Retaining Walls and Geotechnical Design To Eurocode 7 Summary

EUROCODE 7
Retaining Walls and Geotechnical

Design to Eurocode 7
Dr Ian Smith
Head of School
School of Engineering and the Built Environment
Edinburgh Napier University
Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University
ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE
EUROCODE 7
Geotechnical design by calculation

Processes involved:
Establish design values of actions and
geometrical data
Establish design values of ground

properties and resistances
Define limit that must not be exceeded

(e.g. bearing resistance)
Perform relevant geotechnical analysis
Show, by calculation, that limit will not be

exceeded
EUROCODE 7

Actions:
An action is given the general symbol, F.
Actions can be permanent (persistent) or variable
(transient), accidental, or seismic.
Persistent actions are denoted by FG. Transient actions are
denoted by FQ.
Persistent actions can be either favourable or
unfavourable.
Transient actions are always considered as unfavourable.
EUROCODE 7

Ground properties:
Geotechnical parameters should be established with consideration
given to published data and local and general experience
Clauses 2.4.3(3) to (6) give guidance on how the parameters
should be considered in the design process.
Material properties are given the general symbol, X.
Characteristic values of material properties are given the general
symbol, Xk.
EUROCODE 7
Partial factors of safety

Provided in EN 1997-1
Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs) provided in National Annexe
Symbols:
Actions:
General: F
Permanent: G
Transient: Q
Materials:
General: M
Soil properties: cu, , etc.
Resistance:
General: R
Bearing resistance: Rv
NB geotechnical engineers already use for unit weight (weight density).
EUROCODE 7
Design values
These are obtained by combining the characteristic value with the
appropriate partial factor of safety.
i.e.
characteristic value
design value
partial factor of safety
EUROCODE 7

Representative action Fk
Characteristic material property, e.g. c'
The design is all about

Multiplied by F values
Actions: (loads, forces etc.)
and
Design action Fd
Divided by M values
Material Properties (c, tan , etc.)
Design material property, e.g. c'd
Geotechnical Analysis
Design effect of actions, Ed
Design Resistance, Rd
Verify
Ed Rd
EUROCODE 7
Design values of actions

Characteristic
action
representative
action
design
action
(Fk)
(Frep)
(Fd)
Correlation
factor,
i.e.
Frep = Fk
design effects of
action
(Ed)
Partial factor
of safety, F
( 1.0; = 1.0 for persistent actions)
Fd = Frep F
EUROCODE 7
Design values of geotech params

Characteristic geotechnical
Parameter
(Mk)
Design geotechnical
Parameter
Partial factor of
safety, M
(Md)
i.e.
Md
Mk
EUROCODE 7
Design effects of actions (i)

i) During the verification of geotechnical strength (i.e. GEO limit state) some effects of
the actions will depend on the strength of the ground in addition to the magnitude of
the applied action and the dimensions of the structure. Thus, the effect of an action in
the GEO limit state is a function of the action, the material properties and the
geometrical dimensions.
i.e.
Ed = E{Fd; Xd; ad}
where
Ed is the design effect of the action, and
Fd is the design action;
Xd is the design material property;
ad is the design dimension,
and where
E{} indicates that the effect, E is a function of the terms in
the parenthesis.
EUROCODE 7
Design effects of actions (ii)

During the verification of static equilibrium (i.e. EQU limit state) some effects
of the actions (both destabilising and stabilising) will depend on the strength
of the ground in addition to the magnitude of the applied action and the
dimensions of the structure. Thus, the effect of an action in the EQU limit
state, whether it be a stabilising or a destabilising action, is a function of the
action, the material properties and the geometrical dimensions.
i.e.
where
where
Edst;d = E{Fd; Xd; ad}dst

Edst;d is the design effect of the destabilising action, and
Estb;d = E{Fd; Xd; ad}stb
Estb;d is the design effect of the stabilising action.
EUROCODE 7
Design resistances
Equation 6.6 in EN 1990:2002 indicates that the design resistance depends
on material properties and the structural dimension. However, in geotechnical
design, many resistances depend on the magnitude of the actions and so EN
1997-1:2004 2.4.7.3.3 redefines Equation 6.6 to include the contribution
made by the design action. The clause actually offers three methods of
establishing the design resistance,
Rd RFd ; X d ; a d
or
Rd
RFd ; X k ; a d
or
Rd
RFd ; X d ; a d
Annex B of Eurocode 7 Part 1 offers guidance on which of the 3 formulae

above to use for each design approach.
EUROCODE 7
The five ultimate limit states

Eurocode 7 lists five ultimate limit states to consider:
Verification of static equilibrium (EQU)
Verification of (structural) strength (STR)
Verification of (ground) strength (GEO)
Verification of resistance to uplift (UPL)
Verification of resistance to heave failure due to seepage (HYD)
EUROCODE 7
Ultimate limit states

ULS for Stability:
EQU
UPL
HYD
Loss of static equilibrium
Uplift by water pressure
Hydraulic heave/erosion
ULS for Strength:
GEO
STR
Failure of the ground
Internal failure of structure
EUROCODE 7
Equilibrium (EQU) limit state

Loss of static equilibrium
EQU: loss of equilibrium of the structure or the

supporting ground when considered as a rigid body
and where the internal strength of the structure and
the ground do not provide resistance.
Limit state is satisfied if the sum of the design values of the effects of destabilising actions
(Edst;d) is less than or equal to the sum of the design values of the effects of the stabilising
actions (Estb;d) together with any contribution through the resistance of the ground around
the structure (Td),
i.e.
Edst;d Estb;d + Td.
EUROCODE 7
Geotechnical (GEO) limit state

Failure of the ground
GEO: failure or excessive deformation of the ground,

where the soil or rock is significant in providing
resistance.
This limit state is satisfied if the design effect of the actions (Ed) is less than or equal to the
design resistance (Rd),
i.e.
Ed R d
EUROCODE 7
Structural (STR) limit state

Internal failure of structure
STR: failure or excessive deformation of the

structure, where the strength of the structural
material is significant in providing resistance.
As with GEO limit state, the STR limit state is satisfied if the design effect of the actions (Ed)
is less than or equal to the design resistance (Rd),
i.e.
Ed R d
EUROCODE 7
Uplift (UPL) limit state

Uplift by water pressure
UPL: the loss of equilibrium of the structure or the

supporting ground by vertical uplift due to water
pressures (buoyancy) or other actions.
This limit state is verified by checking that the sum of the design permanent and variable
destabilising vertical actions (Vdst;d) is less than or equal to the sum of the design stabilising
permanent vertical action (Gstb;d) and any additional resistance to uplift (Rd).
i.e.
Vdst;d Gstb;d + Rd.
EUROCODE 7
Hydraulic (HYD) limit state

Hydraulic heave/erosion
UPL: hydraulic heave, internal erosion and piping in

the ground as might be experienced, for example, at
the base of a braced excavation.
This limit state is verified by checking that the design total pore water pressure (udst;d) or
seepage force (Sdst;d) at the base of the soil column under investigation is less than or equal
to the total vertical stress (stb;d) at the bottom of the column, or the submerged unit weight
(G'stb;d) of the same column.
i.e.
udst;d stb;d
or
Sdst;d G'stb;d.
EUROCODE 7
ULS for retaining structures
(a) Overturning
(Eurocode 7 EQU limit state)
(b) Bearing failure

(Eurocode 7 GEO limit state)
(d) Ground failure

(c) Forward sliding

(e) Structural failure

(Eurocode 7 STR limit state)
EUROCODE 7
EQU limit state

Destabilising actions and effects
Stabilising actions and effects
Representative destabilising
actions, Fdst; rep
Representative stabilising
actions, Fstb; rep
Partial factors,
F dst
Partial factors,
F stb
Design destabilising
actions, Fdst;d
Design stabilising
actions, Fstb;d
GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS
Design effect of destabilising

actions, Edst;d
Design effect of stabilising

actions, Estb;d
Verify Edst;d Estb;d
EUROCODE 7
EQU limit state example

Overturning
Pq
W
Pa
EUROCODE 7
GEO limit state

Actions and effects
Material properties and resistance
Representative
actions, Frep
Characteristic material
properties, Xk
Partial factors, F
Partial factors, M
Design actions, Fd
Design material
properties, Xd
GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS
Design effect of actions,

Ed
Design resistance, Rd
Verify Ed Rd
EUROCODE 7
GEO/STR Limit states

Three Design Approaches are offered - to reflect national choice
The design approach followed reflects whether the safety is applied to the
material properties, the actions or the resistances.
Design Approach 1:
Combination 1: A1 + M1 + R1
Combination 2: A2 + M2 + R1
Design Approach 2:
Design Approach 3:
A1 + M1 + R2
A* + M2 + R3
A*: use set A1 on structural actions, set A2 on geotechnical actions
For axially loaded piles, DA1, Combination 2 is: A2 + (M1 or M2) + R4
The UK National Annex states that Design Approach 1 shall be used.

EUROCODE 7
GEO/STR Limit states

GEO/STR - Partial factor sets
Parameter
Permanent action (G)
Variable action (Q)
Symbol
A1
A2
Unfavourable
1.35
1.0
Favourable
1.0
1.0
Unfavourable
1.5
1.3
1.0
1.0
Favourable
Accidental action (A)
Unfavourable
Favourable
M1
M2
R1
R2
R3
Coefficient of shearing resistance (tan ')
'
1.0
1.25
Effective cohesion (c')
c'
1.0
1.25
Undrained shear strength (cu)
cu
1.0
1.4
Unconfined compressive strength (qu)
qu
1.0
1.4
Weight density ()
1.0
1.0
Bearing resistance (Rv)
Rv
1.0
1.4
1.0
Sliding resistance (Rh)
Rh
1.0
1.1
1.0
Earth resistance (Re)
Re
1.0
1.4
1.0
DA 1-1:
A1 + M1 + R1
DA 1-2:
A2 + M2 + R1
EUROCODE 7
Representation of degree of safety

Over-design factor:
Degree of utilisation:
Rd
Ed
Ed
Rd
EUROCODE 7
GEO limit state examples

sliding
and bearing
Gfav
Gunfav
Qunfav
Gunfav
Gunfav
Qunfav
Ed
Ed
Rd
Rd
EUROCODE 7
Retaining wall design

Covered in Section 9 of Eurocode 7 Part 1
(1)P The provisions of this Section shall apply to structures, which retain
ground comprising soil, rock or backfill and water. Material is retained if it
is kept at a slope steeper than it would eventually adopt if no structure
were present.
Retaining structures include all types of wall and support systems in
which structural elements have forces imposed by the retained material.
EN 1997-1:2004 9.1.1(1)P
EUROCODE 7

Limit states
The limit states to be considered are listed in 9.2(1) and are:
loss of overall stability;
failure of a structural element such as a wall, anchorage, wale or strut
or failure of the connection between such elements;
combined failure in the ground and in the structural element;
failure by hydraulic heave and piping;
movement of the retaining structure, which may cause collapse or
affect the appearance or
efficient use of the structure or nearby structures or services, which rely
on it;
unacceptable leakage through or beneath the wall;
unacceptable transport of soil particles through or beneath the wall;
unacceptable change in the ground-water regime.
EN 1997-1:2004 9.2(1)
EUROCODE 7

Plus
Gravity walls:
bearing resistance failure of the soil below the base;
failure by sliding at the base;
failure by toppling;
Embedded walls:
failure by rotation or translation of the wall or parts thereof;
failure by lack of vertical equilibrium.
EN 1997-1:2004 9.2(1)
EUROCODE 7
(a) Overturning
(Eurocode 7 EQU limit state)
(b) Bearing failure

(d) Ground failure

(c) Forward sliding

(e) Structural failure

(Eurocode 7 STR limit state)
EUROCODE 7

Must also consider overall stability (Section 11)
EUROCODE 7
Future unplanned excavation

(2) In ultimate limit state calculations in which the stability of a retaining wall
depends on the ground resistance in front of the structure, the level of the
resisting soil should be lowered below the nominally expected level by an
amount a.
for a cantilever wall, a should equal 10 % of the wall height above

excavation level, limited to a maximum of 0,5 m;
for a supported wall, a should equal 10 % of the distance between the
lowest support and the excavation level, limited to a maximum of 0,5 m.
EN 1997-1:2004 9.3.2.2(2)
(3) Smaller values of a, including 0, may be used when the surface level is
specified to be controlled reliably throughout the appropriate execution
period.
EN 1997-1:2004 9.3.2.2(3)
EUROCODE 7
Gravity walls
When Rankines conditions do not apply...
Charts for both horizontal and inclined retained surfaces are given in Annex C.
1.01
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Ka
0.3
0.2
/ ' = 0
/ ' = 0.66
/ ' = 1
0.1
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Design values of '
Ka for a horizontal ground surface behind the wall

EUROCODE 7
Example
Surcharge, q = 20 kPa
1.8 m
4.0 m
1
Retained fill:
c' = 0; ' = 32
= 18 kN/m3
Ka h
= 22.4 kPa
Ka q
= 6.2 kPa
2.0 m
3
= 26.7 kPa
1.0 m
Foundation soil:
c' = 0; ' = 28
= 20 kN/m3
7.4 kPa
34.1 kPa
2.6 m
Check the overturning (EQU) and sliding (GEO) (using Design Approach 1) limit states.
EUROCODE 7
Embedded walls
EUROCODE 7
Embedded walls
Cantilever wall pressure distribution
q = 10kPa
0.1h; > 0.5m
Pq1
Pp1
d0
Kpd0
Kad
Pa1
Ka(h+d0)
Pq2
Kp(h+d)
Pa2
Pp2
EUROCODE 7
Embedded walls
Cantilever wall simplified pressure distribution
Pq
Pp
Pa
R
Kpd0
h+d0
3
Ka(h+d0)
EUROCODE 7
Passive resistance
Favourable action:
Pp ;d Pp ;k G ; fav
or
Resistance:
Pp ;d
Pp ;k
Re
EUROCODE 7
Passive resistance
Design Approach
1
Combination 1
Combination 2
G;fav
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Re
1.0
1.0
1.4
1.0
i.e. only concerns Design Approach 2
EUROCODE 7
Passive resistance
but what about for embedded walls?
Single Source Principle
NOTE Unfavourable (or destabilising) and favourable (or stabilising)

permanent actions may in some situations be considered as coming from a
single source. If they are considered so, a single partial factor may be
applied to the sum of these actions or to the sum of their effects.
EN 1997-1:2004 2.4.2
Note to (9)P
EUROCODE 7
Passive resistance
Pp
Pa
uncertainty in Pp = uncertainty in Pa
i.e.
if Pa is a permanent unfavourable action, so must be Pp

(Single source principle)
EUROCODE 7
Passive resistance
Design Approach
1
Combination
1
Combination
2
G;fav
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
G;unfav
1.35
1.0
1.35
1.0
Re
1.0
1.0
1.4
1.0

Retaining Walls and Geotechnical Design To Eurocode 7 Summary

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EUROCODE 7

Retaining Walls and Geotechnical

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Geotechnical design by calculation

Establish design values of ground

Define limit that must not be exceeded

Perform relevant geotechnical analysis

Show, by calculation, that limit will not be

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Geotechnical design by calculation

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Geotechnical design by calculation

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Partial factors of safety

Soil properties: cu, , etc.

NB geotechnical engineers already use for unit weight (weight density).

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Geotechnical design by calculation

Characteristic material property, e.g. c'

The design is all about

Design effect of actions, Ed

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Design values of actions

( 1.0; = 1.0 for persistent actions)

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Design values of geotech params

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Design effects of actions (i)

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Design effects of actions (ii)

Edst;d = E{Fd; Xd; ad}dst

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Annex B of Eurocode 7 Part 1 offers guidance on which of the 3 formulae

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

The five ultimate limit states

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Ultimate limit states

Loss of static equilibrium

Uplift by water pressure

ULS for Strength:

Failure of the ground

Internal failure of structure

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Equilibrium (EQU) limit state

EQU: loss of equilibrium of the structure or the

Dr Ian Smith, Edinburgh Napier University

Edst;d Estb;d + Td.

ICE Teesside Branch, NGG and IStructE

Geotechnical (GEO) limit state