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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes
Geochemistry of loess-paleosol sediments of Kashmir Valley, India: Provenance

and weathering
Ishtiaq Ahmad , Rakesh Chandra
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar 190 006, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 18 January 2012
Received in revised form 7 December 2012
Accepted 25 December 2012
Available online 11 January 2013
Keywords:
Loess-paleosol
Middle to Late Pleistocene
Geochemistry
Provenance
Paleoweathering
Kashmir Valley
India
a b s t r a c t
Middle to Late Pleistocene loess-paleosol sediments of Kashmir Valley, India, were analyzed for major,
trace and REE elements in order to determine their chemical composition, provenance and intensity of
palaeo-weathering of the source rocks. These sediments are generally enriched with Fe2O3, MgO, MnO,
TiO2, Y, Ni, Cu, Zn, Th, U, Sc, V and Co while contents of SiO2, K2O, Na2O, P2O5, Sr, Nb and Hf are lower
than the UCC. Chondrite normalized REE patterns are characterized by moderate enrichment of LREEs,
relatively flat HREE pattern (GdCN/YbCN = 1.932.31) and lack of prominent negative Eu anomaly (Eu/
Eu = 0.731.01, average = 0.81). PAAS normalized REE are characterized by slightly higher LREE, depleted
HREE and positive Eu anomaly. Various provenance discrimination diagrams reveal that the Kashmir
Loess-Paleosol sediments are derived from the mixed source rocks suggesting large provenance with variable geological settings, which apparently have undergone weak to moderate recycling processes.
Weathering indices such as CIA, CIW and PIA values (71.87, 83.83 and 80.57 respectively) and A-CN-K
diagram imply weak to moderate weathering of the source material.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Loess blanket about 10% portion of the globe (Pye, 1987). The
loess deposits are usually found very close to desert margins, to
the mountainous areas, in flood plains of large rivers, on shallow
marine shelves emerged during the last glacial periods and in the
periglacial environment. Almost all the known loess deposits are
essentially of Quaternary age, but little ancient loess with age as
old as Late Precambrian has been recognized (e.g., Edwards, 1979).
In the last two decades, loess deposits have attracted increasing
attention of the Earth Scientists mainly because of their potential
preservation of the past climatic records. Their aeolian origin was
established more than a hundred years ago by the pioneering work
of Von Richthofen (1882) on the Chinese Loess deposits. At present,
an aeolian origin is generally accepted but the detailed processes of
the loess formation with increasing complexity are also recognized
(Smalley and Smalley, 1983). For example, a significant part of the
loess deposits has been reworked and subsequently redeposited.
The chemical composition of loessic sediments is closely related
to the mineral composition of the dust sources, post-depositional
weathering and transportation of sediments from source region
to depocenter. The bulk chemistry of these sediments preserves
the near-original signature of the provenance. Consequently, loess
differs in chemical composition from one region to another and
even from one stratigraphic unit to another (Pye and Johnson,
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9697318304.
E-mail address: khishtiaqahmad@gmail.com (I. Ahmad).
1367-9120/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.12.029
1988; Taylor et al., 1983). These sediments also more faithfully reveal paleoweathering conditions (e.g., Yang and Ding, 2004; Yang
et al., 2006; Ujvari et al., 2008; Muhs et al., 2001, 2008). Like other
clastic sedimentary rocks, these loessic sediments also subjected to
various degrees of chemical weathering and leaching. As loess
weathers, elements that are soluble under surficial weathering
conditions (e.g., Ca2+, Na+, K+) can be readily leached out relative
to stable residual constituents (Al3+, Ti4+) during weathering (Nesbitt and Young, 1982). If weathering is strong and persistent, silica
is released, residual sesquioxides can be concentrated, and even
some new sesquioxides can be formed. While low degree of weathering of sedimentary rocks indicates the absence or weak chemical
alteration of the sediments. Thus, the fluctuation in chemical
weathering intensity reflects the systematic variations of element
abundances. The relative variations of various elements have been
used to ascertain the degree of chemical weathering (Nesbitt and
Young, 1982; Price and Velbel, 2003; Jin et al., 2006; Yang et al.,
2006; Ceryan, 2008). Numerous investigations corroborate the
above aspects pertaining to provenances and weathering of loessic
sediments based on geochemical signatures of loess-paleosol sediments (e.g., Jahn et al., 2001; Sun et al., 2007; Muhs and Budahn,
2006; Liang et al., 2009).
In Kashmir, loess deposits are distributed throughout the valley
and covering an area of 500 sq. km. However, these sediments
show great variation in their thickness. The maximum thickness
is found on the southwestern part of the Kashmir Valley where
these are about 22 m thick. The thickness decrease toward the
northeastern part of the valley and is measured about 4 m. These
74
I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389
sediments lie within the Brunhes normal magnetic epoch (Kusumgar et al., 1980). The loess deposits along northeastern part of the
Kashmir Valley are younger than 85 ka years. However, along the
southwestern part of the valley entire loess sequence spans at least
300 ka (Singhvi et al., 1987). On the basis of micromorphological
investigation, Pant et al. (1985) and Bronger and Pant (1985) proposed a stratigraphic comparison between two loess-paleosol sequences both along the Himalayan and Pir Panjal flanks. They
concluded that along the northeastern part of the Kashmir Valley,
the older loess-paleosol sequence is missing and in their places,
fluvio-lacustrine sediments of the Upper Karewa exist. Lot of work
has been carried out by various workers (e.g., Agrawal et al., 1979,
1988, 1989; Kusumgar et al., 1980, 1986; Krishnamurthy et al.,
1982, 1985; Bronger and Pant, 1985; Pant and Dilli, 1986; Bronger
et al., 1987; Gardner, 1989) to establish the lithostratigraphy of
these sediments. However, very little data based geological work
has carried out on these loessic sediments. With the exception of
work of Lodha et al. (1985) and Lodha (1987) no attempt has made
to carry out the geochemical study of these loess-paleosol sediments. The present study examines the detailed geochemistry of
Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments and attempts to constrain their
chemical weathering and provenance. Two representative loesspaleosol containing sequences at Dilpur (33560 N and 74470 E)
and Karapur (33500 N and 74570 E) village sections along the
southwestern part of the Kashmir Valley have been selected for
the present research work (Fig. 1). These sections represent the
most complete and best records of the terrestrial sedimentation
in Kashmir Valley.
2. Regional tectonic and geological setup of Kashmir Valley
Kashmir Valley comprises a very important place in the geotectonic of Kashmir Himalaya. The general strike of the Kashmir
Valley is from NW to SE, running parallel to the Great Himalayan
Mountain range in the north and Pir-Panjal Mountain range in

the south. The valley takes the form of graben bounded by NWSE trending parallel Panjal Thrust and Zanskar Thrust. Wadia
(1931) described the thrust-bounded basin, as Kashmir Nappe
Zone comprising the rocks of PaleozoicMesozoic marine sediments, with Precambrian basement thrusted along a regional tectonic plane viz., Panjal Thrust over the younger rocks of the
autochthones belt. The Kashmir Nappe forms two major axes of
orogenic upheaval along the Pir-Panjal and the Great Himalayan
ranges. The valley posses almost complete stratigraphic record of
rocks of all ages ranging from Archean to Recent (Fig. 2).
However, Panjal Volcanic Complex and the Triassic Limestone
form the two main geological formations, underlain by the Archean
metasedimentary rocks (Salkhala Formation) (Fig. 2). Salkhala Formation constitutes carbonaceous slates, graphitic phyllite and
schist associated with carbonaceous grey or white limestone, marble, calcareous slate and calcareous schist. It also comprises sericitic phyllites and schists, garentiferous schists and flaggy quartzite.
The outcrops of these oldest rocks are found around the northwestern extremity of the Kashmir Valley and portions of the Pir-Panjal
range. Exposures of Triassic sequence comprise alternate thick
dark grey limestone, micaceous shale and shally-arenaceous impure limestone (Datta, 1983). These rocks are also associated with
granites and gneisses. The other rocks of lesser distribution include
Dogra Slates, Cambro-Silurian, Zewan Formation and MuthQuartzite (Bhat, 1982). Dogra Slates constitute dark grey shale/
slate with quartzite; Cambro-Silurian rocks consist of limestone,
siltstone, shale, quartzite, greenish-grey sandstone and dolomite
with stromatolite (Bhat, 1982).
The Panjal Volcanic Complex is divisible into two well-marked
horizons, the lower Agglomeratic Slate and the upper Panjal Lava
flows (Bhat and Zainuddin, 1978). The Panjal traps includes all
the coeval flows found throughout Ladakh, North Zanskar (Singh
et al., 1976), Suru area (Fig. 1c; Honegger et al., 1982; Papritz
Fig. 1. Map showing the locations of the study area.
75
Fig. 2. Geological map of Kashmir Himalaya (after Thakur and Rawat, 1992).
and Rey, 1989; Gaetani et al., 1990; Spencer et al., 1995), Kashmir
Valley (Pareek, 1976; Bhat and Zainuddin, 1978, 1979) where they
reach a maximum thickness of about 2500 m. Here they consist in
a basal unit made of intermediate to acidic pyroclastic rocks (Pareek, 1976) overlain by massive aphyric basaltic flows with tholeiitic to slightly alkaline affinities (Singh et al., 1976; Honegger
et al., 1982; Gupta et al., 1983; Vannay and Spring, 1993). These
rocks are also recognized in the western syntaxis of North East
Pakistan (Papritz and Rey, 1989; Spencer et al., 1995). The greatest
chemical variability is observed in the western syntaxis lavas
(North East Pakistan) which also display features of tholeiitic to
slightly alkaline affinities (Pogue et al., 1992; Spencer et al.,
1995). Chauvet et al. (2008) also illustrates that Panjal lavas are
characterized by tholeiitic to slightly alkaline affinities (see
Fig. 5b; Chauvet et al., 2008).
Plio-Pleistocene glacio-fluvio-lacustrine sediments (approximately 1300 meters thick) in turn overlie the Precambrian to
Mesozoic basement rocks. These sediments constitute the Karewa
Group (Bhatt, 1982, 1989). These sediments preserve the record of
past four million years in which the sedimentation is controlled by
the tectonic events (Bhatt, 1982; Gardner, 1989). The soft unconsolidated sand, clay and conglomerate sediments characterize the
Karewa Group. These sediments are capped by mantle of loessic
sediments of Dilpur Formation.
3. Sampling and analytical technique
Thirty-eight representative samples were collected from each
loess-paleosol horizons. The samples were air-dried and homoge-
nized and the bulk sediments of each sample were finely ground
(<200 mesh) in an agate mortar. Major and trace elements were
determined using an X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer (SIMENS SRS sequential XRF Spectrometer) following the standard
procedure of the Geo Analytical Laboratory of the Wadia Institute
of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, India (WIHG). The major and
trace elements were analyzed on pressed powder pallets. Loss on
Ignition (LOI) was obtained by weighing after 24 hours of calcination at 950 C. Rare Earth Elements (REEs) were determined by Induced Couple Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) technique,
using an open acid digestion technique following the standard procedure of the Geo Analytical Laboratory at WIHG. The accuracy of
the analytical method was established using two internationally
recognized standard reference materials: AMAG-I and MAG (R.V).
4. Results and discussion
The major (wt%), trace (ppm) and rare earth element (ppm)
concentrations of the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments are reported in Table 1, along with the ratios of chosen pairs of major,
trace and REE elements. As there is lack of geochemical data on
detrital sediments from the Himalayan belt, a comparison of data
is made against the UCC; Upper Continental Crust and the available
shale standards like PAAS; Post Archean Australian Shale (Taylor
and McLennan, 1985) and NASC; North American Shale Composite
(Gromet et al., 1984). In addition, igneous rocks composition (Condie, 1993), average loess composition (AVL) and global average
loess composition (GAL) (Ujvari et al., 2008) also used for
comparison.
76
Table 1
Chemical composition of loess-paleosol sediments of Karewa Group of Kashmir Valley, India.
Sample
DL1
DS 1a
DS1b
DS2a
DS2b
DS3a
DS3b
DL2
DS4a
DS4b
DS5a
DS5b
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
TiO2
P2O5
LOI
Total
51.4
12.58
4.87
0.08
2.59
8.6
0.87
2.68
0.6
0.128
14.81
99.20
58.07
15.72
6
0.101
3.05
3.15
0.98
2.98
0.71
0.116
8.91
99.78
52.28
11.80
4.52
0.07
2.50
9.95
0.89
2.61
0.56
0.12
13.91
99.24
51.76
12.66
4.78
0.08
2.43
8.47
0.8
2.72
0.61
0.126
14.79
99.22
61.77
16.52
6.64
0.098
2.69
1.64
1.13
3.1
0.76
0.114
5.71
100.17
60.79
15.71
6.71
0.11
2.54
1.30
0.97
3.17
0.78
0.122
8.4
100.64
60.36
17.23
6.85
0.114
2.56
1.32
0.86
3.06
0.78
0.087
7.5
100.72
54.79
13.64
5.34
0.084
2.58
6.26
0.87
2.77
0.65
0.127
11.99
99.10
61.63
16.48
6.45
0.106
2.96
1.38
1.04
3.03
0.76
0.096
7.01
100.94
50.92
11.53
4.23
0.06
2.50
11.33
0.88
2.54
0.53
0.13
14.4
99.09
54.9
14.77
5.62
0.089
2.56
5.41
0.85
2.81
0.68
0.138
11.2
99.02
60.9
17.4
6.78
0.115
2.56
1.21
0.77
2.94
0.8
0.088
7.4
100.96
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Ba
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Pb
Th
U
Sc
V
Co
Hf
100.9
142.36
24.40
162.09
14.30
374.09
41.82
43.24
74.432
12.06
17.05
10.96
2.98
12.39
189.34
15.04
2.09
126.12
125.39
30.92
202.73
16.17
462.4
54.48
49.45
90.05
15.31
23.70
15.21
5.33
14.33
98.11
18
2.9
98.70
161.67
23.50
159.22
13.05
349.88
34.64
42.47
66.21
11.04
16.75
12.19
2.35
11.62
80.56
14.19
1.75
107.55
143.05
25.84
165.04
13.90
394.45
37.53
43.03
78.76
12.68
19.41
12.74
4.19
12.97
108.35
17.26
2.41
143.21
121.04
33.46
212.02
18.11
529.62
55.17
56.10
95.24
16.89
22.26
15.96
6.44
15.53
91.43
18.71
2.23
155.93
111.73
33.08
209.96
18.52
566.47
61.23
54.54
117.94
17.59
24.23
16.09
5.79
14.56
90.1
17.2
2.44
148.13
113.31
32.23
206.19
17.98
547.53
56.11
51.147
86.72
17.46
23.04
16.73
7.11
15.42
111.6
19.3
3.01
112.19
144.39
28.079
180.78
14.90
416.93
45.34
47.48
88.85
12.10
17.477
11.73
7.08
13.14
93.7
15.52
2.52
135.64
122.45
30.86
218.16
17.71
511.91
57.60
48.33
90.34
15.63
24.99
16.18
6.28
14.78
107.5
18.4
3
89.03
150.91
20.89
146.20
11.24
312.24
32.30
40.05
60.39
10.14
15.71
9.30
3.85
11.71
91.62
14.6
2
130.28
126.44
29.63
186.27
16.40
451.88
44.85
48.44
94.27
14.46
21.15
15.46
6.56
13.62
109.56
15.82
2.42
142.14
115.48
34.69
223.99
18.47
526.51
55.09
50.08
94.01
16.86
21.52
16.81
6.82
14.84
111.76
20.6
2
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
34.13
66.28
7.26
26.71
5.5
1.33
4.83
0.71
3.85
0.96
2.2
0.37
2
0.26
39.48
76.85
8.67
33.04
6.71
1.6
5.37
0.77
4.29
1.08
2.39
0.39
2.15
0.27
34.76
68.9
7.54
27.1
6.69
1.48
4.74
0.69
3.75
0.91
2.03
0.35
1.85
0.24
38.7
76.92
8.31
30.08
6.29
1.55
5.39
0.75
4.03
1.02
2.22
0.38
1.98
0.26
43.85
84.5
9.32
34.41
8.16
2.3
5.99
0.84
4.71
1.21
2.78
0.45
2.38
0.3
40.54
80.37
9.04
33.8
6.89
1.62
5.62
0.84
4.54
1.14
2.52
0.43
2.24
0.3
42.48
83.83
9.34
33.65
6.89
1.6
5.83
0.84
4.75
1.19
2.69
0.43
2.37
0.3
38.02
73.24
8.1
29.79
6.18
1.54
5.32
0.74
4
1.02
2.28
0.39
2.05
0.26
41.94
80.86
9.06
32.58
6.77
1.61
5.65
0.81
4.4
1.08
2.5
0.42
2.24
0.28
33.81
64.58
7.36
27.53
6.73
1.54
4.75
0.67
3.7
0.92
2.13
0.35
1.8
0.23
38.09
74.29
8.32
31.29
6.06
1.44
5.35
0.79
4.34
1.05
2.36
0.4
2.02
0.28
43.12
83.11
9.24
33.95
6.71
1.56
5.7
0.83
4.67
1.21
2.6
0.44
2.28
0.3
SiO2/Al2O3
K2O/Na2O
Al2O3/TiO2
Na2O/Al2O3
K2O/Al2O3
TiO2/Zr
K/Rb
ICV
CIA
CIW
PIA
Rb/Sr
Ba/Sr
Th/Sc
Zr/Sc
Th/V
Zr/Y
Zr/Hf
La/Co
P
REE
P
LREE
P
HREE
LREE/HREE
Eu/Eu
Ce/Ce
Gd/YbCN
La/YbCN
4.08
3.08
20.96
0.069
0.21
0.0037
220.47
1.61
68.58
81.46
77.17
0.70
2.62
0.88
13.08
0.05
6.64
77.55
2.26
297.6
141.21
15.18
9.30
0.793
1.01
1.93
11.26
3.69
3.04
22.14
0.062
0.18
0.0035
196.14
1.07
70.90
82.97
79.48
1.00
3.68
1.06
14.14
0.15
6.55
69.90
2.19
349.41
166.35
16.71
9.95
0.82
0.99
2.00
12.12
4.42
2.91
21.01
0.075
0.22
0.0035
219.73
1.78
67.14
80.01
75.28
0.61
2.160
1.04
13.70
0.15
6.77
90.98
2.44
307.5
146.47
14.56
10.05
0.81
1.03
2.05
12.40
4.08
3.4
20.75
0.063
0.21
0.0036
209.94
1.57
69.42
82.78
78.68
0.75
2.75
0.98
12.72
0.11
6.38
68.48
2.24
339.73
161.85
16.03
10.09
0.82
1.04
2.18
12.90
3.73
2.74
21.73
0.068
0.18
0.0035
179.69
0.97
70.01
81.62
77.97
1.18
4.37
1.02
13.65
0.17
6.33
95.07
2.34
383.74
182.54
18.66
9.78
1.01
1.00
2.02
12.16
3.86
3.24
20.04
0.062
0.20
0.0037
169.02
0.99
70.222
82.97
79.20
1.395
5.06
1.10
14.42
0.17
6.34
86.05
2.35
362.15
172.26
17.63
9.77
0.80
1.01
2.01
11.95
3.50
3.55
22.08
0.049
0.17
0.0037
171.48
0.90
73.72
85.89
83.10
1.30
4.83
1.08
13.37
0.14
6.39
68.50
2.20
373.98
177.79
18.4
9.66
0.78
1.02
1.97
11.83
4.01
3.18
20.98
0.063
0.20
0.0035
204.95
1.36
69.94
82.65
78.80
0.77
2.88
0.89
13.75
0.12
6.43
71.73
2.44
329.8
156.87
16.06
9.76
0.83
1.00
2.08
12.24
3.73
2.91
21.68
0.063
0.18
0.0034
185.44
0.95
71.09
82.80
79.41
1.10
4.18
1.09
14.76
0.15
7.06
72.72
2.27
363.02
172.82
17.38
9.94
0.80
1.01
2.02
12.36
4.41
2.88
21.61
0.076
0.22
0.0036
237.18
1.91
67.133
79.93
75.20
0.58
2.06
0.79
12.48
0.10
6.99
73.10
2.31
297.65
141.55
14.55
9.72
0.84
0.98
2.11
12.40
3.71
3.30
21.72
0.057
0.19
0.00365
179.04
1.21
71.67
84.07
80.74
1.03
3.57
1.13
13.67
0.14
6.28
76.97
2.40
335.57
159.49
16.59
9.61
0.78
1.00
2.12
12.45
3.5
3.81
21.75
0.044
0.168
0.0035
171.69
0.87
75.27
87.29
84.87
1.23
4.553
1.13
15.09
0.15
6.45
111.99
2.09
373.41
177.69
18.03
9.85
0.78
1.00
2.00
12.48
Sample
DS6b
DL3
DS7b
KS1a
KS1b
KS2a
KS2b
KS3a
KS3b
KS4a
KS4b
KL 1
KS5a
KS5b
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
54.05
14.01
5.13
51.74
11.66
4.27
57.71
15.43
5.81
56.02
14.92
5.71
61.42
16.62
6.38
63.68
16.14
6.14
62.26
16.03
6.23
58.35
16.91
6.65
59.33
17.77
6.82
62.18
17.2
6.31
61.11
17.12
6.64
54.55
13.95
5.34
54.24
15.24
5.68
56.42
15.41
5.74
77

Table 1 (continued)
Sample
DS6b
DL3
DS7b
KS1a
KS1b
KS2a
KS2b
KS3a
KS3b
KS4a
KS4b
KL 1
KS5a
KS5b
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
TiO2
P2O5
LOI
Total
0.085
2.69
6.83
0.81
2.71
0.63
0.122
12.25
99.31
0.06
2.38
10.97
0.82
2.50
0.54
0.12
13.91
99.02
0.097
2.52
4.06
0.78
2.92
0.72
0.107
9.7
99.85
0.102
2.48
4.63
0.89
2.8
0.69
0.15
11.36
99.75
0.09
2.76
1.49
1.12
2.95
0.74
0.13
7.17
100.92
0.105
2.56
1.54
1.15
2.89
0.79
0.121
7.2
102.31
0.098
2.49
1.49
1.16
2.89
0.78
0.136
7.01
100.57
0.116
2.53
1.58
0.81
2.87
0.78
0.136
10.63
101.36
0.108
2.71
1.48
0.93
2.93
0.79
0.127
7.75
100.74
0.107
2.41
1.05
0.79
2.91
0.8
0.081
7.85
101.68
0.109
2.82
1.17
0.86
2.97
0.77
0.129
7.76
101.45
0.078
2.58
6.33
0.81
2.73
0.65
0.126
11.74
98.88
0.088
2.63
5.25
0.77
2.92
0.68
0.129
10.03
97.65
0.091
2.42
4.51
0.81
2.76
0.7
0.123
10.47
99.45
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Ba
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Pb
Th
U
Sc
V
Co
Hf
106.55
146.68
25.97
178.92
14.55
393.08
43.19
43.11
75.87
11.89
19.79
12.97
7.35
13.29
93.26
15.93
2
87.53
167.33
23.09
155.70
12.00
325.49
33.28
38.76
63.46
9.55
14.06
8.99
1.704
12.04
81.89
14.23
2
125.88
155.78
33.45
201.18
16.39
471.08
46.56
45.95
84.61
14.40
20.44
17.36
8.48
15.39
110.01
17.34
3
118.84
119.21
30.40
190.20
15.95
449.03
49.50
46.00
87.64
13.85
20.07
16.52
5.357
12.94
97.65
16.18
2.3
135.74
114.51
34.72
218.28
18.38
499.29
56.73
48.78
89.53
16.04
24.59
16.93
5.63
14.69
117.02
18.95
2.99
135.02
111.92
32.84
224.68
19.37
508.42
49.38
45.14
84.54
15.65
21.57
17.75
7.50
14.6
121.59
19.07
5.35
145.78
116.12
34.46
222.22
17.96
530.11
52.55
48.38
86.82
16.88
21.18
19.63
7.564
14.18
103.63
19.73
2
136.25
105.39
32.945
212.76
18.39
551.84
57.85
52.16
101.27
17.15
24.08
16.91
8.9449
15.08
118.81
22.24
3
137.63
119.91
33.10
212.80
17.68
544.79
53.78
51.03
86.56
17.17
22.05
18.74
8.18
14.5
113.73
19.93
3
135.68
94.09
31.29
238.65
17.76
508.94
55.04
45.06
86.51
16.42
22.08
16.35
8.22
12.24
121.84
25.48
3
132.12
111.06
36.62
216.18
17.08
486.92
62.84
52.38
98.76
16.28
22.18
16.96
1.49
15.25
128.02
19.73
3
108.41
146.31
28.49
179.64
15.01
391.04
48.27
47.30
85.17
12.61
19.09
12.58
5.64
13.44
99.91
17.27
3
126.44
125.98
28.66
185.93
15.44
436.80
44.31
46.35
84.22
14.30
22.14
14.72
4.29
14.14
109.67
17.62
2.31
123.54
120.38
31.042
200.78
16.47
461.24
45.77
45.78
84.55
14.13
18.81
14.80
4.52
14.35
110.26
18.58
2
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
37.18
72.36
8.01
28.92
6.99
1.42
5.07
0.73
4.09
0.99
2.27
0.37
2.02
0.26
34.78
66.48
7.36
26.3
6.3
1.73
4.91
0.7
3.74
0.94
2.13
0.36
1.88
0.24
41.59
79.68
9.25
33.74
7.21
1.8
6.25
0.93
5.02
1.25
2.83
0.47
2.44
0.32
36.26
72.84
8.08
29.42
6.14
1.5
5.09
0.73
4.04
0.99
2.25
0.37
2.03
0.26
44.11
83.24
9.95
39.46
7.44
1.66
6.15
0.88
5.15
1.22
2.72
0.46
2.34
0.32
45.77
88.1
10.18
39.27
6.88
1.63
6.24
0.87
5.13
1.18
2.62
0.44
2.24
0.34
44.96
85.92
10.24
40.12
7.65
1.67
6.09
0.87
5.11
1.2
2.72
0.46
2.24
0.29
45.79
86.13
9.71
36.1
7.02
1.58
6.1
0.83
4.85
1.13
2.52
0.43
2.21
0.31
45.56
83.26
9.71
36.95
7.4
1.72
6.34
0.84
4.88
1.13
2.61
0.43
2.2
0.29
45.34
86.93
9.71
34.54
6.61
1.47
5.65
0.77
4.59
1.08
2.42
0.4
2.1
0.29
42.05
78.98
9.53
37.84
7.42
1.72
6.14
0.88
5.3
1.25
2.75
0.47
2.41
0.33
38.13
69.42
8.26
32.5
6.72
1.55
5.36
0.76
4.34
1.07
2.3
0.4
2.05
0.26
40.48
73.4
8.71
33.34
6.81
1.64
5.54
0.79
4.48
1.07
2.52
0.42
2.08
0.27
41.98
79.12
9.25
35.01
6.99
1.59
5.9
0.84
4.87
1.15
2.54
0.42
2.13
0.29
SiO2/Al2O3
K2O/Na2O
Al2O3/TiO2
Na2O/Al2O3
K2O/Al2O3
TiO2/Zr
K/Rb
ICV
CIA
CIW
PIA
Rb/Sr
Ba/Sr
Th/Sc
Zr/Sc
Th/V
Zr/Y
Zr/Hf
La/Co
P
REE
P
LREE
P
HREE
LREE/HREE
Eu/Eu
Ce/Ce
Gd/YbCN
La/YbCN
3.85
3.34
22.23
0.057
0.193
0.0035
211.14
1.34
71.44
84.01
80.60
0.72
2.67
0.97
13.46
0.13
6.88
89.46
2.33
325.56
154.88
15.8
9.80
0.73
1.01
2.01
12.15
4.43
3.02
21.46
0.070
0.214
0.0034
237.72
1.84
68.21
81.07
76.67
0.52
1.94
0.74
12.93
0.10
6.74
77.85
2.44
300.8
142.95
14.9
9.59
0.96
1.01
2.09
12.21
3.74
3.74
21.436
0.050
0.189
0.0035
192.56
1.09
72.93
85.73
82.70
0.80
3.02
1.12
13.07
0.15
6.01
67.06
2.39
366.05
173.27
19.51
8.88
0.83
0.98
2.05
11.25
3.75
3.14
21.62
0.059
0.187
0.0036
195.6
1.15
71.45
83.59
80.23
0.99
3.76
1.27
14.69
0.16
6.25
82.69
2.24
324.24
154.24
15.76
9.78
0.83
1.03
2.01
11.79
3.69
2.63
22.22
0.067
0.177
0.0034
180.7
0.93
70.70
81.83
78.44
1.18
4.36
1.15
14.85
0.14
6.28
73.00
2.32
390.96
185.86
19.24
9.66
0.76
0.94
2.11
12.44
3.94
2.51
20.43
0.071
0.179
0.0035
177.6
0.94
70.01
81.00
77.47
1.20
4.54
1.21
15.38
0.14
6.84
41.99
2.40
402.72
191.83
19.06
10.06
0.77
0.97
2.23
13.49
3.88
2.49
20.55
0.072
0.180
0.0035
164.5
0.94
69.77
80.76
77.17
1.25
4.56
1.38
15.67
0.18
6.44
111.11
2.27
400.1
190.56
18.98
10.04
0.75
0.95
2.18
13.25
3.45
3.54
21.67
0.047
0.169
0.0036
174.8
0.90
74.55
86.38
83.81
1.29
5.23
1.12
14.10
0.14
6.45
70.92
2.05
391.04
186.33
18.38
10.13
0.74
0.98
2.21
13.68
3.33
3.15
22.49
0.052
0.164
0.0037
176.7
0.88
74.03
85.31
82.67
1.14
4.54
1.29
14.67
0.16
6.42
70.93
2.28
387.92
184.6
18.72
9.86
0.77
0.94
2.31
13.67
3.61
3.68
21.5
0.045
0.169
0.0033
178.0
0.83
74.94
86.87
84.38
1.44
5.40
1.33
19.49
0.13
7.62
79.55
1.77
386.5
184.6
17.3
10.67
0.74
1.01
2.16
14.25
3.56
3.45
22.23
0.050
0.173
0.0035
186.61
0.89
73.90
85.81
83.09
1.18
4.38
1.11
14.17
0.13
5.90
72.06
2.13
374.61
177.54
19.53
9.09
0.78
0.93
2.04
11.52
3.91
3.37
21.46
0.058
0.195
0.0036
209.04
1.32
71.28
83.96
80.49
0.74
2.67
0.93
13.36
0.12
6.30
59.88
2.20
329.7
156.58
16.54
9.46
0.79
0.92
2.09
12.28
3.55
3.79
22.41
0.050
0.191
0.0036
191.71
1.18
72.79
85.74
82.66
1.00
3.46
1.04
13.14
0.13
6.48
80.49
2.29
345.93
164.38
17.17
9.57
0.82
0.93
2.13
12.85
3.66
3.40
22.01
0.052
0.179
0.0034
185.46
1.10
73.16
85.25
82.33
1.02
3.83
1.03
13.99
0.13
6.46
100.39
2.25
366.02
173.94
18.14
9.58
0.76
0.96
2.22
13.01
Sample
KS5c
KS6a
KS6b
KS7a
KS7b
KS8a
KS8b
KL2
KS9a
KS9b
KS10a
KS10b
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
63.46
16.52
6
0.072
2.43
1.65
1.16
57.49
15.93
5.762
0.09
2.40
4.52
0.81
58.91
17.69
7.08
0.138
2.6
1.53
0.87
63.32
16.02
6.25
0.13
2.24
1.09
0.92
61.89
17.05
6.54
0.096
2.49
1.09
0.85
60.68
17
6.46
0.114
2.67
1.13
0.82
61.77
17.12
6.55
0.10
2.63
1.16
0.88
58.21
15.65
5.72
0.091
2.65
3.87
0.97
59.59
16.37
6.43
0.104
2.28
2.3
0.79
62.96
16.28
6.13
0.081
2.37
1.82
1.07
59.54
16.32
7.01
0.112
2.35
1.9
0.89
60.38
15.95
7.037
0.099
2.469
2.057
0.955
(continued on next page)
78
Table 1 (continued)
Sample
KS5c
KS6a
KS6b
KS7a
KS7b
KS8a
KS8b
KL2
KS9a
KS9b
KS10a
KS10b
K2 O
TiO2
P2O5
LOI
Total
2.81
0.78
0.103
6.63
101.61
2.76
0.70
0.12
7.47
98.08
2.86
0.77
0.147
7.84
100.43
2.86
0.81
0.11
7.87
101.66
2.93
0.78
0.103
7.81
101.62
2.97
0.77
0.114
7.89
100.61
2.98
0.77
0.11
7.75
101.83
2.87
0.69
0.139
8.33
99.19
2.82
0.77
0.122
10
101.57
2.84
0.78
0.105
7.16
101.59
2.52
0.89
0.115
7.79
99.43
2.340
0.934
0.115
6.38
98.73
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Ba
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Pb
Th
U
Sc
V
Co
Hf
128.20
118.15
29.56
232.10
17.98
534.81
40.94
42.02
77.23
15.71
20.53
15.60
3.71
13.43
114.74
19.35
2.28
144.38
110.92
33.99
223.22
18.56
460.74
51.54
46.90
94.08
16.72
24.06
18.18
3.85
14.7
106.22
19.21
3
128.59
125.44
33.75
206.77
17.55
513.11
59.83
57.50
89.04
17.28
23.98
18.09
6.312
15.64
117.33
19.3
2.39
150.19
106.66
34.12
228.21
18.18
516.68
53.55
51.20
113.18
15.63
21.46
15.28
6.48
131.86
106.65
33.34
232.30
18.64
501.27
56.94
47.80
87.57
16.27
20.57
15.39
5.08
134.12
112.83
35.06
223.47
18.60
479.25
55.18
48.82
98.89
15.65
21.93
17.55
5.29
133.48
113.71
34.10
223.05
17.15
495.15
60.26
47.66
94.73
16.54
21.19
15.77
6.28
128.15
135.61
31.122
207.66
16.737
478.10
43.473
48.317
86.088
14.182
20.318
16.909
4.8175
127.30
121.18
34.618
217.38
18.072
534
51.09
49.69
98.44
15.94
22.94
17.27
5.416
131.43
119.34
33.52
230.88
19.52
524.45
44.18
45.03
83.34
15.12
21.38
17.86
4.470
111.75
128.97
34.99
233.59
19.09
447.87
47.39
47.62
92.87
16.15
19.72
13.03
7.88
99.45
138.3
34.38
235.3
19.73
418.6
43.84
43.90
80.26
15.29
18.27
12.43
5.366
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
42.97
86.35
9.46
34.35
6.7
1.63
5.39
0.78
4.15
0.99
2.17
0.36
1.92
0.25
41.81
82.5
8.85
33.15
6.72
1.63
5.59
0.8
4.43
1.12
2.48
0.41
2.13
0.28
42.11
85.21
9.16
33.7
7.15
1.81
5.96
0.87
4.7
1.17
2.64
0.43
2.39
0.29
SiO2/Al2O3
K2O/Na2O
Al2O3/TiO2
Na2O/Al2O3
K2O/Al2O3
TiO2/Zr
K/Rb
ICV
CIA
CIW
PIA
Rb/Sr
Ba/Sr
Th/Sc
Zr/Sc
Th/V
Zr/Y
Zr/Hf
La/Co
P
REE
P
LREE
P
HREE
LREE/HREE
Eu/Eu
Ce/Ce
Gd/YbCN
La/YbCN
3.84
2.42
21.17
0.070
0.170
0.0033
181.95
0.90
70.66
81.23
77.93
1.08
4.52
1.16
17.28
0.13
7.85
101.80
2.22
378.93
181.46
16.01
11.33
0.84
1.04
2.25
14.77
3.60
3.40
22.48
0.050
0.173
0.0031
159.20
1.07
73.74
85.63
82.87
1.30
4.15
1.23
15.18
0.17
6.56
74.40
2.17
366.56
174.66
17.24
10.13
0.82
1.02
2.10
12.96
3.33
3.28
22.97
0.049
0.161
0.0037
184.63
0.89
74.80
86.07
83.60
1.02
4.09
1.15
13.22
0.15
6.12
86.51
2.18
376.73
179.14
18.45
9.70
0.85
1.04
2.00
11.63
3.95
3.09
19.62
0.057
0.17
0.0035
158.50
0.89
72.25
84.01
80.91
1.40
4.84
3.62
3.44
21.85
0.049
0.171
0.0033
184.46
0.86
74.07
85.90
83.22
1.23
4.700
3.56
3.62
22.07
0.048
0.174
0.0034
183.82
0.87
74.19
86.30
83.63
1.18
4.24
3.60
3.38
22.23
0.051
0.174
0.0034
185.32
0.88
73.66
85.53
82.75
1.17
4.35
3.71
2.95
22.7
0.061
0.183
0.0033
185.9
1.07
71.30
83.06
79.71
0.94
3.52
3.64
3.56
21.2
0.048
0.172
0.0035
183.8
0.94
74.33
86.29
83.66
1.05
4.40
3.86
2.65
20.87
0.065
0.174
0.0033
179.4
0.92
71.17
82.22
78.95
1.10
4.39
3.64
2.83
18.3
0.054
0.154
0.0038
187.2
0.96
74.26
84.78
82.27
0.86
3.47
3.78
2.44
17.1
0.059
0.146
0.0039
195.4
0.99
73.74
83.53
81.01
0.71
3.02
6.68
6.96
6.37
6.54
6.67
6.27
6.88
6.67
6.84
Sample
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
TiO2
P2O5
Kashmir Loess-Paleosol
Min.
Max.
Avg.a
50.92
11.53
4.23
0.06
2.24
1.05
0.77
2.34
0.53
0.081
63.68
17.77
7.08
0.138
3.05
11.33
1.16
3.17
0.93
0.15
58.38
15.54
5.99
0.09
2.55
3.72
0.90
2.83
0.72
0.11
UCC
PAAS
NASC
AVLb
GALc
Granited
Felsic volcanice
Andesitef
Basaltg
66
15.2
5
0.08
2.2
4.2
3.9
3.4
0.5
0.4
62.8
18.9
7.22
0.11
2.2
1.3
1.2
3.7
1
0.16
64.8
16.9
5.65
0.06
2.86
3.63
1.14
3.97
0.7
0.13
71.19
11.63
3.68
0.07
2.05
6.46
1.69
2.21
0.69
0.14
70.71
11.74
3.75
0.07
2.15
6.67
1.68
2.22
0.71
0.14
73.8
13.4
2.2
0.4
1.2
3.5
4.8
0.25
0.09
73.2
14.0
2.8
59.5
16.8
6.8
50.3
15.7
9.10
0.4
1.3
3.7
4.3
0.34
0.06
3.3
6.8
3.7
1.2
0.78
0.2
6.7
9.5
3
0.85
1.45
0.28
79

Table 1 (continued)
Sample
UCC
PAAS
NASC
AVLb
GALc
Granited
Felsic volcanice
Andesitef
Basaltg
9.35
125.93
125.80
31.11
204.73
16.84
469.61
49.46
47.58
87.76
14.90
20.87
15.31
5.62
13.93
110.29
18.20
2.66
112
350
22
190
25
550
20
25
71
17
20
10.7
2.8
11
60
10
5.8
160
200
27
210
19
650
55
50
85
14.6
3.1
16
150
23
5
125
142
35
200
13
636
58
12.3
2.66
14.9
130
25.7
6.3
78
210
24
319
13
427
26
19
56
12
14
9
79
208
26
322
14
427
27
19
57
12
15
9
130
160
8
78
79
170
122
45
250
21
800
7
25
18
5
5
18
3
6.5
215
20
850
8
23
10.2
2.5
13
30
6
41
360
20
160
8
650
42
20
4
8
18
140
22
4
29
280
27
131
5
410
68
6
2.4
1.2
33
260
35
3.4
45.79
88.1
10.24
40.12
8.16
2.3
6.34
0.93
5.3
1.25
2.83
0.47
2.44
0.34
40.62
78.26
8.85
33.06
6.81
1.63
5.59
0.79
4.48
1.09
2.45
0.41
2.14
0.28
30
64
7.1
26
4.5
0.88
3.8
0.64
3.5
0.8
2.3
0.33
2.2
0.32
38
80
8.83
32
5.6
1.1
4.7
0.77
4.68
0.99
2.85
0.4
2.8
0.43
31.1
66.7
27.4
5.59
1.18
5.5
0.85
5.54
3.27
3.06
0.46
28
59
29
61
40
94
46
8.8
0.9
7.63
1.15
3.2
0.54
28
65
20
44
11
27
25
5
0.9
4.87
0.78
2.9
0.78
23
3.90
1
4.14
2
2
0.31
14
4
1.4
4.01
0.65
2.7
0.43
4.43
3.81
22.97
0.076
0.221
0.0039
237.72
1.91
75.27
87.29
84.87
1.44
5.4
1.38
19.49
0.18
7.85
111.99
2.44
402.72
190.2
19.53
11.23
1.01
1.04
2.31
14.77
3.77
3.16
21.31
0.058
0.183
0.0035
189.31
1.1125
71.87
83.83
80.57
1.027
3.852
1.081
14.36
0.136
6.59
79.26
2.247
356.13
167.62
17.24
9.74
0.81
0.99
2.09
12.57
4.343
0.87
30.4
0.256
0.223
0.0026
1.26
1.57
0.97
17.27
0.17
8.63
32.75
3
3.32
3.08
18.9
0.063
0.195
0.0047
0.88
3.25
0.91
13.12
0.09
7.77
42
1.65
3.83
3.48
24.14
0.067
0.234
0.0035
1.06
4.47
0.82
13.42
0.09
5.71
31.74
1.21
6.12
1.30
16.85
0.145
0.190
0.0021
6.02
1.32
16.53
0.143
0.189
0.0022
5.50
1.37
53.6
0.261
0.358
0.001
5.22
1.16
41.179
0.264
0.307
0.0015
3.54
0.32
21.53
0.220
0.071
0.0048
3.20
0.28
10.82
0.191
0.054
0.0110
0.371
2.033
1.12
39.875
0.115
13.29
0.379
2.052
0.113
12.38
1.393
6.557
3.6
50
1
5.555
38.461
13.333
0.8125
5.3125
0.784
16.538
0.34
4.666
0.1138
1.805
0.222
8.888
0.028
8
40
0.909
0.1035
1.464
0.072
3.969
0.009
4.851
38.529
0.3142
Kashmir Loess-Paleosol
Min.
Max.
Avg.a
LOI
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Ba
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Pb
Th
U
Sc
V
Co
Hf
5.71
87.53
94.09
20.89
146.2
11.24
312.24
32.3
38.76
60.39
9.55
14.06
8.99
1.49
11.62
80.56
14.19
1.75
14.81
155.93
167.33
36.62
238.65
19.73
566.47
62.84
57.5
117.94
17.59
24.99
19.63
8.94
15.64
189.34
25.48
5.35
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
33.81
64.58
7.26
26.3
5.5
1.33
4.74
0.67
3.7
0.91
2.03
0.35
1.8
0.23
SiO2/Al2O3
K2O/Na2O
Al2O3/TiO2
Na2O/Al2O3
K2O/Al2O3
TiO2/Zr
K/Rb
ICV
CIA
CIW
PIA
Rb/Sr
Ba/Sr
Th/Sc
Zr/Sc
Th/V
Zr/Y
Zr/Hf
La/Co
P
REE
P
LREE
P
HREE
LREE/HREE
Eu/Eu
Ce/Ce
Gd/YbCN
La/YbCN
3.33
2.42
17.1
0.044
0.146
0.0031
158.5
0.83
67.133
79.93
75.2
0.52
1.94
0.74
12.48
0.05
5.9
41.99
1.77
297.6
139.88
14.55
8.78
0.73
0.92
1.93
11.25
Major oxides are in wt%, Trace elements in ppm. Total iron expressed as FeOT in cg.
a
Loess-paleosol composition from Kashmir Valley (n = 38) on the basis of this study.
b
Average loess 3 composition from the mean of sixteen (116) averages of eleven loess regions (n = 192), southwestern Hungary (Ujvari et al., 2008).
c
Global average loess composition from the mean of seventeen (117) averages of eleven loess regions (n = 244) (Ujvari et al., 2008).
d
Average chemical composition of Phanerozoic granite (Condie, 1993).
e
Average chemical composition of Meso-Cenozoic felsic volcanic rocks (Condie, 1993).
f
Average chemical composition of Meso-Cenozoic andesite (Condie, 1993).
g
Average chemical composition of Meso-Cenozoic basalt (Condie, 1993).
Fig. 3 shows the distribution of major element contents of

the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments normalized to UCC (Upper
Continental Crust; Taylor and McLennan, 1985). The UCC normalized PAAS (Taylor and McLennan, 1985) and NASC (Gromet
et al., 1984) values also show similar patterns to that of Kashmir
Loess-Paleosol sediments. By comparison with UCC (Taylor and

McLennan, 1985), these sediments are slightly depleted in
SiO2, K2O and P2O5 and show large variation in CaO concentrations (Fig. 3). However, Na2O depleted in all the samples,
whereas Al2O3, MgO, MnO and Fe2O3 show slightly higher con-
80

10
10
DS 1a
DL2
DL3
DS1b
DS4a
DS7b
DS2a
DS4b
PAAS
DS2b
DS5a
NASC
MgO%
KS1b
KS4a
KS5c
KS8a
KS10a
KS2a
KS4b
KS6a
KS8b
KS10b
KS2b
KL 1
KS6b
KL2
PAAS
KS3a
KS5a
KS7a
KS9a
NASC
(a) Dilpur Village Section

0.1
SiO 2% Al2O3% Fe2O3% MnO%
KS1a
KS3b
KS5
KS7b
KS9b
DS3a
DS5b
Samples/UCC
Samples/UCC
DL1
DS3b
DS6b
(b) Karapur Village Section

CaO%
Na2O%
K2O%
TiO2%
0.1
SiO2% Al2O3% Fe2O3%
P2O5 %
MnO% MgO%
CaO%
Na2O%
K2O%
TiO2%
P2O5%
Fig. 3. UCC normalized spider diagrams for major oxides composition of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments at (a) Dilpur and (b) Karapur Village sections. PAAS and UCC
values after Taylor and McLennan (1985); NASC values after Gromet et al. (1984).
DL1
DS 1a
DS1b
DS2a
DS2b
DS3a
DS3b
DL2
DS4a
DS4b
DS5a
DS5b
DS6b
DL3
DS7b
PAAS
NASC
10
KS1a
KS3b
KS5
KS7b
KS9b
Samples/UCC
Samples/UCC
10
Sr
Zr
Nb Ba
Ni
Cu Zn
KS2a
KS4b
KS6a
KS8b
KS10b
KS2b
KL 1
KS6b
KL2
PAAS
KS3a
KS5a
KS7a
KS9a
NASC
(a) Dilpur Village Section

0.1
Rb
KS1b
KS4a
KS5c
KS8a
KS10a
Ga
Pb
Th
Sc
Co
Hf
0.1
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb Ba
Ni
Cu Zn Ga
Pb
Th
Sc
Co Hf
Fig. 4. UCC normalized spider diagrams for trace elements composition of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments at (a) Dilpur and (b) Karapur Village sections. PAAS and UCC
values after Taylor and McLennan (1985) and NASC values after Gromet et al. (1984) patterns are given as a reference.
centration (with the exception of few samples) compared to UCC

(Fig. 3).
It is well known that the CaO contents of loess vary greatly and
show both positive and negative anomalies on UCC normalized spider diagrams (Gallet et al., 1998; Jahn et al., 2001). The wide range of
variations in CaO wt% may be argued for high LOI (Honda et al.,
2004), which ranges from 5.71 to 14.81 wt% in the studied samples.
The low CaO contents in sediments relative to PAAS indicate their
maturity (Condie, 1993). Most of the analyzed samples show higher
values of CaO wt% relative to PAAS indicating that these sediments
are relatively less mature than the PAAS (Mahjoor et al., 2009). This
is further supported by the ratio of maturity index (SiO2/Al2O3)
ranging from 3.43 to 4.33, which reveals weak maturity of these sediments. Ratios of abundance of major oxides and correlation coefficients of major and trace elements of the loess-paleosol sediments
reveal other interesting features. SiO2 contents have a positive correlation with Al2O3 (r = 0.85) and TiO2 (r = 0.85) reflecting that much
of SiO2 is not present as quartz grains. There is strong positive correlation of TiO2 with Al2O3 (r = 0.85), Fe2O3 (r = 0.93) and MnO
(r = 0.71). These relations also suggest that TiO2 occurs as an essential chemical constituent of both clays and mafic minerals. CaO correlates negatively with both SiO2 (r = 0.93) and Al2O3 (r = 0.96)
indicating that carbonate minerals of secondary origin present in
these loess-paleosol sediments (Moosavirad et al., 2010). A positive
correlation of Al2O3 with K2O (r = 0.60), Na2O (r = 0.19) and MgO
(r = 0.17) implies that the concentrations of the K-bearing minerals
such as illite or muscovite have weak to moderate influence on Al
distribution (McLennan et al., 1983; Jin et al., 2006). K2O/Na2O ratios

of the analyzed samples are variable (2.424.75 wt%) and also
attributed to low to moderate amount of K-bearing minerals such
as illite and muscovite (McLennan et al., 1983; Moosavirad et al.,
2010). The values of K2O/Al2O3 ratio of clays are less than 0.3 and
those of feldspars range from 0.3 to 0.9 (Cox et al., 1995). However,
K2O/Al2O3 ratio of the loess-paleosol sediments of the present study
vary narrowly from 0.146 to 0.221 (average = 0.183). These values
indicate preponderance of clay minerals over K-bearing minerals
such as K-feldspars and micas (Cox et al., 1995). This trend can be
further illustrated from the values of the Index of Compositional
Variation (ICV; Cox et al., 1995) where ICV = (Fe2O3 + K2O + Na2O + CaO + MgO + MnO + TiO2)/Al2O3. Values of ICV < 1 are typical
of minerals like kaolinite, illite and muscovite and higher values
(>1) are characteristic of rock forming minerals such as plagioclase,
K-feldspar, amphiboles and pyroxenes (Cox et al., 1995; Moosavirad
et al., 2010). ICV values of the studied sediments vary from 0.83 to
1.91 (average = 1.11). This suggests that the loess-paleosol sediments of the present study are enriched in both rocks forming minerals and clays.
Na2O although exhibits negative correlations with CaO
(r = 0.33), it shows positive correlations with Fe2O3 (r = 0.21),
Al2O3 (r = 0.19), MgO (r = 0.21) and SiO2 (r = 0.52) suggesting that
smectite present in these loess-paleosol sediments (Moosavirad
et al., 2010). These results are quite agreed with SEM and XRD clay
mineralogical results suggesting dominant smectite followed by illite and traces of mixed layered clay minerals chlorite + kaolinite
81

1000
1000
DS1a
DS3b
DS5b
PAAS
DS1b
DL2
DS6b
NASC
DS2a
DS4a
DL3
DS2b
DS4b
DS7b
KS1a
KS3b
KS5
PAAS
Samples/Chondrite
Samples/Chondrite
DL1
DS3a
DS5a
UCC
100
10
La
Ce
Nd
Sm
Eu
KS2b
KL 1
KS6b
KS3a
KS5a
UCC
10
Gd
Tb
Dy
Yb
Lu
10
La
Ce
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Yb
Lu
10
DS1a
DS3b
DS5b
DS1b
DL2
DS6b
DS2a
DS4a
DL3
DS2b
DS4b
DS7b
KS1a
KS3b
KS5
Samples/PAAS
DL1
DS3a
DS5a
Samples/PAAS
KS2a
KS4b
KS6a
100
(a) Dilpur Villlage section

1
KS1b
KS4a
KS5c
NASC
Ce
Nd
Sm
Eu
KS2a
KS4b
KS6a
KS2b
KL 1
KS6b
KS3a
KS5a
(c) Dilpur Village section

0.1
La
KS1b
KS4a
KS5c
(d) Karapur Village section

Gd
Tb
Yb
Lu
0.1
La
Ce
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Yb
Lu
Fig. 5. Chondrite and PAAS normalized REE patterns of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments at (a) Dilpur and (b) Karapur Village sections. PAAS and UCC values after Taylor and
McLennan (1985) and NASC values after Gromet et al. (1984) patterns are given as a reference.
and chlorite (not included here). Cu shows positively correlation

with MnO (r = 0.79) and K2O (r = 0.67) and generally weak correlation with MgO (r = 0.29) and Na2O (r = 0.097) probably suggesting
their occurrence in both mafic and felsic minerals (Moosavirad
et al., 2010).
4.1. Trace elements
The results of the trace elements analyses are listed in Table 1.
The UCC normalized patterns of trace elements of Kashmir Valley
are presented in Fig. 4; which are similar to that displayed by PAAS
(Taylor and McLennan, 1985) and NASC (Gromet et al., 1984).
4.1.1. Large-ion lithophile elements (LILEs): Rb, Ba, Sr
A relatively large deal of variability exists in the contents of
LILEs in the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments (Table 1). Ba and
Rb are mainly concentrated in mica and K-feldspar whereas Sr is
mainly present in Ca-bearing minerals such as plagioclase, amphibole, pyroxene and carbonate minerals. Therefore, the ratios of
immobile to mobile elements such as Rb/Sr and Ba/Sr ratios increase with increasing weathering (Nesbitt and Young, 1982).
The strong positive correlation between Ba/Sr and Rb/Sr (r = 0.96)
in the studied samples suggests that both Rb and Ba generally remained immobile during weathering. However, slightly lower concentration of Ba than the Rb on UCC normalized spider diagram
probably suggests only subtle depletion of Ba during pedogenesis
because Ba is less resistant than Rb (Fig. 4). Sr shows negative correlation against Rb (r = 0.82) and Ba (r = 0.81). This depletion of
Sr is due to its high mobility during pedogenesis. This relationship
is also demonstrated on UCC normalized spider diagrams (Fig. 4).
Likewise, with the increase in chemical weathering intensity, K will
normally show depletion against Rb, thus leading to a lower K/Rb
ratio (Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1989). The elemental ratio of K/
Rb (ppm) below 300 indicates immobility of Rb (Chen et al.,

1998). This K/Rb ratio of the studied samples ranges from 158.5
to 237.72 (Table 1). This corroborates that the Kashmir LoessPaleosol sediments are not subjected to intense weathering.
4.1.2. High field strength elements (HFSEs): Y, Zr, Nb, Hf, Th, U
The elements Zr, Nb, Hf, Y, Th and U are enriched in felsic rather
than mafic rocks (Feng and Kerrich, 1990). Additionally, along with
the REEs, these high field strength elements reflect provenance
compositions (e.g., Taylor and McLennan, 1985). In analyzed samples, Zr has normalized value similar to UCC while Y, Th and U with
the exception of few samples are enriched compared to UCC (Fig. 4,
Table 1). However, Nb and Hf, which are abundant in felsic rocks,
strongly depleted in these sediments.
4.1.3. Transition trace elements (TTEs): Ni, Cu, Zn, Sc, V, Co
In the analyzed samples, concentration of Cu, Sc, V and Co is
higher than the UCC (Fig. 4), whereas Zn with the exception of
few samples is higher than the UCC. Ni is also strikingly enriched
than UCC. Vanadium shows very weak positively correlation with
TiO2 (r = 0.20). Positive correlations of Co, Ni, Cu, V and Zn with
both Fe2O3 (r = 0.73, 0.81, 0.73, 0.17 and 0.68 respectively) and
Al2O3 (r = 0.82, 0.82, 0.67, 0.20 and 0.64 respectively) indicate that
these elements are linked with iron oxides and clay minerals
(Hirst, 1962). These trace elements are abundant in the soil developed on basalt (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Wronkiewicz and
Condie, 1987; Condie et al., 1995; Liu et al., 1996; Zhang et al.,
2007). During weathering and pedogenesis of the ferromagnesian
silicate minerals of the parent basalt, these elements easily removed from the soil and associated with clay minerals. Therefore,
enrichment of transition trace elements in Kashmir Loess-Paleosol
sediments with respect to the average composition of the Upper
82
Continental Crust (UCC) suggests significant basic input from the

source terrain.
10
+ Dilpur Village section
Karapur Village section
Quartzose
sedimentary
provenance
4.2. Rare Earth Elements (REEs)
5. Provenance
Many investigators have demonstrated that chemical composition of sedimentary rocks is related to that of their source regions
(e.g., Fralick and Kronberg, 1997 and references therein; Cullers,
2000; Alvarez and Roser, 2007; Manikyamba et al., 2008; Spalletti
et al., 2008; Akarish and El-Gohary, 2008, 2011; Paikaray et al.,
2008; Dey et al., 2009; Kalsbeek and Frei, 2010; Mishra and Sen,
2010). In published literature, several major, trace and rare earth
element based discrimination diagrams have been proposed to infer the source/provenance of sedimentary rocks (e.g., Bhatia and
Crook, 1986; Roser and Korsch, 1988; Hayashi et al., 1997; Amajor,
1987). In the provenance discrimination diagram of Roser and Korsch (1988), the formulated discriminant functions (i.e., bivariates)
are based on concentrations of both immobile and variably mobile
major elements. On this diagram, the loess-paleosol sediments of
the present study plot in the fields of intermediate igneous and
quartzose sedimentary provenance (Fig. 6). This suggests that the
loess-paleosol sediments are derived from mixed source rocks.
In igneous rocks, Al resides mostly in feldspars and Ti in mafic
minerals (e.g., olivine, pyroxene, hornblende, biotite and ilmenite).
Therefore, the A1/Ti ratios of igneous rocks generally increase with
increasing SiO2 contents (Hayashi et al., 1997). The values of Al2O3/
TiO2 (wt%) ratio increase from (a) 3 to 8 in mafic igneous rocks
(SiO2 content from 45 to 52 wt%), (b) 8 to 21 in intermediate igneous rocks (SiO2 content from 53 to 66 wt%) and (c) 21 to 70 in felsic
igneous rocks (SiO2 content from 66 to 76 wt%). The Al2O3/TiO2
(wt%) ratio of the present loess-paleosol sediments ranges from
20.04 to 22.23 (SiO2 contents from 50.92 to 63.68 wt%) display mafic to intermediate composition. According to Hayashi et al. (1997),
the SiO2 contents of normal igneous rocks can be evaluated from
their Al2O3/TiO2 ratio by the following equation:
SiO2 wt% 39:34 1:2578Al2 O3 =TiO2 0:0109Al2 O3 =TiO2 2
DF2
The chondrite normalized REE patterns for Kashmir LoessPaleosol sediments are similar to that displayed by UCC, PAAS
(Taylor and McLennan, 1985) and NASC (Gromet et al., 1984)
(Fig. 5a, b). It reveals that the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments
have fractionated REE patterns, with LaCN/YbCN ratio varying from
P
P
11.25 to 14.77, LaCN/SmCN from 3.06 to 4.18 and LREE/ HREE
ratio ranges from 8.78 to 11.23 (Table 1), suggesting moderate
P
enrichment of LREEs. Total REE ( REE) abundances are variable
in these sediments, which range from 297.6 to 402.72 ppm (Table 1). The GdCN/YbCN ratios (1.932.31) which is almost similar
to (GdCN/YbCN = 12) ratio of Taylor and McLennan (1985), suggest
relatively flat HREE pattern. The GdCN/YbCN ratios less than 2.5,
suggest that these sediments are derived from the less HREE depleted source rocks (Bakkiaraj et al., 2010).
The Eu and Ce anomalies are expressed as: Eu/Eu = (EuCN)/
{(SmCN) (GdCN)}0.5 and Ce/Ce = (CeCN)/{(LaCN)0.666 (NdCN)0.333.
Eu anomaly of the studied samples ranges between 0.73 and 1.01
(average = 0.81). The lack of prominent negative Eu anomaly
(Fig. 5a and b; Table 1) attributes to the partial weathering of plagioclase feldspar, suggesting robustness of REE during weathering.
Ce anomaly ranges from 0.92 to 1.04 (average = 0.99), suggesting
weak post depositional alteration during pedogenesis. On PAAS
normalized REE plots (Fig. 5c, d), these sediments are distinguished
by the slightly higher LREE, depleted HREE and positive Eu and Ce
anomalies.
0
-2
-4
-6
Mafic igneous
provenance
Intermediate
igneous
provenance
Felsic igneous
provenance
-8
-10
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
10
DF1
Fig. 6. Provenance discriminant functions diagram for Kashmir Loess-Paleosol
sediments (discriminant fields are after Roser and Korsch, 1988).
DF1 = 30.6038 TiO2/Al2O3 12.541 Fe2O3/Al2O3 + 7.329 MgO/Al2O3 + 12.031
Na2O/Al2O3 + 35.42 K2O/Al2O3 6.382; DF2 = 56.500 TiO2/Al2O3 10.879
Fe2O3/Al2O3 + 30.875 MgO/Al2O3 5.404 Na2O/Al2O3 + 11.112 K2O/Al2O33.89.
Since Al and Ti are immobile and behave similarly during residual weathering and transportation, the silica content of the source
rocks can be inferred from the Al2O3/TiO2 ratio of sedimentary
rocks using the above equation. When Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of the
loess-paleosol sediments of the present study are substituted in
the equation of Hayashi et al. (1997), the SiO2 contents of the
loess-paleosol sediments are found to range narrowly from 57.62
to 62.48 wt% (average 61.18 wt%). Average SiO2 contents
(61.18 wt%) indicate that the inferred source rocks are intermediate igneous rocks. These estimates agree quite well with the actual
SiO2 contents of these sediments, ranging from 50.92 to 63.68 wt%
suggesting intermediate composition.
Amajor (1987) proposed Al2O3 vs TiO2 (wt%) binary plot as a
provenance indicator. The application of this plot on the Kashmir
Loess-Paleosol sediments (Fig. 7) indicates that all the samples fall
along the basalt + ryolite/granite line. This further indicates that
the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments are derived from mixed
source sediments ranging in composition from mafic and felsic
source rocks.
Ratios of both compatible and incompatible elements are useful
for differentiating between felsic and mafic source components.
The immobile elements La and Th are more abundant in felsic than
in basic rocks, whereas Sc is more concentrated in basic rocks than
in felsic rocks (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1987). These elements are effective in tracing loess provenance
(Liu et al., 1993; Gallet et al., 1996; Sun, 2002a,b; Muhs and Budahn, 2006). Bhatia and Crook (1986) proposed LaThSc ternary
diagram to study the tectonic setting of sedimentary rocks. Subsequently, Cullers (1994a,b) used this diagram to discriminate felsic
and basic provenance of the fine-grained sediments. In this LaTh
Sc diagram, data of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments fall in a region of mixed source rocks (Fig. 8). The fact that all the samples
plot close to the values of UCC, PAAS and NASC, indicating large
provenance with variable geographical and geological setting (Gallet et al., 1996).
6. Sorting and recycling

Sedimentary recycling processes are accompanied by fractionation and enrichment of heavy minerals, notably Zr. Zircon is physically and chemically ultra-stable mineral that can indicate the
effect of recycling (McLennan et al., 1993). An example of this
can be illustrated for Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediment. In Fig. 9a
Th/Sc ratio is plotted against Zr/Sc ratio. The Zr/Sc ratio is a useful
index of zircon enrichment (sediment recycling) since Zr is
83
of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments, it can be seen that both Th/

Sc and Zr/Sc ratios do not follow a trend consistent with igneous
differentiation being the primary control (i.e., provenance)
(Fig. 9a). In contrast, these sediments clustered close to the primary compositional trend than the trend involving zircon addition,
suggesting weak to moderate sedimentary recycling. In addition, Zr
preferentially incorporates into HREE relative to LREE and its accumulation would lead to HREE enrichment and a decrease in (La/
Yb)CN ratio with increasing Zr contents. However, there exist weak
to moderate correlation between Zr and (La/Yb)CN ratio (r = 0.43) of
the analyzed samples (Fig. 9b) again suggesting weak to moderate
sedimentary recycling.
The SiO2/Al2O3 ratio is sensitive to sediment recycling and
weathering processes, and Roser and Korsch (1986) have used it
as a signal of sediment maturity, with values increasing as quartz
survives preferentially to feldspars, mafic minerals and lithic
grains. Average values <4.0 characterize immature sedimentation,
while values >5.06.0 in sediments are an indication of progressive
maturity and mature sediments with values >6.0 (Roser et al.,
1996). When values exceed 7.0, and peak at >10.0 suggest strongly
mature sediments. The SiO2/Al2O3 values that range between 3.0
and 5.0 characterize immatureweakly mature sediments (Roser
et al., 1996). The SiO2/Al2O3 (wt%) values of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol
sediments that range between 3.33 and 4.43 (Table 1), indicate
immatureweakly mature.
Loess deposits can provide us with a natural sampling of large
regions of surficial crust (Taylor et al., 1983). This is because they
are widespread and made by several mechanisms, which produce
silt-sized particles (e.g., glacial grinding, desert weathering and
deflation, mountain loess process operating with high-energy
transfer and frequent freezethaw conditions) in various sedimentary environments (Gallet et al., 1998; Tripathi and Rajamani,
1999; Wright, 2001). These characteristics make loess suitable
for estimating the average chemical composition of the UCC (Taylor et al., 1983). However, the composition of loess cannot be used
directly to infer UCC composition. Recent studies show that the
geochemistry of loess differs from region to region, depending on
source materials (e.g., Muhs and Bettis, 2003; Sun et al., 2007). In
Fig. 10a, SiO2 and Al2O3 concentrations of the studied samples plot
close to the composition of andesite and basalt (values after Condie, 1993) but far from the GAL (global average loess) and AVL
(average loess) (Ujvari et al., 2008) and granite and felsic volcanic
igneous rocks (values after Condie, 1993). The lower SiO2 content
of these Kashmir Loess samples relative to the AVL and GAL might
reflect that these samples had a smaller proportion of silt-sized
quartz than other worldwide loess deposits (Fig. 10a and b). In
Fig. 10c and d, the average composition of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol
2.5
Ba
sa l

TiO 2 (wt%)
2.0
1.5
sa
Ba
ry
lt +
/
li t e
Ry
g ra
o li
nit
ra
t e /g
ni te
+ ba
sal
1.0
Ryolite/g
0.5
0.0
10
20
30
ranite
40
50
Al2 O3 (wt%)
Fig. 7. Al2O3 vs TiO2 (wt%) binary plot showing basalt + ryolite/granite compositional field of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments (after Amajor, 1987).
La (ppm)

UCC
Typical
PAAS
Granitic gneisssouces
NASC
Clay, silt, sand

and gravels from
mixedsources
Metabasic
sources
Clay, silt, sand
from amphibolite
source
Amphibolite sources
Sc (ppm)
Th (ppm)
Fig. 8. LaThSc ternary diagram showing mixed sources for Kashmir LoessPaleosol sediments (fields defined by Cullers, 1994a). UCC and PAAS values after
Taylor and McLennan (1985) and NASC values after Gromet et al. (1984).
strongly enriched in Zircon, whereas Sc is not enriched but generally preserves a signature of the provenance similar to REE (McLennan, 1989). In contrast, Th/Sc ratio is a good overall indicator of
igneous chemical differentiation processes since Th is typically
an incompatible element, whereas Sc is typically compatible in
igneous rocks (McLennan et al., 1993; Borges et al., 2008). In case
(b) 30

Granite
20
1.0
(La/Yb) CN
Th/Sc (ppm)
(a) 10.0
Andesite
10
Basalt
0.1
10
Zr/Sc (ppm)
100
100
200
300
Zr (ppm)
Fig. 9. (a) Th/Sc vs Zr/Sc plot for Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments (after McLennan et al., 1993). Samples define much shorter trend and fall along a trend intermediate
between trend involving zircon addition (solid line) and primary compositional trend (dashed line) suggestive of weak to moderate sedimentary recycling. Plot of (b) (La/
Yb)CN vs Zr (ppm) (after Asiedu et al., 2004) showing weak correlation consistent with the weak to moderate sedimentary recycling.
84
(a) 18
16
Basalt
1.2
Basalt
Kashmir Loess
TiO2 (wt%)
Al2O3 (wt%)
(b) 1.4
Andesite
Felsic Volcanic
14
Granite
1.0
Andesite
0.8
GAL
12
GAL
AVL
Felsic Volcanic
0.4
10
50
55
60
65
70
75
0.2
50
80
Granite
55
60
(c) 2.0
70
75
80
(d) 1.2
Granite
Basalt
1.5
0.9
Th/V (ppm)
TiO2 (wt%)
65
SiO2 (wt%)
SiO2 (wt%)
1.0
AVL
0.5
GAL
Andesite
Kashmir Loess
0.6
15
Felsic Volcanic
0.3 Kashmir Loess
Felsic Volcanic
Basalt
Granite
0.0
AVL
Kashmir Loess
0.6
30
45
60
75
Ni (ppm)
0.0
AVL
Andesite GAL
4
12
16
Zr/V (ppm)
Fig. 10. Scatter plots of (a) Al2O3 vs SiO2 wt%, (b) TiO2 vs SiO2 wt%, (c) TiO2 wt% vs Ni (ppm) and (d) Th/V vs Zr/V (ppm) comparing Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments (this
study) with average loess composition (AVL) and global average loess composition (GAL) (values from Ujvari et al. (2008)). Average values of igneous rock compositions
(granite, basalt, felsic volcanic and andesite) (after Condie, 1993) and Chinese Loess composition (values from Taylor et al., 1983), Gallet et al. (1996) and Jahn et al. (2001) are
also shown for comparison.
Al2 O3
100
Kaolinit, Gibbsit, Chlorite

UCC
PAAS
NASC
90
Smectite
Predicted weathering
trend
Plagioclase
CaO*+Na 2 O
Illite
80
CIA
Muscovite
70
60
K-feldspar
50
K2O
Fig. 11. Al2O3(CaO + Na2O)K2O ternary diagram for Kashmir Loess-Paleosol

sediments (after Nesbitt and Young, 1982, 1989), compared to data for PostArchean Average Shale (PAAS) and Upper Continental Crust (UCC) given by Taylor
and McLennan (1985); and North American Shale Composite (NASC) given by
Gromet et al. (1984).
sediments also plot close to the andesite (values after Condie,

1993). Therefore, strong regional variation is detected by comparing the average composition of some individual geochemical
parameters of Kashmir Loess to AVL and GAL (Fig. 10ad). These
findings indicated that the composition of Kashmir Loess is very
close to the andesite and basalt than the others references
materials.
(e.g., Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1987). About 75% of the labile

material of the upper crust is composed of feldspars and volcanic
glass and chemical weathering of these materials ultimately results in the formation of clay minerals (e.g., Nesbitt and Young,
1984, 1989; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Fedo et al., 1995). The
distribution of elements within the profile is used to assess the nature and degree of weathering (Nesbitt and Young, 1982; McLennan, 1989). Both precipitation and temperature accelerate
chemical weathering in soils and cause depletion of alkali and alkaline earth elements (Ca, Mg, Na and K) at the expense of refractory
elements such as Ti and Al. Therefore, the concentration of individual element in the profile is directly influenced by change in concentration of other elements. The amount of these elements
surviving in soil profiles and in sediments derived from them is a
sensitive index of the intensity of chemical weathering (Nesbitt
et al., 1997).
The degree of source weathering is quantified variously. Few
indices of weathering have been proposed based on abundances
of mobile and immobile element oxides (Na2O, CaO, K2O and
Al2O3). Among the known indices of weathering, the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA; Nesbitt and Young, 1982) is well established
as a method of quantifying the degree of source weathering. Source
weathering and elemental redistribution during diagenesis can
also be assessed using Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA; Fedo
et al., 1995) and Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW; Harnois,
1988). The equations of the above indices are:
CIA fAl2 O3 =Al2 O3 CaO Na2 O K2 Og 100

CIW fAl2 O3 =Al2 O3 CaO Na2 Og 100
7. Weathering intensity
PIA fAl2 O3 K2 O=Al2 O3 CaO Na2 OK2 Og 100
Chemical weathering intensity of source rocks is controlled

mainly by source rock composition, duration of weathering, climatic conditions and rates of tectonic uplift of source region
In the above equations, CaO is the content of CaO incorporated

in silicate fraction and all major oxides are expressed in molar proportions. The CaO content of the loess-paleosol sediments of the
85
(a) 85
(b) 20

CaO (wt%)
CIA
75
10
70
65

15
80
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
Na2 O (wt%)
(c) 2
16
18
20
(La/Yb) CN
(La/Yb) CN

0
10
12
14
16
18
20
(La/Yb) CN
Fig. 12. (a) CIA vs LaCN/YbCN, (b) CaO wt% vs LaCN/YbCN and (c) Na2O wt% vs PIA plots for Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments suggesting that the REE are not affected by
weathering.
present study varies from 1.21 to 11.33 wt% (average = 5.46 wt%).
The P2O5 contents range from 0.087 to 0.156 wt%. There is no direct
method to distinguish and quantify the contents of CaO belonging
to silicate fraction and non-silicate fraction (carbonates and apatite). McLennan (1993) proposed an indirect method for quantifying CaO content of silicate fraction assuming reasonable values of
CaO/Na2O ratio of silicate material. The procedure for quantification of CaO contents of silicate fraction involves subtraction of molar proportion of P2O5 from the molar proportion of CaO. On
subtraction, if the remaining number of moles found to be less
than the molar proportion of Na2O, then the remaining number
of moles is considered as the molar proportion of CaO of silicate
fraction. If the remaining numbers of moles are greater than
the molar proportion of Na2O, then the molar proportion of Na2O
is taken as the molar proportion of CaO of silicate fraction.
Following the procedure of McLennan (1993), the CIA, CIW and
PIA values of the loess-paleosol sediments have been determined
and the results are provided in Table 1. CIA value 50 or less represents unweathered rocks and soils. CIA value range from 50 to 60
indicates incipient pedogenesis, whereas CIA value range from 60
to 80 indicates moderate degree of pedogenesis. Higher values of
CIA from 80 to 100 indicate intense pedogenesis (McLennan,
2001; Abdou and Shehata, 2007). The CIA values of Kashmir
Loess-Paleosol sediments indicate that the degree of source weathering varies from 67.13 to 75.27 (average = 71.87). CIW values
ranging from 80 to 95 with Sr contents of 75 to 200 ppm suggest
moderate losses of Ca, Na and Sr. In contrast, the CIW values range
between 90 and 98 with Sr contents <100 ppm indicate intense
losses of these elements (Condie, 1993; Nyakairu and Koeberl,
2001). The CIW value of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments ranges
from 79.93 to 87.29 (average = 83.83) and Sr concentration vary
between 94.09 and 167.33 ppm suggesting a moderate loss of
these elements during pedogenic modification (Table 1). The PIA
value ranges from 70 to 90 also reflects an intermediate degree
of weathering (Selvaraj and Chen, 2006). PIA values of loess-paleosol sediments of Kashmir Valley vary from 75.20 to 84.87 (average = 80.57), which vividly indicate moderate degree of
weathering.
PIA monitors and quantifies the progressive weathering of feldspars to clay minerals (Fedo et al., 1995). PIA values of sediments
suggest intense destruction of feldspars during the course of source

weathering, transport, sedimentation and diagenesis. During the
initial stages of weathering of feldspar-bearing source material,
Ca leached more rapidly than Na and K. With increasing weathering, the total alkali content (K2O + Na2O) decreases with increase in
K2O/Na2O ratio. This is due to destruction of plagioclase feldspars
among which plagioclase is preferentially removed than K-feldspars (Nesbitt and Young, 1984). Detrital grains of feldspars in sediments can preserve imprints of varied degrees of alteration
witnessed at the source region and during transport, sedimentation and diagenesis. PIA shows weak positive correlation with
K2O (r = 0.30) and negative correlation with K2O + Na2O wt%
(r = 0.064), Na2O (r = 0.56), MgO (r = 0.042) and CaO
(r = 0.56). This vividly indicates that the weathering has proceeded to the stage where only mobile elements have been
removed.
Mobility of elements during the progress of chemical weathering and post-depositional chemical modifications of source material can also be evaluated by plotting the molar proportions of
Al2O3, Na2O, K2O and CaO (CaO in silicate fraction) in ACNK ternary diagram (Nesbitt and Young, 1982, 1984). In the ACNK diagram (A = Al2O3; CN = CaO + Na2O; K = K2O), the Kashmir LoessPaleosol sediments plot above the plagioclase-potash feldspar line
(Fig. 11). The samples fall intermediate between ACN and AK
lines, which show removal of Ca and Na to intermediate extent
due to destruction of plagioclase (Buggle et al., 2008). The plots
do not exhibit any inclination towards the K apex indicating that
the loess-paleosol sediments were not subjected to potash metasomatism during diagenesis (Moosavirad et al., 2010). Further, the
ratios of immobile elements such as La/Co, Zr/Y and Zr/Hf, show
no correlation with Al2O3 (r = 0.49, 0.00094, 0.076 respectively)
and CIA values (r = 0.58, r = 0.029 and r = 0.051 respectively)
which suggest that these elements are resistant to chemical
weathering.
Some studies suggest that REEs can be fractionated during
chemical weathering and especially in humid climates (Ronov
et al., 1967; Roaldsete, 1973). To see if the intensity of weathering
of loess-paleosol sediments affected REE distributions, the LaCN/
YbCN ratios plotted against the CIA, CaO and Na2O wt% (Fig. 12).
A correlation is not apparent between these parameters, as would
86
be expected if the REE distributions influenced by weathering. The

LaCN/YbCN ratio of the studied samples do not correlates with the
weathering indices (CIW vs LaCN/YbCN; r = 0.090 and PIA vs LaCN/
YbCN; r = 0.14). This lack of evidence of intense paleoweathering
at the source depicted by the LREE/HREE (LaCN/YbCN) fractionation
suggests that the REEs are not subjected to weathering (Cai et al.,
2008).
PAAS (Post Archean Australian Shale, Taylor and McLennan,
1985) normalized REE patterns of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments are moderately depleted in HREE relative to PAAS (Fig. 5c
and d). Eu and Ce anomalies are higher than PAAS. This suggests
that these elements remained conservative during weathering.
Hence, REE pattern of the studied samples is mainly inherited from
the source provenance.
The use of CIA index in weathering studies assumes that this index is a measurement of the amount of the chemical weathering
undergone by the studied rocks. However, other factors that may
affect the CIA value and need to be taken into account include sedimentary sorting, sediment provenance and post-depositional processes that lead to K+ addition (e.g. diagenetic illitization and
metasomatism). Sedimentary sorting can significantly influence
the chemical composition of terrigenous sediments due to grain
size and mineral sorting (Bauluz et al., 2000). For instance, aluminum is concentrated in the clays, hence the larger the transport
(i.e. distal regions), the finer the sediments and the higher the Al
concentration (Soreghan and Soreghan, 2007). There is also a tendency of larger grain sizes to concentrate feldspars, which leads to
lower CIA values (Zimmerman and Bahlburg, 2003). Therefore, the
use of the CIA as a weathering index, however, can be limited by
the inheritance of clays from sedimentary rocks in the source area.
However, the geochemical study of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments reveals that these sediments are enriched in rock forming
minerals with significant proportion of clays, indicating that CIA
value to some extent is affected by these clays. In addition, the
ACNK diagram (Fig. 11) also indicates that these loess-paleosol
sediments are not subjected to potash metasomatism. Further,
plots of Th/Sc vs Zr/Sc (ppm) and (La/Yb)CN vs Zr (ppm) show weak
to moderate effect of sorting on the studied samples. Therefore,
weathering intensity inferred from the various plots indicating
moderate degree of weathering, probably suggest combined result
of weathering, provenance and grain size effect due to transportation processes. Hence, on the bases of these geochemical observations it is proposed that the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments
experienced weak to moderate degree of weathering. The weathering has proceeded to the stage where only plagioclase feldspar
(both Ca-rich plagioclase and Na-rich plagioclase) are partially removed. Among the trace elements, Sr is the only element affected
by the process of pedogenesis followed by Ba.
Integrating the results of various provenance discrimination
diagrams (Roser and Korsch, 1988), Al2O3 vs TiO2 (wt%) (Amajor,
1987), LaThSc diagram (Cullers, 1994a,b), elemental ratios and
REE contents in these sediments, it reveals that these sediments
preserve the signatures of intermediate igneous or mixed felsic
and mafic source rocks. The presence of significant proportion of
clays in the Kashmir Loess, led earlier workers (e.g. Bronger
et al., 1987) to conclude that these sediments are partly derived
from the distant source and partly from the local source rocks. Earlier, DeTerra and Paterson (1939) on the basis of relatively high
clay concentrations suggested that the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol
sediments are derived from beyond the Pir Panjal. However, there
is no preferred pathway of deposition of these sediments. During
Plio-Pleistocene, southwestern monsoon does not reach the valley
as Pir Panjal mountain range effectively blocks it out. In addition,
there appear to be no nearby source for the loess nor an effective
mechanism by way of which wind could pass this mountain barrier. However, monsoon was also weaker during the glacial phases
(Duplessy, 1982). Therefore, in the absence of any suitable mechanism of transport, it is proposed that the westerlies are the possible
mechanism. The western disturbances, which enter the Kashmir
Valley from west and north-west during the winter months, are
brought by the westerlies. The westerlies blow toward Asia and
passes over the Asia Minor (Turkey, or the peninsula of Anatolia),
Iran, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, NE Pakistan and then northwestern
India. These westerlies might have brought fine-grained sediments
to Kashmir Valley. However, contribution from the nearby sources
also not excluded, because the katabatic winds blowing down from
the mountain slopes could have also picked up fine material from
the glacial front and redeposited them on valley floor. Therefore, it
is proposed that the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments are derived
from mixed source sediments, mostly from the distant source region suggesting large provenance with variable geological settings.
8. Conclusions
This paper reports the first detailed multi-elements geochemical study to understand the chemical weathering and provenance
of loess-paleosol sediments of the Karewa Group of Kashmir Valley, India. Geochemical studies carried out have revealed the
following:
In comparison with UCC, these sediments are generally enriched with Fe2O3, MgO, MnO (with the exception of few samples),
TiO2, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sc, V and Co. Al2O3 is slightly higher than the UCC
while CaO and U show large variations in comparison with UCC. Rb
is generally similar to UCC whereas Ba is slightly lower than the
UCC. However, the contents of SiO2, K2O, Na2O, P2O5, Sr, Nb and
Hf, which are associated with felsic rocks, are lower than the
UCC. Th, U, Zr and Y with the exception of few samples are higher
than the UCC. Chondrite normalized REE patterns are characterized
by moderate enrichment of LREEs, relatively flat HREE pattern
(GdCN/YbCN = 1.932.31), lack of prominent negative Eu anomaly
(Eu/Eu = 0.731.01, average = 0.81) and variable amount of total
P
REE ( REE = 297.6402.72). PAAS normalized REE patterns have
slightly higher LREE and moderately depleted HREE. Eu and Ce
anomalies are relative higher than PAAS. This suggests robustness
of REE during weathering.
Integrating the results of provenance discrimination diagram
(Roser and Korsch, 1988), plot of Al2O3 vs TiO2 (wt%) (Amajor,
1987), LaThSc diagram (Cullers, 1994a,b), elemental ratios and
REE contents in these sediments, it is concluded that the geochemical characteristics preserve the signatures of intermediate igneous
or mixed source from felsic and mafic rocks which apparently have
undergone weak to moderate recycling processes. Probably, the
westerlies have brought these fine-grained sediments to Kashmir
Valley. However, contribution from the nearby sources also not excluded, because the katabatic winds blowing down from the
mountain slopes could have also picked up fine material from
the glacial front and redeposited them on valley floor. Therefore,
it is proposed that the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments are derived from mixed source sediments, mostly from the distant source
region suggesting large provenance with variable geological
settings.
However, paleoweathering at the source depicted by various
weathering indices suggest that the source experienced moderate
degree of weathering. Plot of the Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments on ACNK ternary diagram also reiterate moderate weathering. This diagram further indicates that the loess-paleosol
sediments are not subjected to potash metasomatism during diagenesis. ICV values and Pearson correlation between various major
elements, trace elements and REE suggest that the Kashmir Loesspaleosol sediments are enriched in both rocks forming minerals
and clay contents, indicating that the values of CIA, CIW and PIA
to some extent are affected by these clays. Hence, the presence of

clay minerals in Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments over estimates
the values of weathering indices. Therefore, weathering intensity
inferred from the various weathering indices, indicating moderate
degree of weathering, probably suggests combined result of weathering and grain size effect due to transportation processes. Further,
ratios of various immobile elements such as La/Co, Zr/Y and Zr/Hf
show no correlation with Al2O3 and CIA values, suggesting that
these elements are not subjected to chemical weathering. Also,
LaCN/YbCN ratio shows no correlation with CaO wt%, Na2O wt%,
CIA, CIW and PIA, indicating that the chemical weathering did
not fractionate LREE from HREE. Hence, it is proposed that the
Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments experienced weak to moderate
degree of weathering. This is further supported by the ratio of
maturity index (SiO2/Al2O3 wt%) ranging from 3.33 to 4.43 and plot
of Zr (ppm) vs (La/Yb)CN which reveals weak maturity of these sediments and likely record a weak to moderate recycling effect from
their source rocks.
Acknowledgments
The author is thankful to Dr. B.R. Arora, Director Wadia Institute
of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), Dehradun, for providing access to
laboratory and analytical facilities.
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This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier.

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

Geochemistry of loess-paleosol sediments of Kashmir Valley, India: Provenance

Author's personal copy

I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

Mountain range in the north and Pir-Panjal Mountain range in

Fig. 1. Map showing the locations of the study area.

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I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

Author's personal copy

I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

Author's personal copy

I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

(continued on next page)

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I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

Author's personal copy

I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

Fig. 3 shows the distribution of major element contents of

Loess-Paleosol sediments. By comparison with UCC (Taylor and

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I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

(a) Dilpur Village Section

(b) Karapur Village Section

(b) Karapur Village Section

(a) Dilpur Village Section

centration (with the exception of few samples) compared to UCC

distribution (McLennan et al., 1983; Jin et al., 2006). K2O/Na2O ratios

Author's personal copy

I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

(b) Karapur Village Section

(a) Dilpur Villlage section

(c) Dilpur Village section

(d) Karapur Village section

and chlorite (not included here). Cu shows positively correlation

Rb (ppm) below 300 indicates immobility of Rb (Chen et al.,

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I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

Continental Crust (UCC) suggests significant basic input from the

Karapur Village section

4.2. Rare Earth Elements (REEs)

SiO2 wt% 39:34 1:2578Al2 O3 =TiO2 0:0109Al2 O3 =TiO2 2

6. Sorting and recycling

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I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

of Kashmir Loess-Paleosol sediments, it can be seen that both Th/

+ Dilpur Village section

+ Dilpur Village section

Clay, silt, sand

+ Dilpur Village section

+ Dilpur Village section

Karapur Village section

Author's personal copy

I. Ahmad, R. Chandra / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 66 (2013) 7389

0.3 Kashmir Loess

Kaolinit, Gibbsit, Chlorite

Fig. 11. Al2O3(CaO + Na2O)K2O ternary diagram for Kashmir Loess-Paleosol

sediments also plot close to the andesite (values after Condie,

(e.g., Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1987). About 75% of the labile

CIA fAl2 O3 =Al2 O3 CaO Na2 O K2 Og 100

PIA fAl2 O3 K2 O=Al2 O3 CaO Na2 OK2 Og 100