transmit

impulses from skin, skeletal
muscles, and joints
Visceral General - transmit
impulses from visceral organs
Cranial nerves
and spinal nerves
Gives sensory input to

autonomic nervous system
Innervates non-skeletal
(non-somatic) muscles
The Autonomic Nervous System
The Autonomic Nervous System - is the subdivision of

the peripheral nervous system that regulates body
activities that are generally not under conscious control.
Visceral sensory neurons

Monitor temperature, pain, irritation, chemical
changes and stretch in the visceral organs
Brain interprets as hunger, fullness, pain, nausea,
well-being
Receptors widely scattered localization poor (e.g.
which part is giving you the gas pain?)
Visceral pain is induced by stretching, infection and
cramping of internal organs but seldom by cutting (e.g.
cutting off a colon polyp) or scraping them.
Visceral pain: not as well localized as pain originating

from the skin - pain impulses travel on secondary axons
dedicated to the somatic afferents - referred pain
Pain in visceral organs is often perceived to be

somatic in origin: referred to somatic regions of body
that receive innervation from the same spinal cord
segments.
Anterior skin areas to which pain is referred

from certain visceral organs.
Classification of Sensory System by

Structural Complexity
The sensory system includes any organ or part
involved in the perceiving and receiving of stimuli.
Somatic (= general) senses
1. Touch
2. Temperature
3. Vibration
4. Nociception
5. Itch
6. Proprioception
Special senses
1. Vision
2. Hearing
3. Taste
4. Smell
5. Equilibrium
Special Senses
Commonly recognized
sensory systems are
those for:
1. vision
2. hearing
3. somatic sensation
(touch)
4. taste
5. olfaction (smell)
Five
Senses
In short, senses are transducers from the physical

world to the realm of the mind.
Special Senses
Localized confined to the head region
A sensory system is a part of the nervous

system
responsible
for
processing
sensory
information.
A sensory system consists of:
sensory receptor cells
neural pathways
parts of the brain
involved in sensory
perception.
Properties of sensory systems
a) Stimulus
-energy source:
Internal
External
b) Receptors:
Sense organs - structures specialized to respond
to stimuli
Transducers - stimulus energy converted into
action
potentials
Properties of sensory systems

c) Conduction
Afferent
pathway
Nerve
impulses
to the CNS
d) Translation
CNS integration and information processing
Sensation and perception your reality
Principles of sensory systems:

1. Not all animal biosensors are equal! What you detect
depends on your biology/ecology.
For example, many insects can detect U.V. light, but
humans cannot. Is human vision inferior? Not
necessarily, rather there is just no survival advantage
for humans.
2. When important, sensory organs are so sensitive as
to be at the limit of the physical phenomenon.
For example, best photoreceptor systems can detect a
single photon. There is nothing less than a single
photon that could be detected!

3. Sensory systems do not evolve to provide
exact/correct information, rather they evolve to
accentuate important information and minimize unimportant information.
For example, retinal edge detectors and contrast
enhancement. Note: the enhancement and minimization
of information often involves a process of filtering.
4. What is signal to one organism is noise to another.
For example, barn owls adapted to hear rustling
noises this is music to the barn owl! A major force in
evolution of sensory systems is to improve the
signal/noise ratio.

5. Sensory systems are often more sensitive than any
one receptor. Sensory systems use signal averaging.
6. Sensory processing is dynamic there is not a
single, stable sensitivity or filtering process. Rather
there is real-time adjustment of parameters.
2. Receptor physiology
Sensory receptors Definition and Properties
Behaviour involves adaptive responses (i.e.
changes) to stimuli (i.e. changes in the environment). An
organism is subjected to many different types of stimuli.
Classes of Environmental Stimuli
Stimuli are detected by sensory

receptors.
Receptor physiology. Sensory receptors Definition and Properties
All receptors work in basically the same way: They

Convert Different Forms of Energy into Electrical
Signals.
Thus they serve as biological transducers,

changing the particular form of energy ( e.g.
mechanical, chemical, thermal, or electromagnetic) of a
stimulus into the electrical signal (action potentials).
Sensory Receptors are special nerve endings

or specialized neurons or epithelial cells, distributed
throughout the body (in the skin, muscles, vessels,
bones and joints, in lungs, heart, and another organs)
that exist singly or in groups with other cell types in
sensory organs, such as eyes or ears.
Our body contains 20 types of receptors that

can detect heat, pressure, stretch, acceleration, sound,
light, smells, taste, partial pressure, concentration of
salts, hormons...and other forms of stimuli (Only
receptors for ionizing radiation are missing!!!)
Each type of receptor is specialized to respond

to only one type of stimulus there is no such thing
as a generalized receptor.
Since every receptor generates action potentials
on stimulation, if each receptor responded to several
different types of stimuli, they would all generate action
potentials so there would be no way of discriminating
between the different stimuli.
The ability to discriminate between different
stimuli is because there are different receptors for
each type of stimulus.
Different receptors are connected to different

sensory neurones, which pass to different parts of
the brain, which interpret the incoming signals in
different ways to produce the different sensations.
The visual area
interprets
incoming
actions potentials as light
to enable us to see,
whereas the auditory area
interprets then as sound
to enable us to hear.
Perhaps the first to evolve

were sensory neurons.
One cytoplasmic extension
of these bipolar cells facing the
external environment became
specialized to detect stimuli much
weaker than those activating
independent effectors, whereas
the other pole became specialized
to transmit information about
these stimuli to a group of
independent effectors.
[Fundamental Neuroscince Third edition, Larry Squire, Darwin Berg,
Sascha du Lac, Anirvan Ghosh, Nicholas Spitzer, 2008, Elsevier Inc]
Floyd Bloom,
Experimental evidence indicates that sensory

neurons provide four major selective advantages in
evolution:
Increased stimulus sensitivity
Faster effector cell responses
Stronger behavioral responses
effector cells are infl uenced
because
multiple
Sensory neurons responding to different stimulus

modalities can be distributed strategically in different
body regions
[Fundamental Neuroscince Third edition, Larry Squire, Darwin Berg, Floyd Bloom, Sascha du Lac, Anirvan Ghosh, Nicholas Spitzer, 2008, Elsevier Inc]
The bipolar shape of sensory neurons is fundamentally

important. Information normally flows in one direction through
most neurons, and thus through most neural circuitsfrom
dendrites and cell body, the input or receptive parts of the
neuron, to a single axon, the output or effector part.
In other words, most neurons have two classes of
processes: one or more dendrites detecting inputs, and a single
axon conducting an output that can influence multiple cells
through branching or collateralization.
At least in early developmental stages, all sensory
neurons have this fundamental bipolar shape, and over the
course of evolution they have become specialized to detect a
remarkablevariety of stimuli from light, temperature, and a wide
range of chemicals and ions, to vibration and other mechanical
deformations.
[Fundamental Neuroscince Third edition, Larry Squire, Darwin Berg, Floyd Bloom, Sascha du Lac, Anirvan Ghosh, Nicholas Spitzer, 2008, Elsevier Inc]
Receptor physiology. Receptive field
The receptive field (RF) is the specific part of the

world to which a receptor organ and receptor cells
respond. For instance, the part of the world an eye can
see, is its receptive field; the light that each rod or cone
can see, is its receptive field. Receptive fields have been
identified for the visual system, auditory system and
somatosensory system, so far.
A sensory unit is a
single afferent neuron
and
all
receptors
associated with it. All
the receptors of an
afferent neuron can
respond to an adequate
stimulus in an area
called a receptive field.
The RF is defined as that region of sensory space

whose stimulation results in a change in discharge
(usually firing rate) of the neuron.
Each receptor responds only to stimulation within
its receptive field. A stimulus that affects an area larger
than the receptive field of one receptor will activate
adjacent receptors.
The size of a stimulus therefore influences the
total number of receptors that are stimulated.
A large object, such as a basketball, held
between both hands will contact and activate more
touch receptors than a pencil grasped between the
thumb and index finger.
The density of receptors in a given part of the body

determines how well the sensory system can resolve the
detail of stimuli in that area.
The density of sensory

receptors in the retina
and the size of the
receptive field for each
receptor determine the
resolution of a visual
image.
A dense population of receptors leads to finer resolution

of spatial detail because the receptors have smaller
receptive fields.
These differences in receptor density are reflected in

the central nervous system in the maps of the body
created by the topographic arrangement of afferent
inputs.
A common principle is used for estimating where a

stimulus is located- topographic mapping. This
means that points close together on the sensory
surface are represented close together in the brain. In
the
somatosensory
surface
this
is
called
somatotopy, in the visual system retinotopy and
in the auditory system tonotopy.
In each map the most densely
innervated regions of the body
occupy the largest areas while
sparsely innervated regions occupy
smaller areas because of the
smaller number of inputs.
This weird picture of

a man is a visual
representation
of
the
relative proportions of the
neurons in the sensory
cortex of the right side of
the cerebral hemispheres.
Skin areas on the
trunk and limbs are poorly
supplied with sensory
neurones while the lips,
hands and feet are
extremely sensitive.
Bear et al.
Sensory homunculus:
This model shows what a
man's body would look like if
each part grew in proportion to
the area of the cortex of the
brain concerned with its
sensory perception.
Receptor physiology. Classification of sensory receptors
Somatic receptors
Visceral receptors
Chemoreceptors (taste,
smell)
Thermoreceptors
(temperature)
Photoreceptors (vision)
Baroreceptors (sound,
balance)
Proprioreceptors (muscle
stretch)
Chemoreceptors
(chemicals in blood,
osmoreceptors)
Baroreceptors (blood
pressure)
Receptor physiology. Sensory receptors Classification
Classification by Structure (complexity)

Free nerve-endings (pain)
Encapsulated nerve endings = sensory bodies
(sensitive nerve fibre + fibrous envelope - cutaneous
sensation)
Sensory cells (parts of sensory organs) - specificity
Non-specific: receptors of pain - react on various
stimuli.
Receptors :
simple (skin)
complex (eye, ear)
Classification by Structure
Classification by Location
According to the place of origin and way of their
reception:
1. Interoceptors (visceroceptors)
receive stimuli from internal viscera receptors within
the organs (heart, lungs, kidney)
monitor a variety of stimuli
detect stimuli from inside the body and include
receptors that respond to pH, oxygen level in arterial
blood, carbon dioxide concentration, osmolality of
body fluids, distention and spasm (e.g., gut), and flow
(e.g., urethra)
According to the place of origin and way of their
reception:
2. Exteroceptors
Include receptors for touch, pressure, pain, vibration
and temperature
Sensitive to stimuli arising from outside of the body
Typically located near the surface of the body
3. Proprioceptors
monitor degree of stretch informing about the length of
muscles and ligaments
are placed in muscles, in bones and joints
inform about body position and movement
Classification by Stimulus Detected (or by function)

According to the acting energy:
1. Mechanoceptors
sense physical deformation cause by forms of
mechanical energy such as pressure, touch, vibration,
stretch, motion, sound and itch etc.
they transform mechanic energy into electric signal
(e.g. exteroreceptor, baroreceptors, pulmonary
stretch receptors).
Baroreceptors detect changes

in fluid pressure

Light
touch
Mechanoceptors
Strong
pressure
Epidermis
Touch receptors
(light and deep
touch)
are
embedded
in
connective tissue.
Dermis
Hypodermis
Nerve
Connective
tissue
Hair
Classification by Stimulus Detected

2. Thermoceptors - respond to temperature changes

-heat or cold and help regulate body temperature by
signaling surface and body core temperature.
- located in skin and anterior hypothalamus

2. Thermoceptors
Mammals have
many
thermoreceptors each
for
a
specific
temperature range.
Thermoreceptors
Heat
Cold
Capsaicin triggers the

same thermoreceptors
as high temperature
Menthol triggers the
same receptors as cold
(<28oC)
Nerve
Connective
tissue
Hair

3. Chemoceptors - respond to chemical stimuli in

solution(e.g., smell, taste, changes in blood chemistry)
taste receptors in the tongue, smell receptors within a
nose, osmoreceptors in hypothalamus.
Osmoreceptors detect changes in concentration of
solutes, osmotic activity
General receptors: respond to total
solute concentrations
Specific
receptors:
respond
to
concentrations of specific molecules

4. Photoceptors or Electromagnetic receptors

- respond to various forms of electromagnetic energy
such as visible light, electricity, and magnetism.
- receptors containing photopigments (rods and cones
at retina
Electromagnetic
receptors
Snakes can have very
sensitive
infrared
receptors detect body
heat of prey
Animals can use earths
magnetic field lines to
orient
themselves
during
migration
(magnetite in body)
orientation mechanism
Eye
Infrared
receptor
This rattlesnake and other pit vipers have a pair of infrared

receptors, one between each eye and nostril. The organs
are sensitive enough to detect the infrared radiation
emitted by a warm mouse a meter away.
Some migrating animals, such as these beluga whales,

apparently sense Earths magnetic field and use the
information, along with other cues, for orientation.

5. Pain receptors, or nociceptors (non-specific)
Pain
are a class of naked dendrites

in the epidermis (in skin, in
organs); respond to harmful
stimuli that result in pain
Defensive function- stimulated
by things that are harmful high
temperature,
high
pressure,
noxious chemicals, inflammations
Nerve
Connective
tissue
Hair
Receptor physiology
Sensing gravity and sound in invertebrates:

Hair of different stiffness and length vibrate at different
frequencies and pick up sound waves and vibrations
Statocyts: organ with ciliated receptor cells surrounding a
chamber containing statoliths in invertebrates sense gravity
Ciliated
receptor cells
Cilia
Statolith
Tympanic
membrane
1 mm
Sensory
nerve fibers
Tympanic membrane stretched over

their ear help sense vibrations
Receptor physiology
Sensing gravity and sound in humans:

Human ear: sensory organ for hearing and
equilibrium
Our organ for hearing hair cells are
mechanoreceptors because they respond to
vibrations
Moving air pressure is converted to fluid
pressure
Receptor physiology
Sensory receptors
= Protein Receptors in Sensory Cell Membrane
In biophysics, the receptors are energy transducers

above all.
Mechanical and chemical receptors sense the bodys

condition.
3. Sensory pathways
Sensory perception is an ability to distinguish, detect,
utilize some feelings, and answer to many information
that come to the brain through the reflex arc.
Sensory pathways
The reflex arc consists of:

receptor
afferent nerve pathway
the central nervous system (brain and spine)
efferent pathway
effector (muscle).
Sensory pathways
Sensory pathways
The
sensory
pathways
convey the type and
location of the sensory
stimulus.
The type: because of the
type of receptor activated.
The location: because the
brain has a map of the
location of each receptor.
Stimulus transduction to electrical energy

receptor potential action potential
Sensory pathways
Stimulus as physical energy sensory receptor acts

as a transducer
Stimulus > threshold action potential to CNS
Integration in CNS cerebral cortex or acted on
subconsciously
Sensory pathways
Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and

transmit signals to CNS (central nervous system)
1. Reception: detection via extero- or intero-receptors
2. Transduction: stimulus energy converted into
changes in membrane potential of sensory receptor
(receptor potential)
Amplification
Adaptation
3. Transmission: action potentials transmitted to the
CNS
4. Perception: constructions formed in brain (color,
smell, sounds)
Sensory pathways
1. Reception
Excitation is manifested at the receptor cells.
These are either special cells (i.e. cells with hairs in the
cochlea of the inner ear hair cells) or non-myelinated
endings of the afferent primary neurons (otherwise
known as sensory or receptor neurons).
Intensity is a common dimension to all stimuli. It is
a measure of energy (or the concentration of chemical
excitation) which interacts with sensory receptors.
Stimulus is based on the sensory modality, such
as the traditional five senses: taste, smell, touch, sight
and hearing. More complex stimuli (e.g. humidity) are a
combination of primary
ones (pressure and
temperature).
Sensory pathways. Reception
Biophysics-Lectures-2012-3 (Physiology)
Photoreceptors detect light, and they are the

function of the senses of vision;
Chemoreceptors are in function of sensations of
taste and smell, and control of arterial blood;
Mechanoreceptors sense physical deformity and
participate in the sense of touch and hearing, as well as
in the detection of stress in the muscles and tendons;
Thermal receptors detect thermal changes;
Proprioceptors are sensors that provide
information about joint angle, muscle length, and
tension position of the limb in space;
Nociceptors detect harmful substances, etc.
Sensory pathways.
1. Sensory reception
2. Transduction - Conversion of physical, chemical and

other stimuli to change in membrane potential;
Information from an environment come to our body and
are processed by our senses (Touch, Taste, Smell,
Vision, Hearing). Reaching the body the information
are coded in 2 forms: as a local electric response
(local potential), and the general action potential (AP)
Typically activation of a sensory receptor by an
adequate stimulus results in depolarization or graded
potentials that trigger nerve impulses along the
afferent fibers coursing to the CNS
Sensory pathways. Transduction
Each excitation causes the receptor (generator)

potential: a change in the resting potential of the
neuron. This change is usually depolarization, but can
be hyper-polarization, or even both (for example,
alternating in the case of hair cells in hearing).
The conversion of specific energy excitation in the
receptors potential (i.e. mechanical, heat, light or
chemical energy into electrical energy) is called signal
.
transduction. It is based on the change of
membrane permeability, either by mechanical
deformation, binding of ligands, changing temperatures
or absorption of the electromagnetic radiation
A chemical binds to the receptors

on an afferent process, causes
depolarization and discharge.
A hair cell is activated by
vibration, becomes depolarized
and releases transmitter which
excites an afferent fiber; it
discharges and this information
reaches the CNS.
.
A photoreceptor
is activated by
light; its release of transmitter is
reduced. After a series of complex
interactions in the retina, ganglion
cells discharge and send this
information to the brain.
Events in
sensory
transduction.
(a) Depolarization of a free nerve ending leads to a

receptor potential that spreads by local current flow to
the axon. (b) Action potentials are produced in the axon
in response to a sufficiently large receptor potential
Sensory Transduction Among the Vertebrates
Sensory Transduction Among the Vertebrates
Receptor adaptation
Generating potential of most of the sensory receptors
exposed to the constant stimulus gradually declines
over time leading to a reduction of the frequency of
action potentials. Thus, the receptor is adjusting to
continuous stimulus by reducing the sensitivity -this is
called adaptation. The adaptation occurs at the level of
transduction.
It is thought that adaptation occurs in order to:
1) reduce stimulus overload
2) ignore continuous, but less important stimulation,
and to have the ability of perception of fast changes
(and not just the magnitude) of stimulation.
Receptor adaptation
It is usually caused by inactivation of sodium
channels after extended period of depolarization, and
can weaken fundamental capacity of receptors to
produce the receptor potential (for example, light
induced breakdown of photo-sensitive molecules in rods
and cones of the eye), and it may influence the actions
of supporting structures by the mechanism of negative
feedback (for example, too much light closes the eye
pupil).
The adaptation degree is different for various
receptors. Adaptation can be fast or slow.
Tonic receptors
- slow acting; adapt just a little or not significantly at all.
- continue to form impulses as long as the stimulus is
there (ex: proprioreceptors)
Phasic receptors
- quick acting, adapt: stop firing when stimuli are
constant (ex: smell)
The receptors with Low Adaptation are involved in a

control of blood pressure, in control of breathing, in
responses of body to the pain sensation - protection
mechanism, etc.
The Law of Adaptation

Adaptation - is an internal electric property(caused by membrane
properties of the receptor) to respond when the long-term stimulus
of a constant intensity is applied. Actualy, it is a drop of the
receptor excitability to give rise the GP and then the Aps.
Receptors with Rapid Adaptation of their Burst Activity - their
fire just for a short time, during the constant (maintained)
stimulation (as typically seen in touch, pressure, taste and smell
receptors.)
Receptors with Low Adaptation of their Burst Activity -they
fire for a long time with only a low drop of their firing activity (as
seen in the pain, cold, heat receptors, baroreceptors, in
pulmonary stretch recepors, the chemoreceptors, carotid
baroreceptors or in the pulmonary stretch receptors).
Sensory pathways
2. Transduction
3. Transmission
Sensory information is transmitted through the
nervous system as nerve impulses or action potential to
the Central Nervous System (CNS).
Some axons can extend directly into the CNS and
some form synapses with dendrites of other neurons.
Primary response of sensory cell to the stimulus:
receptor potential and receptor current are proportional
to the intensity of stimulus. The receptor potential
triggers the action potential.
Sensory pathways. Transmission
Receptor Potential to Action Potential

How can we distinguish between color, taste and
hearing if all are converted into the same type of action
potential?
Sensory receptors initiate coded messages:
total number of fibers transmitting
specific fibers carrying signal
total number of action potentials
frequency of action potentials
Local electric response- takes local place, it does not

spread to the vicinity, when its magnitude reaches
more than 10 mV then, in turn AP is produced. This
type of coding is so called AMPLITUDE. (i.e. the
stronger is stimulus, the higher is amplitude of
response).
Action potential is a generally spreading electricity,
being under the Law All or None. This type of coding
is named FREQUENCY i.e. the stronger is stimulus
the higher is a rate of APs from the receptors. The
brain knows that a higher frequency of action
potentials means a stronger stimulus (and vice
versa).
Conversion function of receptors

Transformation of amplitude modulated receptor
potential into the frequency-modulated action
potential.
Magnitude
of
receptor
potential controls the rate at
which action potentials are
generated
(larger
receptor
potential results in more frequent
action potentials)
Receptor
potential
Generator
potential
Action
potential
Conversion function of receptors

Sensory neurons spontaneously generate
potential without stimulus at a low rate.
action
Increased intensity of
stimulus, i.e. increased
amplitude of receptor
potential
evokes
an
increase
in
action
potential frequency.
Stretch receptors (mechanoreceptors) are dendrites

that spiral around small skeletal muscle fibers.
Weak
muscle stretch
Muscle
Stretch
receptor
Axon
Receptor potential
50
50
Membrane
potential (mV)
Dendrites
Strong
muscle stretch
70
Action potentials
70
70
70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (sec)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (sec)
Crayfish stretch receptors have dendrites embedded in abdominal

muscles. When the abdomen bends, muscles and dendrites
stretch, producing a receptor potential in the stretch receptor. The
receptor potential triggers action potentials in the axon of the
stretch receptor. A stronger stretch produces a larger receptor
potential and higher frequency of action potentials.
Sensory pathways
2. Transduction
3. Transmission
4. Perception:
Action potential reach the brain via sensory neurons,
generating perception of a stimulus
All action potentials have the same property, what
makes the perceptions different are the part of the
brain they link to.
Sensory receptors are connected to different parts of
the brain which interprets signal and generates
sensation.
Sensory pathways. Perception
In every case,
soon after peripheral
input arrives in the
brain, decussations
result in one hemifield
being
represented
primarily by the brain
on the opposite side.
Each pathway has a unique nucleus in the

thalamus and several unique fields in the cerebral
cortex.
Within each of
these
areas,
the
organized
mapping
that is established by
receptors
in
the
periphery is preserved.
Laws of Sensory Perception

Biophysical relation between the stimulus and sensation
Weber-Fechners Law: is a basic psychophysical Law.

The bigger is the intensity of stimulation, the higher is
the magnitude of sensation.
The intensity of sensation (IR ) increases with stimulus
intensity (IS) non-linearly.
It was presumed earlier the sensation intensity is
proportional to the logarithm of stimulus intensity:
IR = k1 . log(IS)

Today is the relation expressed exponentially

called Stevensons Law a modified form of WeberFechner law
IR = k2 . ISa
k1, k2 are the proportionality constants, a is an exponent
specific for a sense modality (a = 1 is valid for
mechanoreceptors, a < 1, for fotoreceptors, a > 1, for
pain receptors).
The Stevens law expresses better the relation
between the stimulus and sensation at very low or high
stimulus intensities.

The lowest stimulus strength a subject can detect

is termed the sensory threshold. Thresholds are
normally determined statistically by presenting a subject
with a series of stimuli of random amplitude. The
percentage of times the subject reports detecting the
stimulus is plotted as a function of stimulus amplitude,
forming a relation called the psychometric function.
Threshold is defined as
the stimulus intensity
detected on 50% of the
trials.

Sensory Thresholds Are Modified by Psychological and

Pharmacological Factors
The
absolute
sensory
threshold (curve b) is an idealized
relationship
between
stimulus
intensity and the probability of
stimulus detection. If the sensory
system's ability to detect the stimulus
is increased or the subject's
response criterion is decreased,
curve a would be observed; curve c
illustrates the converse.
Marijuana also increases pain thresholds, but does so by
increasing the response criterion rather than decreasing stimulus
detectabilitythe stimulus is just as painful but the subject is
more tolerant.


The measurement of sensory thresholds is a

useful diagnostic technique for determining sensory
function in individual modalities.
Elevation of threshold may signal an abnormality
in sensory receptors (such as loss of hair cells in the
inner ear caused by aging or exposure to very loud
noise), deficits in nerve conduction properties (as in
multiple sclerosis), or a lesion in sensory processing
areas of the brain.
Sensory thresholds may also be altered as a
result of emotional or psychological factors related to
the conditions in which stimulus detection is measured.
4. Sensory coding
A receptor must convey the type of information it
is sending the kind of receptor activated determined
the signal recognition by the brain.
It must convey the intensity of the stimulus
the stronger the signals, the more frequent will be the
Aps.
It must send information about the location and
receptive field, characteristic of the receptor.
4. Sensory coding
Stimulus type is coded by the receptor type and

the pathway activated when the stimulus is applied.
The perception of a stimulation often results from the
simultaneous activation of more than one sensory
pathway.
The
final
perception results
from integration
in the brain of
information from
various sensory
systems.
(Pinocchio
illusion)
4. Sensory coding
What do Sensory Systems Sense?

There are two main functions of any sensory system:
1. The detection of a signal. Weak signals can be
detected without the animal being able to finely
discriminate any of its features.
2. Discrimination of some aspects of a sensory input.
This is often referred to as estimation.
A common strategy of sensory systems is to have
separate neural pathways specialized for estimating
different types of stimulus features. For example, the
visual system analyzes colour, shape and movement in
different brain regions.
4. Sensory coding
What must be estimated from the input?
1. Qualitative features such as colour or odorant; this

is often referred to as modality- what is it?
2. Quantitative features such as magnitude- often
referred to as the intensity of a stimulus;
3. Temporal features such as duration or frequency
of a signal.
4. Spatial location of a stimulus- where is it?
Typically, all these aspects are estimated at once.
4. Sensory coding
How are these attributes represented in the brain?

1. Modality: the most basic mechanism for identifying
the nature of a sensory input is via labeled lines.
What this means is that input from the optic nerve is
always interpreted by the brain as visual input etc.
This extends to much finer discriminations: the
connections of pain and touch fibers in the
somatosensory system are entirely different and
electrical stimulation of either leads to the appropriate
sensation.
4. Sensory coding

2. Intensity: the estimated intensity of a stimulus is
not a linear function of the actual intensity.
The relation can be described as logarithmic or power
law. The reason is intuitively easy to understand.
Increases of a weak signal generate a larger perceived
increase than increases of a strong signal- the percept
saturates.
Intensity is coded by the frequency of action
potentials (frequency coding) and the number of
receptors activated (population coding). Stronger
stimuli produce a higher frequency of actions
potentials.
4. Sensory coding

2. Intensity
Intensity is interpreted by population coding because
the more intense the stimulus, the greater the number
of receptors stimulated. This results from either a
single sensory unit (sensory afferent neuron) sending
more action potentials to the CNS or more sensory
units sending action potentials to the CNS.
4. Sensory coding

3. Temporal features.
Typically there are neurons in sensory systems that only
respond to the onset of a stimulus- these are generally
referred to as phasic responders and they are good for
estimating the time of occurrence of a signal. There
are other neurons that respond throughout the stimulus
presentation- tonic responders- these signal stimulus
duration. The frequency of a signal may be very
important in some senses (audition).
4. Sensory coding

4. Location. The receptive fields of specific afferent
neurons code for stimulus location. Tactile receptors in
the skin illustrate this. The precision of stimulus location
is acuity.
Acuity depends on:
1. Size and number of receptive fields. The
smaller the receptive field the greater the acuity. For
example, tactile acuity can be measured by two-point
discrimination or the ability to perceive two fine points
pressed against the skin as two points and not as one.
4. Sensory coding

4. Location.
The smaller the receptive fields the smaller the distance
between two points of stimulation can be and still be
discriminated.
Areas with smaller
receptive fields (lips,
fingertips)
have
better
two-point
discrimination than
those with larger
fields
(back,
shoulder).
4. Sensory coding

4. Location.
Acuity depends on:
2. Lateral inhibition - occurs when a strong
stimulus applied to the receptive field of one neuron
causes that neuron to inhibit transmission of signals by
neurons with neighboring receptive fields. Lateral
inhibition increases acuity because it increases the
contrast of signals in the nervous system.
4. Sensory coding

4. Location. Acuity depends on: 2. Lateral inhibition
In other words, the
difference between
the strength of the
signals coming from
the central neuron in
the affected field
and the neurons on
the periphery is
increased as the
information
is
processed in the
central
nervous
system.
4. Sensory coding
Getting Sense Input into the CNS

Sensory input comes in many flavours. Information in
the CNS all comes in the same currency- action
potentials or spikes.
The reason that the CNS uses only one way to transmit
information is simple: it allows integration of different
types sensory input and the connection of sensory
input to motor output- all the neurons dealing with
these different systems use the same language of
spikes.
4. Sensory coding
Getting Sense Input into the CNS

The problem becomes: how to translate the different
kinds of sensory input into spikes. In all cases this is
done by specialized receptor cells in a process
called sensory transduction which depends on the
nature
of
the
signal
(Chemoreception,
Mechanoreception, Vibration reception, Light).
The initial transduction process causes the receptor cell
to depolarize and this leads to spike initiation in
sensory afferent fibers that then convey this
information to the brain.
The message sent by a receptor to the brain is in the
form of a sequence of spikes- a spike train. What is
this message?
4. Sensory coding
In addition to place codes, neurons can signal

information in the rate at which they respond and in the
temporal pattern of their response.
For a given receptor, the firing rate or frequency of
action potentials signals the strength of the sensory
input.
The perceived intensity arises from an interaction
between this firing rate and the number of neurons
activated by a stimulus.
Together the number of neurons active with any
sensory stimulus and the level of their activity gives rise
to an intensity code.
4. Sensory coding
The Overall Plan of Sensory Systems

When a sensory neuron fires, it communicates to the
brain that a certain form of energy has been received
at a specific location in the sense organ.
The details of the action potential code tell the brain:
how much energy was received at that place
when it began
when it stopped
how quickly the energy changed in intensity.
All sensory systems also
processing mechanisms.
have
similar
central
4. Sensory coding
The Overall Plan of Sensory Systems

For all sensory systems there is a common plan:
Peripheral receptors respond to a specific stimulus
and convert it (directly or indirectly) into a spike train.
The afferent fibers end in lower brain regions where
they are processed. Quite often there are many
parallel pathways present.
When rapid responses are required, the processed
information might go directly to a motor system.
However, for more detailed analysis, the information
proceeds to higher brain levels for further processing.
In mammals and birds, the sensory input reaches the
forebrain where it somehow results in the perception
of complex patterns.
4. Sensory coding
Parallel Pathways for General and Communication Signals
A very general principle of sensory coding is

that communication signals have their own separate
channels. An animal might encounter very different
environments depending on where it is born; for
example, a city rat and a country rat will likely encounter
very different odors. So sensory systems need to adapt
themselves to the experiences of different animals.
In contrast, communication signals evolve over
evolutionary time and are highly conserved for each
species. For example, many animals (including rats)
use pheromones to communicate gender etc. These are
fixed and so the olfactory system does not have to
learn about different pheromones.

Sensory Integration is the neurological process
of organizing information we get from our bodies and the
world around us for use in daily life. It takes place in the
central nervous system, which consists of countless
neurons, a spinal cord, and - at the "head" - a brain.
The main task of our central
nervous system is to integrate
the senses. Over 80 per cent
of the nervous system is
involved in processing or
organizing sensory input, and
thus the brain is primarily a
sensory processing machine.
Self-regulation is the ability to control one's

activity level and state of alertness, as well as one's
emotional, mental or physical responses to sensations.
It is self-organization.
The vestibular, tactile and proprioceptive
senses are fundamental. They lay the groundwork for
healthy
development.
Sensory
Integration
Dysfunction is the inability to process information
received through the senses. Also called Sensory
Integration Disorder, Sensory Integrative Disorder or
SI for short.
Sensory integration dysfunction is the result of

inefficient neurological processing. Dysfunction
happens in the central nervous system, at the "head" of
which is the brain. When a glitch occurs, the brain
cannot analyze, organize and connect - or integrate
sensory messages.
The result is the person cannot
respond to sensory information to
behave
in
a
meaningful,
consistent way. He/she may also
have difficulty using sensory
information to plan and organize
what he needs to do. Thus, he
may not learn easily.
The brain-behaviour
connection is very strong.
Because a person with Sensory Integration Dysfunction
has a disorganized brain, many aspects of his behaviour
are disorganized. His overall development is disorderly.
Behaviour problems are almost always present with a
person with Sensory Integration Dysfunction.
Self-regulation problems occur: the person is unable
to "rev up" or calm down once aroused. He/she may
also perform unevenly.

BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SENSORY INTEGRATION
DYSFUNCTION
1. Unusually high activity level. The person may be

always on the go, move with short and nervous
gestures, play or work aimlessly, be quick-tempered and
easily excited, and find it impossible to stay seated.
2. Unusually low activity level. The person may move
slowly and in a daze, fatigue easily, lack initiative and
"stick-to-it-iveness" and show little interest in the world.
3. Impulsivity. The person may lack self-control and be
unable to stop after starting an activity. For example,
she may pour juice until it spills, run into trees and
people, and talk out of turn.

DYSFUNCTION
4. Distractibility. The person may have a short

attention span, even for activities he enjoys. The person
may pay attention to everything except the task at hand.
The person may be disorganized and forgetful.
5. Problems with muscle tone and motor
coordination. The person's body may be either tense
or "loose and floppy". The person may be awkward,
clumsy, apparently careless, and accident-prone.

BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
SENSORY INTEGRATION DYSFUNCTION
6. Problems motor planning.

Motor planning is the ability to conceive of, organize,
sequence and carry out complex movements in a
meaningful way.
The person may have trouble climbing stairs,
negotiating obstacle courses and equipment, riding
bikes, dressing, getting in and out of the car, and using
eating and writing utensils.
His ability to learn new motor skills, such as clapping
out rhythms and skipping, may develop noticeably later
than other children's.

DYSFUNCTION
7. Lack of a definite hand preference by the age of

four or five. The person may not use one hand
consistently when handling tools such as pens and
forks. She may use either hand to reach for an object.
She may switch the object from right to left when
handling it, eat with one hand but draw with the other, or
use both hands to manipulate scissors.
8. Poor eye-hand coordination. The person may have
trouble using pens, creating art projects, doing puzzles,
eating neatly, or tying shoes. The person's handwriting
may be sloppy and uneven.

DYSFUNCTION
9. Resistance to novel situations. The person may

object to leaving the house, meeting new people, trying
new jobs, or tasting different foods. The person may be
panicky for no obvious reason.
10. Difficulty making transitions from one situation
to another. The person may seem stubborn and
uncooperative when it is time to come for dinner, get
into (or out of) bathtubs, or change from one activity to
another. Minor changes in routine will upset this person
who does not "go with the flow".

DYSFUNCTION
11. High level of frustration. Struggling to accomplish

tasks that peers do easily, the person may give up
quickly. He may be a perfectionist and become upset
when art or work projects don't meet his expectations.
Insisting on being the winner, the best, orthe first, he
may be a poor game-player.
12. Self-regulation problems. The person may be
unable to "rev up" or calm down once aroused. The
person may perform unevenly: "with it" one day, "out of
it" the next.

13. Academic problems. The person may have

difficulty learning new skills and concepts, and may be
perceived as an underachiever.
14. Social problems. The person may be hard to get
along with and have difficulty making friends and
communicating. He may need to control his surrounding
territory and have trouble sharing.

15. Emotional problems.

He may be overly sensitive to change, stress, and hurt
feelings and be disorganized, inflexible, and irrational.
He may be demanding and needy, seeking attention in
negative ways.
He may be unhappy, believing and saying that lie is
crazy, no good, a dummy, a loser, and a failure.
Low self-esteem is one of the most telling symptoms of
poor sensory control.
References
NEUROSCIENCE: Third Edition, Dale Purves et al., 2004 Sinauer
Associates, Inc.
Fundamental neuroscience /by Larry Squire et al.3rd ed. 2008, Elsevier Inc.
Coding of Sensory Information, Esther P. Gardner John H. Martin;
http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/class/psy394U/hayhoe/IntroSens
oryMotorSystems/week3/Kandel%20Ch%2021,%2022,%2023.pdf
http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~ajyu/Teaching/Cogs160_sp12/Lectures/lect1.pdf
http://freedownloadb.net/ppt/sensory-and-motor-mechanisms-6026576.html
www.austincc.edu/rfofi/BIO2304/2304LecPPT/2304Sensory.ppt
www.mohsenparviz.ir/lesson/L5-%20Sensory%20Receptors.ppt
www.med.uottawa.ca/Courses/NSC5104/.../NeuralSystemsSensory1.ppt
www.med.muni.cz/biofyz/files/en/HEARING-finx.ppt
www.jfmed.uniba.sk/.../Biofysics_of_sensory_p._receptors__vision.ppt
faculty.weber.edu/nokazaki/.../PPT%20notes/Sensory%20System.ppt
http://humanservices.alberta.ca/documents/pdd/pdd-central-sensoryintegration-dysfunction.pdf

Cap I - Curs 2 - 3 - 4 - General Sensory Systems 2014 - 2015 - PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cap I - Curs 2 - 3 - 4 - General Sensory Systems 2014 - 2015 - PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lect. univ. dr.

Loredana - Cristina MEREU

General principles of sensory

I. General Principles of Sensory

1. Biophysics of sensory perception

In fact, one of the most important functions of the

Biophysics of sensory perception

The Function of Each Sensory System Is to Provide

Biophysics of sensory perception

Perception of a sensory experience can

Biophysics of sensory perception

Methods for studying sensory processing:

Biophysics of sensory perception

Methods for studying sensory processing:

2. Electrophysiological recording from the single

3. Imaging in humans that are doing perceptual

Biophysics of sensory perception

Sensory systems appear to be very diverse.

Biophysics of sensory perception

Sensory perception reception and perception of

Biophysics of sensory perception

Somatic General - transmit

Biophysics of sensory perception

Gives sensory input to

The Autonomic Nervous System

Biophysics of sensory perception

Biophysics of sensory perception

The Autonomic Nervous System - is the subdivision of

Biophysics of sensory perception

Biophysics of sensory perception

Visceral sensory neurons

Biophysics of sensory perception

Visceral pain: not as well localized as pain originating

Biophysics of sensory perception

Pain in visceral organs is often perceived to be

Anterior skin areas to which pain is referred

Biophysics of sensory perception

Classification of Sensory System by

Biophysics of sensory perception

In short, senses are transducers from the physical

Biophysics of sensory perception

Biophysics of sensory perception

A sensory system is a part of the nervous

Biophysics of sensory perception

Properties of sensory systems

Biophysics of sensory perception

Properties of sensory systems

Biophysics of sensory perception

Principles of sensory systems:

Biophysics of sensory perception

Principles of sensory systems:

Biophysics of sensory perception

Principles of sensory systems:

Stimuli are detected by sensory

Receptor physiology. Sensory receptors Definition and Properties

All receptors work in basically the same way: They

Thus they serve as biological transducers,

Receptor physiology. Sensory receptors Definition and Properties

Receptor physiology. Sensory receptors Definition and Properties

Sensory Receptors are special nerve endings

Receptor physiology. Sensory receptors Definition and Properties

Our body contains 20 types of receptors that