CHAPTER I

The HarappanCivilisation
1.
WHAT ARE THE SOURCES AVAILABLE TO UNDERSTAND (OR) TO STUDY HARAPPAN CIV
ILIZATION?
a)
The Harappan seal is possibly the most distinctive artifact of the Harappa
ns or Indus valley civilisation. Harappan seals contain animal and plant motifs
and signs from a script that remains undeciphered.
b)
We know a great deal of sources which were left by the people, such as the
ir houses, pots, ornaments, tools and seals
in other words, archaeological evide
nce.
2.

*WHY WAS INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATIONALSO CALLED THE HARAPPAN CULTURE?

a.
Archaeologists use the term culture for a group of objects,distinctive in
style, that are usually found together within a specific geographical area and
period of time.
b.
In the case of the Harappan culture, these distinctive objects include s
eals, beads, weights, stone blades and baked bricks.
c.
These objects were found from areas as far apart as Afghanistan, Jammu,
Baluchistan (Pakistan) and Gujarat .
d.
Harappan civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and1900 BCE.
3.
Similarities and DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EARLY HARAPPAN CULTURES AND Mature
Harappan CULTURES.
a)
Early and later Harappan cultures were associated with distinctive pottery
, evidence of agriculture and pastoralism, and some crafts.
b)
In Early Harappan cultures Settlements were generally small, and there wer
e virtually no large buildings. But in Mature Harappan culture settlements were
large and buildings were also large.
4.
SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES (DIETARY PRACTICES) OF HARAPPAN CULTURES AND MAT
URE HARAPPAN CULTURES
a.
The Harappans ate a wide range of plant products. Archaeologists have bee
n able to reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains, seeds and
bones.
b.
These are studied by archaeo-botanists, who are specialists in ancient pla
nt remains.
c.
Food grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpe
a, sesame, Millets and rice.
d.
The Harappans ate a wide range of animal products.Archaeologists have been
able to reconstruct use of animals from finds of charred animal bones found at
Harappan sites. These include those of cattle, sheep,goat, buffalo and pig.
e.
These are studied by Archaeo-zoologists or zoo-Archaeologists who are spec
ialists in ancient animal remains.
f.
Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial were also found. We
do not know whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves orobtained mea
t from other hunting (tribal) communities.

5. PREVALENCE OFAGRICULTURE IN HARAPPAN CIVILISATION

A.
Representations on seals and terracotta sculptureindicate that the bull
was known, and oxen were used for ploughing.
B.
Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan an
d at Banawali (Haryana).

C.
Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibanga
n (Rajasthan).The field had two sets of furrows at right angles toeach other, su
ggesting that two different cropswere grown together.
d.
Archaeologists have also identified thetools used for harvesting. Harappan
s used stone blades set in wooden handles and metal tools made of copper.
e.
Most Harappan sites are located in semi-aridlands, where irrigation was pr
obably required foragriculture. Traces of canals, water reservoirs and wells hav
e been found at the Harappan sites indicate that agriculture was practiced.
f.
Archaeologists have also found charred food grains which indicate prevale
nce of agriculture.
6.

UNIQUE FEATURES OF MOHENJODARO

A.DIVISIONS IN MOHENJODARO CITY

a.
The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher called
as the Citadel and the other much larger butlower called the Lower Town.
b.
The Citadel owesits height to the fact that buildings were constructedon m
ud brick platforms. It was walled and physically separated from theLower Town. W
e find evidence of structures that were probably used for special public purpose
s.
B.CITADEL
c.
The warehouse, a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remai
n, while theupper portions, probably of wood, decayed long ago.
d.
The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a
corridor on all four sides. There were two flights of steps on the north and so
uth leading into the tank. There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was
a large well. Across a lane to the north lay a smaller building with eight bathr
ooms, four on each side of a corridor.Scholars suggest that it was meant for som
e kind of a special ritual bath.
C. LOWER TOWN
E.
The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildingswere built on platforms
, which served as foundations.
F.
Once the platforms were in place, all building activity within the city
was restricted to a fixed area on the platforms. So it seems that the settlement
was first planned and then built accordingly.
D.DRAINAGE SYSTEM
G.
One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully
planned drainage system. If you look at the plan of the Lower Town you will not
icethat roads and streets were laid out along an approximate grid pattern, interse
cting at right angles.
H.
It seems that streets with drains were laidout first and then houses were
built along them.
E.DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
I.
The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildin
gs. Many were centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides. The courtyardwas
probably the centre of activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly duri
ng hot and dry weather. People were more concern for privacy: there are no windo
ws in thewalls along the ground level. Besides, the mainentrance does not give a
direct view of the interioror the courtyard.
J.
Every house had its own bathroom paved withbricks, with drains connecte
d through the wall tothe street drains. Some houses have remains of stair cases
to reach a second storey or the roof. Many houses had wells, often in a room tha
t could be reached from the outside and perhaps used by passers-by.

7.
STRATEGIES TOFIND OUT WHETHER THERE WERE SOCIAL OR ECONOMICDIFFERENCES AM
ONGST PEOPLE LIVING WITHIN HARAPPAN CULTURE.
a.
At burials in Harappan sites the dead weregenerally laid in pits. Sometime
s, there weredifferences in the way the burial pit was made
insome instances; th
e hollowed-out spaces were linedwith bricks. These variations are an indicationo
f social differences.
b.
Some graves contain pottery and ornaments,perhaps indicating a belief that
these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burialsof bot
h men and women.
c.
Inthe cemetery found in Harappa in the mid-1980s, a burial contained ornam
ent consisting of three shell rings, a jasper bead and hundreds of micro beads w
ere found near the skull of a male.In some instances the dead were buried with c
oppermirrors. But the Harappans did not believe in burying precious thingswith t
he dead.
d.
Another strategy to identify social differences is to study artefacts, whi
ch archaeologists broadly classify as utilitarian and luxuries. The first catego
ryincludes objects of daily use made of stone or clay such as querns, pottery, n
eedles, flesh-rubbers are usually found distributed throughout settlements.
e.
Archaeologists assume luxuries objects are rare and made from costly, nonlocal materials or with complicated technologies such as little pots of faience,
beads, micro beads etc were probably consideredprecious because they were diffi
cult to make.Rare objects made of valuable materialsare generally concentrated i
n large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa
8.

CRAFTPRODUCTION IN INDUS VALLEY

a.
Mohenjodaro almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead
-making,shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making andweight-making.
b.
The variety of raw materials used to make crafts such as stones (carnelian
- red stone, jasper-yellow stone, crystal- colourless stone, quartz and steatit
e) metals(copper, bronze and gold) shell and clay.
c.
The shapes of crafts were numerous discshaped,cylindrical, spherical, barr
el-shaped,segmented. Some were decorated by incising orpainting, and some had de
signs etched onto them. Some beads were made oftwo or more stones, cemented toge
ther, some of stones were decorated with gold caps
d.
Techniques for making beads differed according to the material Moulding, c
hipping,Grinding, polishing and drilling are some of the techniques used for mak
ing crafts.
e.
Chanhudaro, Lothal,Dholavira,Nageshwar and Balakot are some of the craft c
entres.
9.

HOW DID ARCHAEOLOGISTS IDENTIFY CENTRESOF PRODUCTION?

a.
In order to identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually l
ook for the following: raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, and cop
perore etc.
b.
Archaeologists also lookfor tools which were used for making crafts.
c.
Archaeologists lookfor unfinished objects, rejects and waste material. Was
te isone of the best indicatorsof craft work. Sometimes, larger waste pieces wer
e used up tomake smaller objects.
d.
These traces suggestthat apart from small, specializedcenters, craftproduc
tion was also undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
10.

STRATEGIES FOR PROCURING RAW MATERIALS WITH IN THE SUB-CONTINENT

Transportation:
a.
Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one importan
t means of transporting goods and people across land routes.
b.
Depictions of shipsand boats on seals suggest that Riverine routes along t
he Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastal routes were also probably used
for transporting goods and people.
Strategies for ProcuringMaterials
a.
The Harappans procured materials for craftproduction in various ways. F
or instance, theyestablished settlements where raw material was available.(Nages
hwar andBalakot- shell, Shortughai- lapis lazuli, a blue stone, Lothal- carnelia
n, steatite and metal-Rajasthan and Gujarat)
b.
Another strategy for procuring raw materials mayhave been to send expedi
tions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and southIndi
a (for gold). These expeditions establishedcommunication with local communities.
c.
Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts such as steatite micro beads in
the Khetri area indicates that the inhabitants of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture sup
plied copper to the Harappans according to the aggrement.
(What is Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture?-In the Khetri area archaeologists found a n
ew culture and call it as the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture. Here they found distin
ctive non-Harappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects. It is possib
lethat the inhabitants of this region supplied copper to the Harappans).
STRATEGIES FOR PROCURINGMATERIALS FROM DISTANT LANDS
a.
Recent archaeological finds suggest that copper wasalso probably brought f
rom Oman, on the southeasterntip of the Arabian Peninsula. Chemicalanalyses have
shown that both the Omani copper and Harappan copper artifacts have traces of n
ickel.
b.
A distinctive type of vessel, a large Harappan jar coated with a thick lay
er of blackclay has been found at Omani sites. Itis possible that the Harappans
exchanged the contents of these vessels for Omani copper.
c.
Mesopotamian texts datable to the thirdmillennium BCE refer to copper comi
ng from a region called Magan, perhaps a name forOman, and interestingly enough
copper found Mesopotamian sites alsocontains traces of nickel.
d.
It is worth notingthat Mesopotamian textsmention contact with regions name
d Dilmun(Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha (the Harappan region).They mention the prod
ucts from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.
e.
A Mesopotamian myth says of Meluhha: May your bird be the haja-bird, may it
s call be heard inthe royal palace. Some archaeologists think the haja-bird was t
he peacock.
f.
Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha (the Harappan region) as aland of sea
farers. Besides,we find depictions of shipsand boats on seals.
HARAPPAN SEALS
a.
Seals and sealings were used to facilitate longdistancecommunication. Imag
ine a bag of goodsbeing sent from one place to another. Its mouth wastied with r
ope and on the knot was affixed some wetclay on which one or more seals were pre
ssed,leaving an impression.
b.
If the bag reached withits sealing intact, it meant that it had not beent
ampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identityof the sender.
c.
Harappan seals usually have a line of writing and animal midifs. Scholars
have also suggested that the motif(generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to th
osewho could not read.
HARAPPANSCRIPT
a.
Harappan seals usually have a line of writing. Most inscriptions are short
, the longest containing about 26 signs. Although the script remains undeciphere
d to date, it was evidently notalphabetical but syllable.It has just too many si
gns somewhere between 375 and 400.

b.
It is apparent that the script was written from right to left as some sea
ls show a wider spacing on the right and crampingon the left, as if the engraver
began working fromthe right and then ran out of space.
c.
A variety of objects on which writinghas been found: seals, copper tools,
rims of jars,copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods, even an ancien
t signboard. Remember, there mayhave been writing on perishable materials too su
ch as cloth, animal skin etc.
HARAPPANWEIGHTS
a.
Exchanges were regulated by a precise system ofweights, usually made of a
stone called chert and generally cubical with no markings.
b.
Thelower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4,8, 16, 32, etc). wh
ile the higherdenominations followed the decimal system. Thesmaller weights were
probably used for weighing jewellery and beads and bigger weights were used for
food grains.
c.
Metal scale-pans have alsobeen found. These were probably used for measuri
ng cloth and other materials.
Ruling Authority in indus valley civilisation
(What are indications prove that complex decisions were taken and implemented in
Harappan society by the ruler?)
a.
The extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery,
seals and weights.
b.
Bricks, thoughobviously not produced in any single centre, were ofa unifor
m ratio throughout the region, from Jammuto Gujarat.
c.
We have also seen that settlements werestrategically set up in specific lo
cations for variousreasons.
d.
Labour was mobilised for makingbricks and for the construction of massive
wallsand platforms.
e.
Who organised these activities? Most probably the king.
RULING AUTHORITY OR CENTRE OF POWER
a.
A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace byarchaeolo
gists but no spectacular finds wereassociated with it.
b.
A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the priest-king . T
his isbecause archaeologists were familiar withMesopotamian history and its pries
t-kings
c.
Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers
, and that everybody enjoyed equal status( Democracy)
d.
Other archaeologistsfeel thatthere was no singleruler but several, that M
ohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth.
e.
Yet other archaeologistsargue that there was a single state and single rul
er because of the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for plannedsettlements,
the standardized ratio of brick size, andthe establishment of settlements near
sources of rawmaterial.
The End of the Civilisation
a.
There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites ha
d been abandoned. Simultaneously, there wasan expansion of population into newse
ttlements in Gujarat, Haryana andwestern Uttar Pradesh.
b.
Distinctive artefacts of the civilisation- weights, seals, special beads,
Writing, long-distance trade, andcraft specialization disappeared after 1800 BCE
.Houseconstruction techniques deterioratedand large public structures were nolon
ger produced.
c.
Overall disappearence of artefacts and settlements indicates a rural wayof
life in what is called Vedic culture or vedic civilisation began.
d.
Several explanations havebeen put forward. These range fromclimatic change

, deforestation,excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up ofrivers, to ove

ruse of the landscape.
e.
Some of these causes may hold for certain settlements, but theydo not expla
in the collapse of the entire civilisation.It appears that a strong unifying ele
ment, perhaps the Harappan state, came to an end.
Evidence of an invasion in Indus valley civilisation
a.
Deadman Lane is a narrow valley wherepart of a skull, the bones of the
thorax andupper arm of an adult were discovered.Allwerein very friable condition
, at a depth of4 ft 2 in. The body lay on its back diagonally across the lane. F
ifteen inches to thewest were a few fragments of a tiny skull. It is to these re
mains that the lane owesits name.
b.
Sixteen skeletons of people with the ornaments that they were wearing w
hen theydied were found from the same part of Mohenjodaro in 1925.
c.
R.E.M. Wheeler, then Director-General of the ASI, tried tocorrelate thi
s archaeological evidence with that of the Rigveda, the earliest known text in t
he subcontinent.
d.
There is no destruction level covering the latest period of the city Mo
henjodaro, no sign of extensive burning, no bodies of warriors clad in armour an
d surrounded by the weapons of war. The citadel, the only fortified part of the
city,yielded no evidence of a final defence.
Discovering the HarappanCivilisation
(How have archaeologistsused evidence from material remains topiece together par
ts of a fascinating harappan history?) OR (Howdid archaeologists discover the Hara
ppan civilization?)
a.

Cunningham s confusion

Cunningham, the first Director-General of theASI, began archaeological excavatio

ns in the midnineteenthcentury. Cunningham s maininterest was in the archaeology o
f the Early Historic(c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE) and laterperiods. H
e used the accounts left by ChineseBuddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcont
inentbetween the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locateearly settlements.
Harappan artefacts were found fairly often duringthe nineteenth century and some
of these reachedCunningham, he did not realise how old these were. A Harappan s
eal was given to Cunningham by anEnglishman. He noted the object, but unsuccessf
ullytried to place it within the time-frame of c. sixth century BCE-fourth centu
ry CE.It is not surprising that he missedthe significance of Harappa.
b.

John Marshall`s Ignorance

John Marshall , the Director-General of the marked a major change in Indianarcha

eology. He was the first professionalarchaeologist to work in India, and brought
hisexperience of working in Greece and Crete to thefield. He was interested in
spectacular finds and patterns of everyday life.
Marshall tended to excavate along regularhorizontal units, measured uniformly th
roughout themound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. Thismeant that all the
artefacts recovered from the sameunit were grouped together, even if they were
foundat different stratigraphic layers. As a result, valuable information about
Harappan civilisation was irretrievably lost.
c.

R.E.M. Wheeler`s problems

R.E.M. Wheeler, took over as Director-General of the ASI in 1944, who rectified
many problems. Wheeler recognised that it was necessaryto follow the stratigraph
y of the mound ratherthan dig mechanically along uniform horizontallines. Moreov

er, as an ex-army brigadier, he broughtwith him a military precision to the prac

ticeof archaeology.
However, with the partition of thesubcontinent and the creation of Pakistan, the
majorsites are now in Pakistani territory. This has spurredIndian archaeologist
s to try and locate sites in India.
d.

Daya Ram Sahni

Seals were discovered at Harappa by archaeologists such as Daya Ram Sahni in the
early
decades of the twentieth century, in layers that weredefinitely much older than
Early Historic levels. Itwas then that their significance began to be realised.
e.

Rakhal Das Banerji

Another archaeologist, Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Mohenjodaro, le

ading to the
conjecture that these sites were part of a single archaeological culture. Based
on these finds, in 1924,John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI,announced the
discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.
f.

S.N. Roy

As S.N. Roy noted inThe Story of Indian Archaeology, Marshall left Indiathree tho
usand years older than he had found her. This was because similar, till-then-unide
ntifiedseals were found at excavations at Mesopotamiansites. It was then that th
e world knew not only of anewcivilisation, but also of one contemporaneouswith M
esopotamia.
Since the 1980s, there has also been growing international interest in Harappan
archaeology.
Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad havebeen jointly working at both Ha
rappa and Mohenjodaro. They are using modern scientifictechniques including surf
ace exploration to recovertraces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animalremai
ns as well as to minutely analyse every scrap of available evidence. These explo
rations promise toyield interesting results in the future.
How does material evidence allow the archaeologiststobetter reconstruct Harappa
n life?.
1.
Recovering artefacts is just the beginning of the archaeological enterpris
e. Archaeologists thenclassify their finds. One simple principle ofclassificatio
n is in terms of material, such as stone,clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc.
2.
The second, and morecomplicated, is in terms of function: archaeologistsh
ave to decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or bo
th, or something meantfor ritual use.
3.
An understanding of the function of an artifact is often shaped by its res
emblance with present-daythings beads, querns, stone blades and pots are obvious
examples.
4.
Archaeologists also try to identifythe function of an artefact by investig
ating the context in which it was found: was it found in ahouse, in a drain, in
a grave, in a kiln?
5.
Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourseto indirect evidence. For i
nstance, though there aretraces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find outabo
ut clothing we have to depend on indirectevidence including depictions in sculpt
ure.
What were the problems of archaeological interpretation to reconstruct religious
practices of the Harappans?

a.
Early archaeologists thought thatcertain objects which seemed unusual or
unfamiliarmay have had a religious significance. These includedterracotta figuri
nes of women, heavily jewelled, some with elaborate head-dresses. These were reg
ardedas mother goddesses.
b.
Rare stone statuary of men in an almost standardised posture, seated with
onehand on the knee
such as the priest-king
wasalso similarly classified.
c.
In other instances, structures have been assigned ritual significance.Thes
e include the Great Bath and fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal.
d.
Attempts have also been made to reconstructreligious beliefs and practices
by examining seals,some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others,with plan
t motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship. Some animals such as the one-h
ornedanimal, often called the unicorn
depicted on sealsseem to be mythical, compos
ite creatures.
e.
In someseals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a yogic posture, sometime
s surrounded by animals, hasbeen regarded as a depiction of proto-Shiva , thatis, a
n early form of one of the major deities ofHinduism. Besides, conical stone obje
cts have been classified as lingas.
f.
Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption t
hat later traditions provideparallels with earlier ones.
CHAPTER 1
BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES
Which is the most distinctive artefact of Harappan civilization? Why?
2
What are the sources available to understand the lives of Harappan people?
Mention any four sources.
2
Why is Indus valley civilization called as the Harappan culture? Give two reason
s.
2
Mention any two basic differences between early Harappan culture and later
HarappanCulture.
2
Explain any five evidences to understand the prevalence of agriculture in Harapp
an civilization?
5
List the items of food (plant and animal) available to people in Harappan cities
?
How do we reconstruct the dietary practices and domestication of animals in
Harappancivilization?
5
Explain any five unique and distinctive features of Mohenjodaro city.
5
How does drainage system of Harappan cities indicate town planning?
2
Explain any five features of domestic architecture of Mohenjodaro city.
5
How do archaeologists trace socio- economic differences in Harappan society?
What are the differences they notice?
5
List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilizatio
n.
How did they obtain (procure) them?
5
Discuss the craft production in following terms Types, materials, Shapes, techniqu
es and
specialized centers.

5
Write short notes on Seals, script and weights of Harappan civilization.
5
Explain the opinions of archaeologists regarding ruling authority (political sys
tem)
of the Harappans. Discuss the functions performed by the rulers.
5
What are the explanations put forward for the end of Harappan civilization by th
e Archaeologists?
5
How did the archaeologists discover the Harappan civilization?
5
How did the archaeologists classify the Harappanartefacts to reconstruct the pas
t?
How did they understand the function of an artifact?
5
How did the archaeologists attempt to reconstruct religious practices of Harappa
ns?
5