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Every starting is heard but if you have the motivation and strong determination you will be
successful.Mostofthestudentsespeciallyofthestudentsofengineeringwanttobuildandmake
something.Practicalexperienceofmakingsomethingmakesourlearningperfectandhelpusto
understandtherealfacts.Thoughitisverymuchimportantbutmostofthestudentsdonotget
properguidelinesandtheydonotnotfromwhereheshouldstart.Ibelievethistutorialwillhelp
techbeginnersandhobbyiststostartanyproject.

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Step1:Voltage,Current,Resistance

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These are very fundamental things of electronics and I know you are already familiar to these.
Letsjustrecall.Everymatterismadeofatomsandanatomhasthreetypesofparticles.Electron
isoneoftheparticleamongthemandisnegativelycharged.Chargeisapropertyofelectronand
proton. Protons are positively charged. The charge of an electron is called unit charge. In a
conductive material (silver, copper, gold, aluminium etc) there are lots of free electrons which
moverandomly.Voltageisaforceorpresserwhichforcedelectronstoflowormoveinaparticular
direction.Whenvoltageisappliedintoaconductorelectronsstarttomoveinafixeddirectionand
flowofelectronsinaparticulardirectioniscalledcurrent.Whenelectronsmoveinaconductor
theyfacesomefriction.Thisfrictioniscalledresistance.Resistanceopposethefreemovementof
electrons.So,wecansayresistancereducethecurrent.
Voltage: Voltage is the presser which force the electrons to flow in a particular direction in a
conductor.TheunitofvoltageisVoltanddenotedbyV.Batteryisagoodsourceofvoltage.3V,
3.3V,3.7Vand5Varemostcommoninelectroniccircuitsanddevices.
Current:Currentistheflowofelectronsinaparticulardirection.Moreformally,currentistherate
of change of electron in a particular direction. Unit of current is Ampere and denoted by I. In
electronic circuits current is in milliampere range (1 Ampere = 1000 milliampere). For example,
typicalcurrentforanLEDis20mA.
Voltageisthecauseandcurrentistheresult.
Resistance:Resistanceisthehindrancetotheflowofchargeorelectron.Theunitofresistance
isTheSIunitofelectricalresistanceistheohm().
Thereisanimportantrelationshipamongthesethreequantityvoltage,currentandresistance:
V=IRorI=V/RorR=V/I
ThisrelationiscalledOhm'sLaw.Voltmeter,ammeterandohmmeterisusedtomeasurevoltage,
currentandresistancerespectively.

Step2:Battery

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An electric battery is a source of voltage or more formally source of electrical energy. Battery
provideselectricalenergybyinternalchemicalreaction.Batteryisatwoterminaldevice.Oneis
callpositiveterminal(+V)andanotherisnegativeterminal(-V)orground.Generallybatteriesare
twotypes.
Primary
Secondary
Primary batteries are used once and discarded. Secondary batteries can be discharged and
rechargedmultipletimes.Batteriescomeinmanyshapesandsizes,fromminiaturecellsusedto
power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby
powerfortelephoneexchangesandcomputerdatacenters.Accordingtobatterychemistrybattery
can be many types. Several common types of battery used in robotics and tech project are
discussedbelow.
1.5Vbattery
Differentsize1.5Vbatteryareavailable.MostcommonsizesareAAandAAA.Capacityrangeis
500to3000mAh.
3VLithiumcoincell
Coin-shapedcellsarethincomparedtotheirdiameter.Alltheselithiumcellsareratednominally3
volts(on-load),withopencircuitvoltageabout3.6volts.Capacitymayveryfrom30to500mAh.
Extensivelyusedinwearabledevicefortheirtinysize.
Alkaline
Thesebatteriesarenotre-chargeableandcouldbeusedinsmallrobots.
Nickel-MetalHydride(NIMH)
Thesebatteries,hasahighenergydensity,andcanbechargedquickly.Anotherimportantfeature
istheprice.NIMHbatteriesarecheapfortheirsizeandcapacity.Thistypeofbatteryisfrequently
usedinroboticapplications.

usedinroboticapplications.
3.7VLi-ionandLi-polymer
Lithiumionandlithiumpolymerbatteriesarerechargeable.Theyhavehighdischargingcapacity,
high energy density, high capacity and small size. Li-polymer battery are used extensively in
roboticsandRCproject.SpecificenergyofLi-polybatteryis100265Wh/kg.
9Vbattery
Nine-voltbatteryinitsmostcommonformwasintroducedfortheearlytransistorradios.Ithasa
rectangularprismshapewithroundededgesandapolarizedsnapconnectoratthetop.Theyall
havearectangularshape;thedimensionsareheight48.5mm,length26.5mm,width17.5mm(or
1.9"x1.0"x0.68").Bothterminalsareatoneendandtheircentersare1/2inch(12.7mm)apart.
Capacityisaround600mAh.
LeadAcid
Lead Acid batteries are the workhorse batteries of industry. They are incredibly cheap,
rechargeable, and easily available. Lead acid batteries are used in machinery, UPS's
(uninterruptablepowersupply),robotics,andothersystemswherealotofpowerisneededand
weight is not as important. Lead acid batteries come in 2V cells, that means you can have a
batterywithanevennumberofvolts.Themostcommonvoltagesare2V,6V,12Vand24V.
Seriesparallelconnectionofbattery
Batterycanbeconnectedtoseriesor
parallel. When connected in series
thevoltagelevelincreasedandwhen
connected on parallel the current
capacityincreased.
Twoimportantthingsofbattery:
BatteryCapacity:Batterycapacityis
ameasure(typicallyinAmp-hr)ofthe
charge stored by the battery, and is
determined by the mass of active
materialcontainedinthebattery.The
battery capacity represents the
maximumamountofenergythatcan
be extracted from the battery under
certain
specified
conditions.
However, the actual energy storage
capabilities of the battery can vary
significantly from the "nominal" rated
capacity, as the battery capacity
depends strongly on the age and
pasthistoryofthebattery,thechargingordischargingregimesofthebatteryandthetemperature.
Batterycapacityismeasuredineitherwatt-hours(Wh),kilowatt-hours(kWh),ampere-hours(Ahr)
ormilliampere-hour(mAh).AWatt-houristhevoltage(V)thatthebatteryprovidesmultipliedby
howmuchcurrent(Amps)thebatterycanprovideforsomeamountoftime(generallyinhours).
Voltage * Amps * hours = Wh. Since voltage is pretty much fixed for a battery type due to its
internal chemistry (alkaline, lithium, lead acid, etc), often only the Amps*hour measurement is
printedontheside,expressedinAhormAh(1000mAh=1Ah).TogetWh,multiplytheAhbythe
nominalvoltage.Forexample,letssaywehavea3Vnominalbatterywith1Amp-hourcapacity,
thereforeithas3Whofcapacity.Thebatterycapacitywillbebetterwithlowerdraincurrents.To
determinethebatterylife,dividethecapacitybytheactualloadcurrenttogetthehoursoflife.A
circuitthatdraws10mapoweredbya9voltrectangularbatterywilloperateabout50hours:500
mAh/10mA=50hours.
In many types of batteries, the full energy stored in the battery cannot be withdrawn (in other
words, the battery cannot be fully discharged) without causing serious, and often irreparable
damage to the battery. The Depth of Discharge (DOD) of a battery determines the fraction of
powerthatcanbewithdrawnfromthebattery.Forexample,iftheDODofabatteryisgivenbythe
manufactureras25%,thenonly25%ofthebatterycapacitycanbeusedbytheload.
Thecharging/dischargingratesaffecttheratedbatterycapacity.Ifthebatteryisbeingdischarged
veryquickly(i.e.,thedischargecurrentishigh),thentheamountofenergythatcanbeextracted

veryquickly(i.e.,thedischargecurrentishigh),thentheamountofenergythatcanbeextracted
from the battery is reduced and the battery capacity is lower. Alternately, is the battery is
dischargedataveryslowrateusingalowcurrent,moreenergycanbeextractedfromthebattery
and the battery capacity is higher. For example, a coin cell that is rated for 1 Ah can't actually
provide1Ampofcurrentforanhour,infactitcantevenprovide0.1Ampwithoutoverextending
itself.Itslikesayingahumanhasthecapabilitytotravelupto30miles:ofcourserunning30miles
isalotdifferentthanwalking!Likewise,a1Ahcoincellhasnoproblemprovidinga1mAfor1000
hoursbutifyoutrytodraw100mAfromit,it'lllastalotlessthan10hours.
Thetemperatureofabatterywillalsoaffecttheenergythatcanbeextractedfromit.Athigher
temperatures, the battery capacity is typically higher than at lower temperatures. However,
intentionallyelevatingbatterytemperatureisnotaneffectivemethodtoincreasebatterycapacity
asthisalsodecreasesbatterylifetime.
C-rate: The charge and discharge current of a battery is measured in C-rate. Most portable
batteries,withtheexceptionoftheleadacid,areratedat1C.Adischargeof1Cdrawsacurrent
equaltotheratedcapacity.Forexample,abatteryratedat1000mAhprovides1000mAforone
hourifdischargedat1Crate.Thesamebatterydischargedat0.5Cprovides500mAfortwohours.
At2C,thesamebatterydelivers2000mAfor30minutes.1Cisoftenreferredtoasaone-hour
discharge;a0.5Cwouldbeatwo-hour,anda0.1Ca10hourdischarge.
Thecapacityofabatteryiscommonlymeasuredwithabatteryanalyzer.Iftheanalyzerscapacity
readoutisdisplayedinpercentageofthenominalrating,100percentisshownif1000mAcanbe
drawnforonehourfromabatterythatisratedat1000mAh.Ifthebatteryonlylastsfor30minutes
beforecut-off,50percentisindicated.Anewbatterysometimesprovidesmorethan100percent
capacity.Insuchacase,thebatteryisconservativelyratedandcanendurealongerdischarge
timethanspecifiedbythemanufacturer.
ChargerateisoftendenotedasCorC-rateandsignifiesachargeordischargerateequaltothe
capacityofabatteryinonehour.
AbatterychargermaybespecifiedintermsofthebatterycapacityorCrate;achargerratedC/10
wouldreturnthebatterycapacityin10hours,achargerratedat4Cwouldchargethebatteryin15
minutes. Very rapid charging rates, 1 hour or less, generally require the charger to carefully
monitorbatteryparameterssuchasterminalvoltageandtemperaturetopreventoverchargingand
damagetothecells.
HowBatteriesAreMeasured
Size
This is pretty straight forward, how big are the batteries? Lead acid batteries don't get much
smaller than C-cell batteries. Coin cells don't get much larger than a quarter. There are also
standardsizes,suchasAAand9Vwhichmaybedesirable.
Weightandpowerdensity
This is a performance issue: higher quality (and more expensive) batteries will have a higher
powerdensity.Ifweightisanimportantpartofyourproject,youwillwanttogowithalighter,highdensitybattery.OftenthisisexpressedinWatts-hoursperKilogram.
Price
Price is pretty much proportional to power-density (you pay more for higher density) and
proportionaltopowercapacity(youpaymoreformorecapacity).Themorepoweryouwantina
smaller,lighterpackagethemoreyouwillhavetopay.
Voltage
Thevoltageofabatterycellisdeterminedbythechemistryusedinside.Forexample,allAlkaline
cellsare1.5V,alllead-acid'sare2V,andlithiumsare3V.Batteriescanbemadeofmultiplecells,
so for example, you'll rarely see a 2V lead-acid battery. Usually they are connected together
inside to make a 6V, 12V or 24V battery. Likewise, most electronics use multiple alkalines to
generate the voltage they need to run. Don't forget that voltage is a 'nominal' measurement, a
"1.5V"AAbatteryactuallystartsoutat1.6Vandthenquicklydropsdownto1.5andthenslowly
driftsdownto1.0Vatwhichpointthebatteryisconsidered'dead'.
Re-usability
Somebatteriesarerechargable,usuallytheycanberecharged100'softimes.
Whichbatteryisperfectforyourproject?

Whichbatteryisperfectforyourproject?
Youseetherearemanytypesofbatteryandmanytypesofbatterychemistries,soit'snoteasyto
decideonwhichsolutionisbestforyourproject.Ifyourprojectisverypower-hungrysuchaslarge
sound systems, and motorized projects you can select lead acid battery. If you want to build
wearableprojectandrequiredsmallpoweryoucanselectlithiumcoincell.Foranyportablelight
weight project which need moderate power you can select lithium-ion battery. You can also
choose cheaper Nickel-Metal Hydride (NIMH), a little heavier in weight compare to li-ion. If you
liketomakepower-hungryRCquad-copterorlikethatprobablyLithiumIonPolymer(LiPo)would
thebestoptionforyoubecausethesebatterieshavesmalldimensions,arelightweightcompared
withothertypesofbatteries,canberechargedveryquickly,andhasahighcurrentoutput.
If your battery need to be user replaceable then you should select universal AA, AAA or 9V
battery.Ifyourequire5Vbatterythenyoucanuse3AAAorAAalkalinecells(4.5V)or4NiMH
cells(4.8V).Besureyourdevicewillrunattheseslightlylowervoltages(mostprobablyitdoes).
Wantyourrechargablebatteriestolastalongtime?
Useahigh-qualitychargerthathassensorstomaintainproperchargingandtricklecharging.A
cheapchargerwillkilloffyourcells.

Step3:Resistor

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Resistorisanelectriccomponentwhichresiststheflowofelectron.Resistorisaverybasicand
most common circuit element. We use resistor to control the current flow in an electric circuit.
Controllingcurrentisveryimportantandelectronicengineeringisnothingbutanartofcontrolling
current.Youcannotfindanyelectricdeviceorcircuitwithoutresistor.

current.Youcannotfindanyelectricdeviceorcircuitwithoutresistor.
Resistors are passive components, meaning they only consume power (and cant generate it).
Resistorsareusuallyaddedtocircuitswheretheycomplementactivecomponentslikeop-amps,
microcontrollers, and other integrated circuits. Commonly resistors are used to limit current,
dividevoltages,andpull-upI/Olines.
Theelectricalresistanceofaresistorismeasuredinohms.largerorsmallervaluesofohmscan
bematchedwithaprefixlikekilo-,mega-,orgiga-,tomakelargevalueseasiertoread.Itsvery
commontoseeresistorsinthekilohm(k)andmegaohm(M)range(muchless common to
see miliohm (m) resistors). For example, a 4,700 resistor is equivalent to a 4.7k resistor,
anda5,600,000resistorcanbewrittenas5,600kor(morecommonlyas)5.6M.
TheDifferentTypesofResistor
TherearemanythousandsofdifferentTypesofResistorandareproducedinavarietyofforms
because their particular characteristics and accuracy suit certain areas of application, such as
High Stability, High Voltage, High Current etc, or are used as general purpose resistors where
theircharacteristicsarelessofaproblem.
Some of the common characteristics associated with the humble resistor are; Temperature
Coefficient, Voltage Coefficient, Noise, Frequency Response, Power as well as a resistors
TemperatureRating,PhysicalSizeandReliability.
Basedontheconductivepropertiesofaresistorresistorscanbeclassifiedas:
LinearResistor:Alinearresistoristhetypeofresistorwhoseresistanceremainsconstantwith
increaseinthepotentialdifferenceorvoltageappliedtoit.OrtheResistanceorCurrentpassed
through the resistor does not changes as the applied voltage ( P.D ) changes. The V-I
characteristicsofsuchresistorisastraightline.
Non Linear Resistor: Non-Linear Resistor are those types of resistors in which the Current
passedthroughitisnotexactlydirectlyproportionaltothePotentialDifferenceappliedtoit.These
typesofresistorshavenon-linerV-IcharacteristicsanddoesnotstrictlyfollowsohmsLaw.
There are several types of nonlinear resistors, but the most commonly used include : NTC
resistors(NegativeTemperatureCo-efficient)-theirresistancelowerswithtemperaturerise.PTC
resistors(PositiveTemperatureCo-efficient)-theirresistanceincreaseswiththetemperaturerise.
LDRresistors(LightDependentResistors)-theirresistancelowerswiththeincreaseinlight.VDR
resistors(VoltagedependentResistors)-theirresistancecriticallylowersasthevoltageexceeds
acertainvalue.
Nonlinearresistorsareusedindifferentprojects.LDRisusedasasensorinvariousroboticsan
hobbyistproject.
BasedonResistorsValue
FixedValueResistor:
Fixedvalueresistorsarethosetypesofresistorswhosevalueisfixedalreadywhilemanufacturing
andcannotbechangedduringitsusage.
VariableResistororPotentiometer:
VariableResistorsorPotentiometersarethosetypesofresistorswhoseValuecanbechanged
duringitsusage.Thesetypesofresistorusuallycontainsashaftwhichcanberotatedormoved
byhandorascrewdrivertochangeitsvalueinbetweenafixedrangeforeg.0KiloOhmsto100
KiloOhms.
Potentiometersareusedforvolumeandspeedcontrolindifferentprojectsanddevices.
PackageResistor:
These types of resistor is a resistor which contains a package which contains two or more
resistorsinsideit.Ithavemanyterminalsandtheresistorsresistancecanbechosenbyusingany
twoterminalsamongtheavailableterminalsorcanalsobeusedasanresistorarrayforvarious
purposes.
BasedOnComposition:
CarbonComposition:
ThesetypesofresistorsaremadebyacompositionofCarbonParticleswhichareholdtogether

ThesetypesofresistorsaremadebyacompositionofCarbonParticleswhichareholdtogether
byabindingresign.Theproportionofcarbonparticlesandresignuseddeterminesthevalueof
theresistor.At both ends of the composition a Metal Cap with a small rod of tin is attached to
solder it or use it in circuits , then the whole package is enclosed in a plastic case to prevent
moistureandreactionwithair.
Thesetypesofresistorsnormallyproducesnoiseincircuitduetoelectronpassingthroughone
carbonparticletoanother,thusthesetypesorresistorsarenotusedincriticalcircuitsalthough
theyarecheap.
CarbonDeposition:
The resistor which is made by depositing a thin layer of carbon around a ceramic rod is called
CarbonDepositionresistor.Theyaremadebyheatingaceramicrodinsideaflaskofmethane
and depositing the carbon around it by using Glass Cracking process. The value of resistor is
determinedbytheamountofcarbondepositedaroundtheceramicrod.
MetalFilm:
Metal film resistors are made by depositing vaporized metal in vacuum on a ceramic core rod.
thesetypesofresistorsareveryreliable,havehigh tolerance and also have high temperature
coefficient.Thesetypesofresistorsarecostliercomparedtootherbutareusedincriticalsystems.
WireWound:
Wirewoundresistoraremadebywindingametalwirearoundaceramiccore.Themetalwireis
an alloy of various metals based on the characteristics and resistance of the resistor required.
These types of resistor have high stability and can also withstand high powers but are usually
bulkiercomparedtoothertypesofresistors.
CeramicMetal:
These types of resistor are made by firing certain metals blended with ceramics on a ceramic
substrate.Theproportionofthemixtureintheblendedceramicandmetaldeterminesthevalueof
the resistor. These type of resistors are very stable and also have accurate resistance. These
typesofresistorsaremostlyusedasSurfaceMounttyperesistorforusinginSMDPCB.
BasedonResistorsFunction:
PrecisionResistors:
Precision Resistors are resistors that have very low tolerance values, so they are very precise
(closelynear
theirnominalvalue).
Allresistorscomewithatolerancevalue,whichisgivenasapercentage.Thetolerancevaluetells
ushowclosetothenominalvaluearesistancecanvary.Forexample,a500resistorthathasa
tolerance value of 10%, may have a resistance that is somewhere between 10% above 500
(550)or10%below500(450).Ifthesameresistorhasatoleranceof1%,itsresistancewill
only vary by 1%. Therefore, a 500 resistor can then vary between 495 and 505. This is
toleranceasanexample.
A precision resistor is a resistor that has a tolerance level as low as 0.005%. This means a
precisionresistorwillonlyvary0.005%fromitsnominalvalue.
Precisionresistorshaveverylowtolerancepercentagevalues,makingthemultraprecisetotheir
nominal values. They will vary very little from their nominal values, so they are used in
applicationswherehigh-precisionisnecessaryintermsofresistancevalues.
FusibleResistor:
AFusibleResistorisawire-woundresistorthatisdesignedtoburnopeneasilywhenthepower
ratingoftheresistorisexceeded.Inthisway,afusibleresistorservesdualfunctions.Whenthe
powerisn'texceeded,itservesasaresistorlimitingcurrent.Whenthepowerratingisexceeded,it
functionsasafuse,burningup,andbecominganopeninthecircuittoprotectcomponentsinthe
circuitfromexcesscurrent.
CementResistors:
Cement resistors are power resistors that are heat and flame resistant. Cement resistors are
madetohandlealargeamountofpowerflowingthroughitwithitbeingundamagedbyheator
flames.Ifyouaredesigningacircuitwherealotofcurrentisbeingpassedthrougharesistorand
withitneedingtoberesistanttohighheatandflame,cementresistorsisagooddesignchoice.

withitneedingtoberesistanttohighheatandflame,cementresistorsisagooddesignchoice.
Typicalpowerratingsrangefrom1Wto20Wormore.Tolerancesfromthestatedresistancevalue
arearound5percent.
Thermistors:
A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance value changes with changes in
operating temperature. Because of the self-heating effect of current in a thermistor, the device
changesresistancewithchangesincurrent.
Thermistors exhibit either a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) or a negative temperature
coefficient(NTC).Ifathermistorhasapositivetemperaturecoefficient,itsresistanceincreasesas
the operating temperature increases. Conversely, if a thermistor has a negative temperature
coefficient,itsresistancedecreasesastheoperatingtemperatureincreases.
Howmuchtheresistancechangeswithchangesintheoperatingtemperaturedependsonthesize
andconstructionofthethermistor.It'salwaysbesttocheckthedatasheetofthethermistorinuse
tofindoutallthespecificationsofthethermistors.
Thermistors are frequently used in electronic circuits that handle temperature measurement,
temperaturecontrol,andtemperaturecompensation.
Photoresistors:
Photoresistors are resistors whose resistance values change according to the light striking the
surface of the resistor. In a dark environment, the resistance of a photoresistor is very high,
possibly several M, depending on the resistance rating of the specific photoresistor in use.
Whenintenselighthitsthesurface,theresistanceofthephotoresistordropsdramatically,possibly
toaslowas400.
Thus, photoresistors are variable resistors whose resistance values change in regard to the
amountoflighthittingitssurface.
Leadedandnon-leadedresistortypes
Leadedresistors:Thistypeofresistorhasbeenusedsincetheveryfirstelectroniccomponents
havebeeninuse.Typicallycomponentswereconnectedtoterminalpostsofoneformoranother
andleadsfromtheresistorelementwereneeded.Astimeprogressed,printedcircuitboardswere
used, and the leads were inserted through holes in the boards and typically soldered on the
reversesidewherethetracksweretobefound.
Surfacemountresistors:
These resistor types have been used increasingly since the introduction of surface mount
technology.Typicallythistypeofresistorismanufacturedusingthinfilmtechnology.Afullrange
ofvaluescanbeobtained.

Step4:Standardorcommonresistorvalues

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The Electronic Industries Association (EIA), and other authorities, specify standard values for
resistors,sometimesreferredtoasthe"preferredvalue"system.Thepreferredvaluesystemhas
itsoriginsintheearlyyearsofthelastcenturyatatimewhenmostresistorswerecarbon-graphite
with relatively poor manufacturing tolerances. The rationale is simple - select values for
components based on the tolerances with which they are able to be manufactured. Using 10%
tolerancedevicesasanexample,supposethatthefirstpreferredvalueis100ohms.Itmakeslittle
sensetoproducea105ohmresistorsince105ohmsfallswithinthe10%tolerancerangeofthe
100ohmresistor.Thenextreasonablevalueis120ohmsbecausethe100ohmresistorwitha
10%toleranceisexpectedtohaveavaluesomewherebetween900and110ohms.The120ohm
resistorhasavaluerangingbetween110and130ohms.Followingthislogic,thepreferredvalues
for10%toleranceresistorsbetween100and1,000ohmswouldbe100,120,150,180,220,270,
330andsoon(roundedappropriately);thisistheE12seriesshowninthetablebelow.TheEIA
"E" series specify the preferred values for various tolerances. The number following the "E"
specifies the number of logarithmic steps per decade. The table below is normalized for the
decadebetween100and1,000.Thevaluesinanydecadecanbederivedbymerelydividingor
multiplyingthetableentriesbypowersof10.Theseriesareasfollows:
E620%tolerance,
E1210%tolerance,
E245%tolerance(andusually2%tolerance),
E482%tolerance,
E961%tolerance,
E192.5,.25,.1%andhighertolerances.
StandardEIADecadeResistorValues:
E6series:(20%tolerance)10,15,22,33,47,68
E12series:(10%tolerance)10,12,15,18,22,27,33,39,47,56,68,82
E24series:(5%tolerance)10,11,12,13,15,16,18,20,22,24,27,30,33,36,39,43,47,51,
56,62,68,75,82,91
E48series:(2%tolerance)100,105,110,115,121,127,133,140,147,154,162,169,178,187,
196,205,215,226,237,249,261,274,287,301,316,332,348,365,383,402,422,442,464,
487,511,536,562,590,619,649,681,715,750,787,825,866,909,953
E96series:(1%tolerance)100,102,105,107,110,113,115,118,121,124,127,130,133,137,
140,143,147,150,154,158,162,165,169,174,178,182,187,191,196,200,205,210,215,
221,226,232,237,243,249,255,261,267,274,280,287,294,301,309,316,324,332,340,
348,357,365,374,383,392,402,412,422,432,442,453,464,475,487,491,511,523,536,
549,562,576,590,604,619,634,649,665,681,698,715,732,750,768,787,806,825,845,

866,887,909,931,959,976
E192series:(0.5,0.25,0.1and0.05%tolerance)100,101,102,104,105,106,107,109,110,
111,113,114,115,117,118,120,121,123,124,126,127,129,130,132,133,135,137,138,
140,142,143,145,147,149,150,152,154,156,158,160,162,164,165,167,169,172,174,
176,178,180,182,184,187,189,191,193,196,198,200,203,205,208,210,213,215,218,
221,223,226,229,232,234,237,240,243,246,249,252,255,258,261,264,267,271,274,
277,280,284,287,291,294,298,301,305,309,312,316,320,324,328,332,336,340,344,
348,352,357,361,365,370,374,379,383,388,392,397,402,407,412,417,422,427,432,
437,442,448,453,459,464,470,475,481,487,493,499,505,511,517,523,530,536,542,
549,556,562,569,576,583,590,597,604,612,619,626,634,642,649,657,665,673,681,
690,698,706,715,723,732,741,750,759,768,777,787,796,806,816,825,835,845,856,
866,876,887,898,909,920,931,942,953,965,976,988
When designing equipment, it is good practice to keep to the lowest E-series section, i.e. it is
bettertouseE6ratherthanE12.Inthiswaythenumberofdifferentpartsinanyequipmentcan
beminimised.Ifdecadevalues,i.e.100R,1K,10,etccanbeusedsomuchthebetter.Theseare
verycommonresistorvaluesandorewidelyused.Italsoreducesthevarietyofcomponentsand
makesinventorymoremanageable.
Formanydigitaldesignswheretheresistorisusedasapulluporpulldown,theresistorvalueis
oflittleconsequenceandthisiseasy.Foranaloguedesignsitisalittlemorecomplicated,and
E12, or E24 values are needed. E48, E96 or even E192 series values are needed for high
accuracyandclosetolerancerequirements.Asthehigherorderseriesareusedless,theircosts
are also normally higher. Using common resistor values can reduce costs as well as reducing
inventory.
Details: http://www.eeweb.com/toolbox/resistor-tables (http://www.eeweb.com/toolbox/resistortables)

Step5:Resistorcolorcodes

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WeknowmanydifferenttypesofResistoravailableandthattheycanbeusedinbothelectrical
andelectroniccircuitstocontroltheflowofcurrentortoproduceavoltageinmanydifferentways.
Butinordertodothistheactualresistorneedstohavesomeformofresistiveorresistance
value.ResistorsareavailableinarangeofdifferentresistancevaluesfromfractionsofanOhm(
)tomillionsofOhms.
The resistance value, tolerance, and wattage rating are generally printed onto the body of the
resistor as numbers or letters when the resistors body is big enough to read the print, such as
largepowerresistors.Butwhentheresistorissmallsuchasa1/4Wcarbonorfilmtype,these
specificationsmustbeshowninsomeothermannerastheprintwouldbetoosmalltoread.
So to overcome this, small resistors use coloured painted bands to indicate both their resistive
valueandtheirtolerancewiththephysicalsizeoftheresistorindicatingitswattagerating.These
colouredpaintedbandsproduceasystemofidentificationgenerallyknownasaResistorsColour
Code. An international and universally accepted Resistor Colour Code Scheme was developed
manyyearsagoasasimpleandquickwayofidentifyingaresistorsohmicvaluenomatterwhat
its size or condition. It consists of a set of individual coloured rings or bands in spectral order
representingeachdigitoftheresistorsvalue.Theresistorcolourcodemarkingsarealwaysread
onebandatatimestartingfromthelefttotheright,withthelargerwidthtolerancebandoriented
totherightsideindicatingitstolerance.Bymatchingthecolourofthefirstbandwithitsassociated
numberinthedigitcolumnofthecolourchartbelowthefirstdigitisidentifiedandthisrepresents
thefirstdigitoftheresistancevalue.Again,bymatchingthecolourofthesecondbandwithits
associatednumberinthedigitcolumnofthecolourchartwegettheseconddigitoftheresistance
valueandsoon.Thentheresistorcolourcodeisreadfromlefttorightasillustratedinfigure.
Tipsforreadingresistorcodes
Thereadingdirectionmightnotalwaysbeclear.Sometimestheincreasedspacebetweenband3
and4giveawaythereadingdirection.Also,thefirstbandisusuallytheclosesttoalead.Agold
or silver band (the tolerance) is always the last band.It is a good practice to check the
manufacturers documentation to be sure about the used coding system. Even better is to
measure the resistance with a multi-meter. In some cases this might even be the only way to
figureouttheresistance;forexamplewhenthecolorbandsareburntoff.
SurfaceMountResistors
SurfaceMountResistorsorSMDResistors,areverysmallrectangularshapedmetaloxidefilm
resistorsdesignedtobesoldereddirectlyontothesurface,hencetheirname,ofacircuitboard.

resistorsdesignedtobesoldereddirectlyontothesurface,hencetheirname,ofacircuitboard.
Surfacemountresistorsgenerallyhaveaceramicsubstratebodyontowhichisdepositedathick
layerofmetaloxideresistance.Theresistivevalueoftheresistoriscontrolledbyincreasingthe
desiredthickness,lengthortypeofdepositedfilmbeingusedandhighlyaccuratelowtolerance
resistors,downto0.1%canbeproduced.Theyalsohavemetalterminalsorcapsateitherendof
the body which allows them to be soldered directly onto printed circuit boards. Surface Mount
Resistorsareprintedwitheithera3or4-digitnumericalcodewhichissimilartothatusedonthe
more common axial type resistors to denote their resistive value. Standard SMD resistors are
markedwithathree-digitcode,inwhichthefirsttwodigitsrepresentthefirsttwonumbersofthe
resistancevaluewiththethirddigitbeingthemultiplier,eitherx1,x10,x100etc.Forexample:
103=101,000ohms=10kilos
392=39100ohms=3.9kilos
563=561,000ohms=56kilos
105=10100,000ohms=1Mega
Surfacemountresistorsthathaveavalueoflessthan100sareusuallywrittenas:390,470,
560 with the final zero representing a 10^0 multiplier, which is equivalent to 1. For example:
390=391=39sor39R470=471=47sor47RResistancevaluesbelow
ten have a letter R to denote the position of the decimal point, so that 4R7 = 4.7. Surface
mount resistors that have a 000 or 0000 markings are zero-Ohm (0) resistors or in other
wordsshortinglinks,sincethesecomponentshavezeroresistance.

Step6:Seriesparallelresistor

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Resistorsarepairedtogetherallthetimeinelectronics,usuallyineitheraseriesorparallelcircuit.
When resistors are combined in series or parallel, they create a total resistance, which can be
calculatedusingoneoftwoequations.Knowinghowresistorvaluescombinecomesinhandyif
youneedtocreateaspecificresistorvalue.
Seriesresistors
Whenconnectedinseriesresistorvaluessimplyaddup.So,forexample,ifyoujusthavetohave
a12.33kresistor,seekoutsomeofthemorecommonresistorvaluesof12kand330,and
buttthemuptogetherinseries.
Parallelresistors
Findingtheresistanceofresistorsinparallelisntquitesoeasy.ThetotalresistanceofNresistors
in parallel is the inverse of the sum of all inverse resistances. This equation might make more

in parallel is the inverse of the sum of all inverse resistances. This equation might make more
sensethanthatlastsentence.
Someexampleapplicationsofresistors
CurrentLimiter
Onemainuseofresistorasacurrentlimiter.ResistorsarekeyinmakingsureLEDsdontblowup
whenpowerisapplied.ByconnectingaresistorinserieswithanLED,currentflowingthroughthe
two components can be limited to a safe value. Note the circuit given below. Resistor R is
connectedinseriestotheLED.
Forcalculating the valueofcurrentlimitingresistor forled two
importantthingshouldbeconsider,thetypicalforwardvoltage
(Vf), and the maximum forward current (If). The typical
forwardvoltageisthevoltagewhichisrequiredtomakeanLED
light up, and it varies (usually somewhere between 1.7V and
3.4V) depending upon the color of the LED. The maximum
forward current is usually around 20mA for basic LEDs;
continuouscurrentthroughtheLEDshouldalwaysbeequalto
orlessthanthatcurrentrating.OnceyougotthevalueofVfand
Ifthethesizeofthecurrentlimitingresistorcanbecalculatedusingtheformula:
R=(Vs-Vf)/If
where, Vs is the supply voltage. For our case suppose we power it from 5V source and led
forwardvoltageis1.8V.Thenvalueofresistorfor10mAledcurrent:
R=(5-1.8)/10=320ohm.
VoltageDividers
Avoltagedividerisaresistorcircuitwhichturnsalargevoltageintoasmaller
one.Usingjusttworesistorsinseries,anoutputvoltagecanbecreatedthatsa
fractionoftheinputvoltageanddependsontheratioofthetworesistors.
Inthecircuitonrightsidetworesistors,R1andR2,areconnectedinseriesand
avoltagesource(Vin)isconnectedacrossthem.ThevoltagefromVouttoGND
canbecalculatedas:
Vout=VinxR2/(R1+R2)
Forexample,ifR1was1.7kandR2was3.3k,a5Vinputvoltagecouldbe
turnedinto3.3VattheVoutterminal.
Voltage dividers are very handy for reading resistive sensors, like photocells, flex sensors, and
force-sensitive resistors. One half of the voltage divider is the sensor, and the part is a static
resistor. The output voltage between the two components is connected to an analog-to-digital
converteronamicrocontroller(MCU)toreadthesensorsvalue.
Pull-upResistors
Apull-upresistorisusedwhenyouneedtobiasamicrocontrollersinputpintoaknownstate.
OneendoftheresistorisconnectedtotheMCUspin,andtheotherendisconnectedtoahigh
voltage(usually5Vor3.3V).
Without a pull-up resistor, inputs on the MCU could be left
floating.Theresnoguaranteethata floating piniseitherhigh
(5V)orlow(0V).
Pull-upresistorsareoftenusedwheninterfacingwithabutton
orswitchinput.Thepull-upresistorcanbiastheinput-pinwhen
the switch is open. And it will protect the circuit from a short
whentheswitchisclosed.
Inthecircuitabove,whentheswitchisopentheMCUsinputpinisconnectedthroughtheresistor
to5V.Whentheswitchcloses,theinputpinisconnecteddirectlytoGND.
Thevalueofapull-upresistordoesntusuallyneedtobeanythingspecific.Butitshouldbehigh
enough that not too much power is lost if 5V or so is applied across it. Usually values around
10kworkwell.

Step7:Capacitor

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Acapacitorisabitlikeabattery,butithasadifferentjobtodo.Abatteryuseschemicalstostore
electricalenergyandreleaseitveryslowlythroughacircuit;sometimes(inthecaseofaquartz
watch)itcantakeseveralyears.Acapacitorgenerallyreleasesitsenergymuchmorerapidly
ofteninsecondsorless.Ifyou'retakingaflashphotograph,forexample,youneedyourcamera
toproduceahugeburstoflightinafractionofasecond.Acapacitorattachedtotheflashgun
chargesupforafewsecondsusingenergyfromyourcamera'sbatteries.(Ittakestimetocharge
a capacitor and that's why you typically have to wait a little while.) Once the capacitor is fully
charged,itcanreleaseallthatenergyinaninstantthroughthexenonflashbulb.Zap!
There are many different kinds of capacitors available from very small capacitor beads used in
resonancecircuitstolargepowerfactorcorrectioncapacitors,buttheyalldothesamething,they
store charge. In its basic form, a Capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive (metal)
plateswhicharenotconnectedortouchingeachother,butareelectricallyseparatedeitherbyair
or by some form of a good insulating material such as waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or
some form of a liquid gel as used in electrolytic capacitors. The insulating layer between a
capacitorsplatesiscommonlycalledtheDielectric.ATypicalCapacitor
Duetothisinsulatinglayer,DCcurrentcannotflowthroughthecapacitorasitblocksitallowing

Duetothisinsulatinglayer,DCcurrentcannotflowthroughthecapacitorasitblocksitallowing
insteadavoltagetobepresentacrosstheplatesintheformofanelectricalcharge.
Capacitorsandcapacitance
Theamountofelectricalenergyacapacitorcanstoreiscalleditscapacitance.Thecapacitanceof
acapacitorisabitlikethesizeofabucket:thebiggerthebucket,themorewateritcanstore;the
bigger the capacitance, the more electricity a capacitor can store. There are three ways to
increasethecapacitanceofacapacitor.Oneistoincreasethesizeoftheplates.Anotheristo
movetheplatesclosertogether.Thethirdwayistomakethedielectricasgoodaninsulatoras
possible. Capacitors use dielectrics made from all sorts of materials. In transistor radios, the
tuning is carried out by a largevariable capacitor that has nothing but air between its plates. In
mostelectroniccircuits,thecapacitorsaresealedcomponentswithdielectricsmadeofceramics
suchasmicaandglass,papersoakedinoil,orplasticssuchasmylar.
Thesizeofacapacitorismeasuredinunitscalledfarads(F),namedforEnglishelectricalpioneer
MichaelFaraday(17911867).Onefaradisahugeamountofcapacitanceso,inpractice,mostof
thecapacitorswecomeacrossarejustfractionsofafaradtypicallymicrofarads(millionthsofa
farad,writtenF),nanofarads(thousand-millionthsofafaradwrittennF),andpicofarads(million
millionths of a farad, written pF).Supercapacitors store far bigger charges, sometimes rated in
thousandsoffarads.

TypesofCapacitors
Therearemanydifferenttypesofcapacitorsandtheyeachvaryintheircharacteristicsandeach
havetheirownadvantagesanddisadvantages.
Sometypesofcapacitorscanchargeuptohighervoltagesand,thus,canbeusedinhighvoltage
applications.Somecapacitorscanchargeuptoveryhighcharges,suchasaluminumelectrolytic
capacitors.Somecapacitorshaveverylowleakagelowleakageratesandothershaveveryhigh
leakagerates.Allofthesefactorsdeterminehowandinwhatapplicationeachofthecapacitors
willbeusedincircuits.
Basedonthedesign,capacitorsarecategorizedinthesedifferenttypes:
Electrolytictype:
For most of applications we use Electrolytic type Capacitors. They are very important for an
electronicstudentastheyareeasytogetandtouse,andtheyareinexpensivetoo.
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance values are required
typicallyabove1F.Hereinsteadofusingaverythinmetallicfilmlayerforoneoftheelectrodes,
asemi-liquidelectrolytesolutionintheformofajellyorpasteisusedwhichservesasthesecond
electrode(usuallythecathode).
Thedielectricisaverythinlayerofoxidewhichisgrownelectro-chemicallyinproductionwiththe
thicknessofthefilmbeinglessthantenmicrons.Thisinsulatinglayerissothinthatitispossible
to make capacitors with a large value of capacitance for a small physical size as the distance
betweentheplates,disverysmall.
ThemajorityofelectrolytictypesofcapacitorsarePolarised,thatistheDCvoltageappliedtothe
capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity, i.e. positive to the positive terminal and
negativetothenegativeterminalasanincorrectpolarisationwillbreakdowntheinsulatingoxide
layer and permanent damage may result. All polarised electrolytic capacitors have their polarity
clearly marked with a negative sign to indicate the negative terminal and this polarity must be
followed.ElectrolyticCapacitorsaregenerallyusedinDCpowersupplycircuitsduetotheirlarge
capacitances and small size to help reduce the ripple voltage or for coupling and decoupling
applications.Onemaindisadvantageofelectrolyticcapacitorsistheirrelativelylowvoltagerating
andduetothepolarisationofelectrolyticcapacitors,itfollowsthenthattheymustnotbeusedon
ACsupplies.Electrolyticsgenerallycomeintwobasicforms;AluminiumElectrolyticCapacitors
andTantalumElectrolyticCapacitors.
Anelectrolyticcapacitorisusuallylabeledwiththesethings:
1.Capacitancevalue.
2.Maximumvoltage.
3.Maximumtemperature.
4.Polarity.

4.Polarity.
Foranelectrolyticcapacitor,thecapacitanceismeasuredinmicroFarad.Basedonrequirement
theappropriatecapacitorischosen.Withhighercapacitance,thesizeofcapacitoralsoincreases.
VoltageRatingofaCapacitor
Allcapacitorshaveamaximumvoltageratingandwhenselectingacapacitorconsiderationmust
begiventotheamountofvoltagetobeappliedacrossthecapacitor.Themaximumamountof
voltagethatcanbeappliedtothecapacitorwithoutdamagetoitsdielectricmaterialisgenerally
given in the data sheets as: WV, (working voltage) or as WV DC, (DC working voltage). If the
voltageappliedacrossthecapacitorbecomestoogreat,thedielectricwillbreakdown(knownas
electricalbreakdown)andarcingwilloccurbetweenthecapacitorplatesresultinginashort-circuit.
Theworkingvoltageofthecapacitordependsonthetypeofdielectricmaterialbeingusedandits
thickness.TheDCworkingvoltageofacapacitorisjustthat,themaximumDCvoltageandNOT
themaximumACvoltageasacapacitorwithaDCvoltageratingof100voltsDCcannotbesafely
subjectedtoanalternatingvoltageof100volts.Sinceanalternatingvoltagehasanr.m.s.valueof
100voltsbutapeakvalueofover141volts!.Thenacapacitorwhichisrequiredtooperateat100
voltsACshouldhaveaworkingvoltageofatleast200volts.Inpractice,acapacitorshouldbe
selectedsothatitsworkingvoltageeitherDCorACshouldbeatleast50percentgreaterthanthe
highesteffectivevoltagetobeappliedtoit.
Polyestertype:
Polyestercapacitorsarecapacitorscomposedofmetalplateswithpolyesterfilmbetweenthem,or
ametallisedfilmisdepositedontheinsulator.
Polyester capacitors are available in the range of 1nF to 15F, and with working voltages from
50V to 1500V. They come with the tolerance ranges of 5%, 10%, and 20%. They have a high
temperaturecoefficient.Theyhavehighisolationresistance,sotheyaregoodchoicecapacitors
for coupling and/or storage applications. Compared with most other types, polyester capacitors
have high capacitance per unit volume. This means more capacitance can fit into a physically
smallercapacitor.Thisfeature,togetherwiththeirrelativelylowpricemakespolyestercapacitors
awidelyused,popular,andcheapcapacitor.
Tantalumtype:
Tantalum Capacitors are capacitors that are made of tantalum pentoxide. Tantalum capacitors,
just like aluminum, are electrolytic capacitors, which means they are polarized. Their main
advantages (especially over aluminum capacitors) is that they are smaller, lighter, and more
stable. They have lower leakage rates and less inductance between leads. However, their
disadvantagsaretheyhavealowermaximumcapacitancestorageandlowermaximumworking
voltage. They are also more prone to damage from high current spikes. For the last reason,
tantalumcapacitorsareusedmostlyinanalogsignalsystemsthatlackhighcurrent-spikenoise.
CeramicCapacitors:
Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are made by coating two
sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked together to make a
capacitor.Forverylowcapacitancevaluesasingleceramicdiscofabout3-6mmisused.Ceramic
capacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively high
capacitancescanbeobtainedinasmallphysicalsize.CeramicCapacitor
They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature and as a result are
used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as they are also non-polarized devices. Ceramic
capacitorshavevaluesrangingfromafewpicofaradstooneortwomicrofarads,(F)buttheir
voltageratingsaregenerallyquitelow.Ceramictypesofcapacitorsgenerallyhavea3-digitcode
printed onto their body to identify their capacitance value in pico-farads. Generally the first two
digitsindicatethecapacitorsvalueandthethirddigitindicatesthenumberofzerostobeadded.
Forexample,aceramicdisccapacitorwiththemarkings103wouldindicate10and3zerosin
pico-faradswhichisequivalentto10,000pFor10nF.Likewise,thedigits104wouldindicate10
and 4 zeros in pico-farads which is equivalent to 100,000 pF or 100nF and so on. So on the
image of the ceramic capacitor above the numbers 154 indicate 15 and 4 zeros in pico-farads
which is equivalent to 150,000 pF or 150nF or 0.15uF. Letter codes are sometimes used to
indicatetheirtolerancevaluesuchas:J=5%,K=10%orM=20%etc.
GeneralusesofCapacitors
Smoothing,especiallyinpowersupplyapplicationswhichrequiredconvertingthesignalfrom
ACtoDC.
StoringEnergy.

StoringEnergy.
SignaldecouplingandcouplingasacapacitorcouplingthatblocksDCcurrentandallowAC
currenttopassincircuits.
Tuning,asinradiosystemsbyconnectingthemtoLCoscillatorandfortuningtothedesired
frequency.
Timing,duetothefixedcharginganddischargingtimeofcapacitors.
Forelectricalpowerfactorcorrectionandmanymoreapplications.

Step8:Inductor

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Aninductorisapassiveelectroniccomponentthatstoresenergyintheformofamagneticfield.
As we know resistor resists the flow of current, inductor resists the change in flowing current
through it. So for dc current inductor is nothing but like a conductor. In other words, inductors
resistoropposechangesofcurrentbutwilleasilypassasteadystateDCcurrent.
Thecurrent,thatflowsthroughaninductorproducesamagneticfluxthatisproportionaltoit.But
unlikeaCapacitorwhichopposeachangeofvoltageacrosstheirplates,aninductoropposesthe
rateofchangeofcurrentflowingthroughitduetothebuildupofself-inducedenergywithinits
magneticfield.
Initsmostbasicform,anInductorisnothingmorethanacoilofwirewoundaroundacentralcore.
For most coils the current, flowing through the coil produces a magnetic flux around it that is
proportionaltothisflowofelectricalcurrent.
TheInductor,alsocalledachoke.Inductorsareformedwithwiretightlywrappedaroundasolid

TheInductor,alsocalledachoke.Inductorsareformedwithwiretightlywrappedaroundasolid
central core which can be either a straight cylindrical rod or a continuous loop or ring to
concentratetheirmagneticflux.Theschematicsymbolforainductoristhatofacoilofwireso
therefore, a coil of wire can also be called an Inductor. Inductors usually are categorised
according to the type of inner core they are wound around, for example, hollow core (free air),
solid iron core or soft ferrite core with the different core types being distinguished by adding
continuousordottedparallellinesnexttothewirecoilasshownbelow.
Thestandardunitofinductanceisthehenry,abbreviatedH.Thisisalargeunit.Morecommon
unitsarethemicrohenry,abbreviatedH(1H=10^-6H)andthemillihenry,abbreviatedmH(1
mH=10^-3H).Occasionally,thenanohenry(nH)isused(1nH=10^-9H).
ApplicationsofInductors
Filters
Inductorsareusedextensivelywithcapacitorsandresistorstocreatefiltersforanalogcircuitsand
insignalprocessing.Alone,aninductorfunctionsasalow-passfilter,sincetheimpedanceofan
inductor increases as the frequency of a signal increases. When combined with a capacitor,
whoseimpedancedecreasesasthefrequencyofasignalincrease,anotchedfiltercanbemade
thatonlyallowsacertainfrequencyrangetopassthrough.Bycombiningcapacitors,inductors,
andresistorsinanumberofwaysadvancedfiltertopologiescanbecreatedforanynumberof
applications.Filtersareusedinmostelectronics,althoughcapacitorsareoftenusedratherthan
inductorswhenpossiblesincetheyaresmallerandcheaper.
Sensors
Contactless sensors are prized for their reliability and ease of operation and inductors can be
used to sense magnetic fields or the presence of magnetically permeable material from a
distance.Inductivesensorsareusedatnearlyeveryintersectionwithatrafficlighttodetectthe
amountoftrafficandadjustthesignalaccordingly.Thesesensorsworkexceptionallywellforcars
and trucks, but some motorcycles and other vehicles do not have enough of a signature to be
detectedbythesensorswithoutalittleextraboostbyaddingah3magnettothebottomofthe
vehicle.Inductivesensorsarelimitedintwomajorways,eithertheobjecttobesensedmustbe
magnetic and induce a current in the sensor or the sensor must be powered to detect the
presenceofmaterialsthatinteractwithamagneticfield.Thislimitstheapplicationsofinductive
sensorsandhasamajorimpactondesignsthatusethem.
Transformers
Combininginductorsthathaveasharedmagneticpathwillformatransformer.Thetransformeris
afundamentalcomponentofnationalelectricalgridsandfoundinmanypowersuppliesaswellto
increaseordecreasevoltagestoadesiredlevel.Sincemagneticfieldsarecreatedbyachangein
current,thefasterthecurrentchanges(increaseinfrequency)themoreeffectiveatransformer
operates.Ofcourse,asthefrequencyoftheinputincreases,theimpedanceoftheinductorbegins
tolimittheeffectivenessofatransformer.
Motors
Normallyinductorsareinafixedpositionandnotallowedtomovetoalignthemselveswithany
nearby magnetic field. Inductive motor leverage the magnetic force applied to inductors to turn
electrical energy in to mechanical energy. Inductive motors are designed so that a rotating
magneticfieldiscreatedintimewithanACinput.Sincethespeedofrotationiscontrolledbythe
inputfrequency,inductionmotorsareoftenusedinfixedspeedapplicationsthatcanbepowered
directlyfrom50/60hzmainspower.Thebiggestadvantageofinductivemotorsoverotherdesigns
is that no electrical contact is required between the rotor and the motor which makes inductive
motorsveryrobustandreliable.
EnergyStorage
Like capacitors, inductors can be used for energy storage. Unlike capacitors, inductors have a
severelimitationonhowlongtheycanstoreenergysincetheenergyisstoredinamagneticfield
whichcollapsesquicklyoncepowerisremoved.Themainuseforinductorsasenergystorageis
inswitch-modepowersupplies,likethepowersupplyinaPC.Inthesimpler,non-isolatedswitchmode power supplies, a single inductor is used in place of transformer and energy storage
component. In these circuits, the ratio of the time the inductor is powered to the time it is
unpowereddeterminestheinputtooutputvoltageratio.
Inductorsarealsousedforwirelesspowertransferandinelectro-mechanicalrelay.

Step9:Diode

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A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and the
cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or
selenium. Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage regulators, switches, signal
modulators,signalmixers,signaldemodulators,andoscillators.
The fundamental property of a diode is its tendency to conduct electric current in only one
direction.Whenthecathodeisnegativelychargedrelativetotheanodeatavoltagegreaterthana
certainminimumcalledforwardbreakover,thencurrentflowsthroughthediode.Ifthecathodeis
positive with respect to the anode, is at the same voltage as the anode, or is negative by an
amountlessthantheforwardbreakovervoltage,thenthediodedoesnotconductcurrent.Thisis
asimplisticview,butistruefordiodesoperatingasrectifiers,switches,andlimiters.Theforward
breakover voltage is approximately six tenths of a volt (0.6 V) for silicon devices, 0.3 V for
germaniumdevices,and1Vforseleniumdevices.
BreakdownVoltage
Ifalargeenoughnegativevoltageisappliedtothediode,itwillgiveinandallowcurrenttoflowin
thereversedirection.Thislargenegativevoltageiscalledthebreakdownvoltage.Somediodes
areactuallydesignedtooperateinthebreakdownregion,butformostnormaldiodesitsnotvery
healthy for them to be subjected to large negative voltages. For normal diodes this breakdown
voltageisaround-50Vto-100V,orevenmorenegative.
TypesofDiodes
Manydifferenttypesofdiodestodayareinuseinelectronics.Thedifferentkindseachhavetheir
ownspecializeduses.Iwillonlydiscussaboutmorecommontypes.

RectifierDiode:
Thesediodesareusedtorectifyalternatingpowerinputsinpowersupplies.Arectifierorpower
diodeisastandarddiodewithamuchhighermaximumcurrentrating.Thishighercurrentrating
usually comes at the cost of a larger forward voltage. The 1N4001, for example, has a current
ratingof1Aandaforwardvoltageof1.1V.
Signaldiodes:
Asmallsignaldiodeisasmallnon-linearsemiconductorwhichisoftenusedinelectroniccircuits
wherehighfrequenciesorsmallcurrentsareinvolvedintelevision,radioanddigitallogiccircuits.
Smallsignaldiodesaresmallerinsizecomparedtoregularpowerdiodes.Theyusuallyhavea
medium-highforwardvoltagedropandalowmaximumcurrentrating.Acommonexampleofa
signaldiodeisthe1N4148.Verygeneralpurpose,itsgotatypicalforwardvoltagedropof0.72V
anda300mAmaximumforwardcurrentrating.
SchottkyDiodes:
ThesediodesfeaturelowerforwardvoltagedropascomparedtotheordinarysiliconPNjunction
diodes. The voltage drop may be somewhere between 0.15 and 0.4 volts at low currents, as
comparedtothe0.6voltsforasilicondiode.Inordertoachievethisperformance,thesediodes
are constructed differently from normal diodes, with metal to semiconductor contact. Schottky
diodesareusedinRFapplications,rectifierapplicationsandclampingdiodes.
Zenerdiodes:
Zener diodes are the weird outcast of the diode family. Theyre usually used to intentionally
conductreversecurrent.Zenersaredesignedtohaveaveryprecisebreakdownvoltage,called
thezenerbreakdownorzenervoltage.Whenenoughcurrentrunsinreversethroughthezener,
the voltage drop across it will hold steady at the breakdown voltage. Taking advantage of their
breakdownproperty,Zenerdiodesareoftenusedtocreateaknownreferencevoltageatexactly
theirZenervoltage.Theycanbeusedasavoltageregulatorforsmallloads,buttheyrenotreally
madetoregulatevoltagetocircuitsthatwillpullsignificantamountsofcurrent.
Light-EmittingDiodes:
Like normal diodes, LEDs only allow current through one direction. They also have a forward
voltage rating, which is the voltage required for them to light up. The VF rating of an LED is
usuallylargerthanthatofanormaldiode(1.2~3V),anditdependsonthecolortheLEDemits.
Forexample,theratedforwardvoltageofaSuperBrightBlueLEDisaround3.3V,whilethatof
theequalsizeSuperBrightRedLEDisonly2.2V.IwilldiscussaboutLEDsmoredetaillater.
Photodiode:
Photodiodes are used to detect light and feature wide, transparent junctions. Generally, these
diodes operate in reverse bias, wherein even small amounts of current flow, resulting from the
light,canbedetectedwithease.Photodiodescanalsobeusedtogenerateelectricity,usedas
solarcellsandeveninphotometry.
LaserDiode:
ThistypeofdiodeisdifferentfromtheLEDtype,asitproducescoherentlight.Thesediodesfind
theirapplicationinDVDandCDdrives,laserpointers,etc.Laserdiodesaremoreexpensivethan
LEDs. However, they are cheaper than other forms of laser generators. Moreover, these laser
diodeshavelimitedlife.

Step10:LED

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Light emitting diodes, commonly called LEDs, are real unsung heroes in the electronics world.
Theydodozensofdifferentjobsandarefoundinallkindsofdevices.Amongotherthings,they
formnumbersondigitalclocks,transmitinformationfromremotecontrols,lightupwatchesand
tellyouwhenyourappliancesareturnedon.Collectedtogether,theycanformimagesonajumbo
televisionscreenorilluminateatrafficlight.
Basically,LEDsarejusttinylightbulbsthatfiteasilyintoanelectricalcircuit.Butunlikeordinary
incandescentbulbs,theydon'thaveafilamentthatwillburnout,andtheydon'tgetespeciallyhot.
Theyareilluminatedsolelybythemovementofelectronsinasemiconductormaterial,andthey
lastjustaslongasastandardtransistor.ThelifespanofanLEDsurpassestheshortlifeofan
incandescentbulbbythousandsofhours.TinyLEDsarealreadyreplacingthetubesthatlightup
LCDHDTVstomakedramaticallythinnertelevisions.
LEDs are mostly used for two things: illumination and
indication. Illumination means to "shine light onto
something" - like a flashlight or headlights. You want
yourheadlightstobebrightasheck.Indicationmeanto
"point somethingout"- like aturn signal orbrake lights
on a car. You don't want your car's turn signal to blind
people!DiffusedLEDsarereallygoodatindication,they
look soft and uniform and you can see them well from
anyangle.ClearLEDsarereallygoodatillumination,the
lightisdirectandpowerful-butyoucan'tseethemwell
fromananglebecausethelightisonlygoingforward.
LEDcircuitdesign
LED'sarediodes,whicharebiasedwithacurrentratherthanvoltage.Simply,whenLED'sare
"fed"withsomecurrentintheforwarddirection(plustominus,oranodetocathodeitwouldstart
toemitlightatsomeminimumcurrent.AtypicalredLED'srequireabout10mAto20mAcurrent
for decent brightness. Any more may not help much--LED's would be stressed when pushed
beyondthelimitsandmaybedestroyed.
Since LED's are current devices, a voltage can not be
applied directly across it, LED's cannot be connected
directlytothebatteryorpowersupply.TheLEDwillbe
instantlydestroyedbecausethecurrentistoogreat.The
currentmustbereduced.Theeasiestwaytodothisisby
using a resistor. The resistor will lower the current and
dropthevoltagedowntoamanageablelevel.
So,howdowefigureoutwhatvalueresistortouse?We
shall use the ohm's law for this. Ohms law states that
voltageistheproductofthecurrentandtheresistance,
orV=IR,where"I"isthecurrent.
CalculatetheLEDresistorvaluewiththefollowingformula:
LEDResistorValue,R=(supplyvoltage-LEDvoltage)/LEDcurrent

LEDResistorValue,R=(supplyvoltage-LEDvoltage)/LEDcurrent
Inourexample:
Sayweusea9Vbattery,thensupplyvoltage=9V.LEDvoltageforredLED's,fromStep2is2.0
VLEDcurrentis20mA(thisisatypicalvalueifnotprovidedbythemanufacturer)Iftheresistor
value is not available, then choose the nearest standard resistor value which is greater. If you
want to increase the battery life you can select a higher resistor value to reduce current. The
reducedcurrentwillresultinadimmerLED.For15mAledcurrent,R=(9-2.0)/15mA=466
ohms,usethenexthigherstandardvalue=470ohms.

Step11:Transistor

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Transistorscanberegardedasatypeofelectronicswitch,ascanmanyelectroniccomponents.
Transistorismuchmorefasterthanmechanicalswitch.
There are two types of basic transistor out there: bi-polar junction (BJT) and metal-oxide fieldeffect (MOSFET), and there are actually two versions of the BJT: NPN and PNP. Most circuits
tendtouseNPN.Therearehundredsoftransistorswhichworkatdifferentvoltagesbutallofthem
fall into these two categories. Transistors are manufactured in different shapes but they have
three leads (legs). The BASE - which is the lead responsible for activating the transistor.The
COLLECTOR-whichisthepositivelead.TheEMITTER-whichisthenegativelead.

Atransistorisreallysimpleandreallycomplex.Let'sstartwiththesimplepart.Atransistorisa
miniatureelectroniccomponentthatcandotwodifferentjobs.Itcanworkeitherasanamplifieror
aswitch:
Whenitworksasanamplifier,ittakesinatinyelectriccurrentatoneend(aninputcurrent)and
producesamuchbiggerelectriccurrent(anoutputcurrent)attheother.Inotherwords,it'sakind
ofcurrentbooster.Thatcomesinreallyusefulinthingslikehearingaids,oneofthefirstthings
peopleusedtransistorsfor.Ahearingaidhasatinymicrophoneinitthatpicksupsoundsfromthe
worldaroundyouandturnsthemintofluctuatingelectriccurrents.Thesearefedintoatransistor
thatbooststhemandpowersatinyloudspeaker,soyouhearamuchlouderversionofthesounds
aroundyou.
Transistors can also work as switches. A tiny electric current flowing through one part of a
transistorcanmakeamuchbiggercurrentflowthroughanotherpartofit.Inotherwords,thesmall
currentswitchesonthelargerone.Thisisessentiallyhowallcomputerchipswork.Forexample,
amemorychipcontainshundredsofmillionsorevenbillionsoftransistors,eachofwhichcanbe
switchedonoroffindividually.Sinceeachtransistorcanbeintwodistinctstates,itcanstoretwo
differentnumbers,zeroandone.Withbillionsoftransistors,achipcanstorebillionsofzerosand
ones,andalmostasmanyordinarynumbersandletters(orcharacters,aswecallthem).More
aboutthisinamoment.
OperationModes
Unlikeresistors,whichenforcealinearrelationshipbetweenvoltageandcurrent,transistorsare
non-lineardevices.Theyhavefourdistinctmodesofoperation,whichdescribethecurrentflowing
through them. (When we talk about current flow through a transistor, we usually mean current
flowingfromcollectortoemitterofanNPNtransistor.Thefourtransistoroperationmodesare:
SaturationThetransistoractslikeashortcircuit.Currentfreelyflowsfromcollectortoemitter.
Cut-offThetransistoractslikeanopencircuit.Nocurrentflowsfromcollectortoemitter.
ActiveThecurrentfromcollectortoemitterisproportionaltothecurrentflowingintothebase.
Reverse-ActiveLikeactivemode,thecurrentisproportionaltothebasecurrent,butitflowsin
reverse.
Applications:Switches
Oneofthemostfundamentalapplicationsofatransistorisusingittocontroltheflowofpowerto
anotherpartofthecircuitusingitasanelectricswitch.Drivingitineithercutofforsaturation
mode,thetransistorcancreatethebinaryon/offeffectofaswitch.Transistorswitchesarecritical
circuit-buildingblocks;theyreusedtomakelogicgates,whichgoontocreatemicrocontrollers,
microprocessors,andotherintegratedcircuits.
TransistorSwitch
Letslookatthemostfundamentaltransistor-switchcircuit:anNPNswitch.HereweuseanNPN
tocontrolahigh-powerLED.
Ourcontrolinputflowsinto
thebase,theoutputistied
to the collector, and the
emitter is kept at a fixed
voltage.
While a normal switch
would require an actuator
tobephysicallyflipped,this

tobephysicallyflipped,this
switch is controlled by the
voltage at the base pin. A
microcontroller I/O pin, like
those on an Arduino, can
be programmed to go high
orlowtoturntheLEDonor
off.
When the voltage at the
base is greater than 0.6V
(or
whatever
your
transistors Vth might be),
thetransistorstartssaturatingandlookslikeashortcircuitbetweencollectorandemitter.When
the voltage at the base is less than 0.6V the transistor is in cutoff mode no current flows
becauseitlookslikeanopencircuitbetweenCandE.
Thecircuitaboveiscalledalow-sideswitch,becausetheswitchourtransistorisonthelow
(ground)sideofthecircuit.Alternatively,wecanuseaPNPtransistortocreateahigh-sideswitch:
Similar to the NPN circuit,
the base is our input, and
the emitter is tied to a
constant voltage. This time
however,theemitteristied
high, and the load is
connected to the transistor
onthegroundside.
This circuit works just as
well as the NPN-based
switch, but theres one
hugedifference:toturnthe
loadonthebasemustbe
low. This can cause
complications,especiallyiftheloadshighvoltage(VCCinthispicture)ishigherthanourcontrol
inputs high voltage. For example, this circuit wouldnt work if you were trying to use a 5VoperatingArduinotoswitchona12Vmotor.Inthatcaseitdbeimpossibletoturntheswitchoff
becauseVBwouldalwaysbelessthanVE.
BaseResistors
Youllnoticethateachofthosecircuitsusesaseriesresistorbetweenthecontrolinputandthe
baseofthetransistor.Dontforgettoaddthisresistor!Atransistorwithoutaresistoronthebaseis
likeanLEDwithnocurrent-limitingresistor.
Recallthat,inaway,atransistorisjustapairofinterconnecteddiodes.Wereforward-biasingthe
base-emitterdiodetoturntheloadon.Thediodeonlyneeds0.6Vtoturnon,morevoltagethan
that means more current. Some transistors may only be rated for a maximum of 10-100mA of
currenttoflowthroughthem.Ifyousupplyacurrentoverthemaximumrating,thetransistormight
blowup.
The series resistor between our control source and the base limits current into the base. The
base-emitternodecangetitshappyvoltagedropof0.6V,andtheresistorcandroptheremaining
voltage.Thevalueoftheresistor,andvoltageacrossit,willsetthecurrent.
Theresistorneedstobelargeenoughtoeffectivelylimitthecurrent,butsmallenoughtofeedthe
baseenoughcurrent.1mAto10mAwillusuallybeenoughandbaseresistorvaluemaybe1kto
10k,butcheckyourtransistorsdatasheettomakesure.
SomecommonBJTsfrequentlyusedinhobbyistproject
Name
2N2222
BC548
2N3904
2N3906
BC557

Type
NPN
NPN
NPN
PNP
PNP

Vce
40V
30V
40V
-40V
-45V

Ic
800mA
100mA
200mA
-200mA
-100mA

Pd
625mW
500mW
625mW
625mW
500mW

ft
300MHz
300MHz
270MHz
250MHz
150MHz

BC557
PNP
-45V
TIP120(power)
NPN
60V
Pleasecheckthedatasheetfordetails.

-100mA
5A

500mW
65W

150MHz
-

MOSFET
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is
anothertypeoftransistorusedforamplifyingorswitchingelectronicsignals.
ThemainadvantageofaMOSFEToveraregulartransistoristhatitrequiresverylittlecurrentto
turnon(lessthan1mA),whiledeliveringamuchhighercurrenttoaload(10to50Aormore).
TheMetalOxideSemiconductorFieldEffectTransistor,orMOSFETforshort,hasanextremely
highinputgateresistancewiththecurrentflowingthroughthechannelbetweenthesourceand
drain being controlled by the gate voltage. Because of this high input impedance and gain,
MOSFETscanbeeasilydamagedbystaticelectricityifnotcarefullyprotectedorhandled.
MOSFETsareidealforuseaselectronicswitchesorascommon-sourceamplifiersastheirpower
consumption is very small. Typical applications for metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistorsareinMicroprocessors,Memories,CalculatorsandLogicCMOSGatesetc.

2N3904.pdf(/files/orig/FR7/JDRN/II0K92H7/FR7JDRNII0K92H7.pdf)

2n3906.pdf(/files/orig/F3D/MGVL/II0K92HC/F3DMGVLII0K92HC.pdf)

BC547.pdf(/files/orig/FG8/PWQM/II0K92HE/FG8PWQMII0K92HE.pdf)

BC557.pdf(/files/orig/FYG/F1O8/II0K92HF/FYGF1O8II0K92HF.pdf)

PN2222A.pdf(/files/orig/F59/9Z5W/II0K92HH/F599Z5WII0K92HH.pdf)

TIP120.pdf(/files/orig/FDE/PJNM/II0K92HI/FDEPJNMII0K92HI.pdf)

Step12:VoltageRegulators

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Avoltageregulatorgeneratesafixedoutputvoltageofapresetmagnitudethatremainsconstant
regardless of changes to its input voltage or load conditions. There are two types of voltage
regulators:
Linear
Switching
The linear regulator's power dissipation is directly proportional to its output current for a given
input and output voltage, so typical efficiencies can be 50% or even lower. Using the optimum
components,aswitchingregulatorcanachieveefficienciesinthe90%range.However,thenoise
output from a linear regulator is much lower than a switching regulator with the same output
voltageandcurrentrequirements.Typically,theswitchingregulatorcandrivehighercurrentloads
thanalinearregulator.
Linearregulator
Alinearregulatoremploysanactive(BJTorMOSFET)passdevice(seriesorshunt)controlledby
ahighgaindifferentialamplifier.Itcomparestheoutputvoltagewithaprecisereferencevoltage
andadjuststhepassdevicetomaintainaconstantoutputvoltage.
This regulating device acts like a variable resistor and continuously adjusts the voltage divider
networkinordertomaintainanoutputvoltagewhichisconstant.Thedifferencebetweentheinput
voltage and regulated voltage is continually dissipating as waste heat. Due to linear voltage
regulatorsbeingoftenusedinseveralelectronicdevices,linearregulatorsinintegratedcircuit(IC)
formareverycommon.Thereareseveraldifferentkindsoflinearregulators.
All linear regulators require an input voltage at least some minimum amount higher than the
desired output voltage. That minimum amount is called the dropout voltage. For example, a
commonregulatorsuchasthe7805hasanoutputvoltageof5V,butcanonlymaintainthisifthe
inputvoltageremainsaboveabout7V,beforetheoutputvoltagebeginssaggingbelowtherated
output.Itsdropoutvoltageistherefore7V5V=2V.Therearetwotypesoflinearregulator:
Fixedregulators
"Fixed"three-terminallinearregulatorsarecommonlyavailabletogeneratefixedvoltagesofplus
3V,andplusorminus5V,6V,9V,12V,or15V,whentheloadislessthan1.5A.The"78xx"
series (7805, 7812, etc.) regulate positive voltages while the "79xx" series (7905, 7912, etc.)
regulatenegativevoltages.Often,thelasttwodigitsofthedevicenumberaretheoutputvoltage
(e.g.,a7805isa+5Vregulator,whilea7915isa15Vregulator).Therearevariantson
the
CompleteGuideforTechBeginners
bytaifur(/member/taifur/)
78xxseriesICs,suchas78Land78S,someofwhichcansupplyupto2Amps.
Download(/id/Complete-Guide-for-Tech-Beginners/?download=pdf)

Variableregulators

h(/id/Complete-Guide-for-Tech-Beginners/)
Collection

Anadjustableregulatorgeneratesafixedlownominalvoltagebetweenitsoutputanditsadjust
terminal(equivalenttothegroundterminalinafixedregulator).Thisfamilyofdevicesincludeslow

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terminal(equivalenttothegroundterminalinafixedregulator).Thisfamilyofdevicesincludeslow
powerdeviceslikeLM723andmediumpowerdeviceslikeLM317andL200.Someofthevariable
regulatorsareavailableinpackageswithmorethanthreepins,includingdualin-linepackages.
Theyofferthecapabilitytoadjusttheoutputvoltagebyusingexternalresistorsofspecificvalues.
TheLM317series(+1.25V)regulatespositivevoltageswhiletheLM337series(1.25V)regulates
negativevoltages.Theadjustmentisperformedbyconstructingapotential divider with its ends
betweentheregulatoroutputandground,anditscentre-tapconnectedtothe'adjust'terminalof
the regulator. The ratio of resistances determines the output voltage using the same feedback
mechanismsdescribedearlier.
Commonlyusedlinearvoltageregulator
L7805 (Voltage Regulator - 5V): This is the basic L7805 voltage regulator, a three-terminal
positiveregulatorwitha5Vfixedoutputvoltage.Thisfixedregulatorprovidesalocalregulation,
internalcurrentlimiting,thermalshut-downcontrol,andsafeareaprotectionforyourproject.Each
oneofthesevoltageregulatorscanoutputamaxcurrentof1.5A.
L7812 (Voltage Regulator - 12V): This is the basic L7812 voltage regulator, a three-terminal
positiveregulatorwitha12Vfixedoutputvoltage.Thisfixedregulatorprovidesalocalregulation,
internalcurrentlimiting,thermalshut-downcontrol,andsafeareaprotectionforyourproject.Each
oneofthesevoltageregulatorscanoutputamaxcurrentof1.5A.
LM317 (Adjustable 1.25V to 37V): TheLM317 device is an adjustable three-terminal positivevoltageregulatorcapableofsupplyingmorethan1.5Aoveranoutput-voltagerangeof1.25Vto
37V.Itrequiresonlytwoexternalresistorstosettheoutputvoltage.Thedevicefeaturesatypical
line regulation of 0.01% and typical load regulation of 0.1%. It includes current limiting, thermal
overloadprotection,andsafeoperatingareaprotection.
Pleasecheckdatasheetfordetails.
Switchingregulator
A switching regulator converts the dc input voltage to a switched voltage applied to a power
MOSFET or BJT switch. The filtered power switch output voltage is fed back to a circuit that
controlsthepowerswitchonandofftimessothattheoutputvoltageremainsconstantregardless
ofinputvoltageorloadcurrentchanges.
There are three common topologies: buck (step-down), boost (step-up) and buck-boost (stepup/stepdown). Other topologies include the flyback, SEPIC, Cuk, push-pull, forward, full-bridge,
andhalf-bridgetopologies.
Switchingregulatorsrequireameanstovarytheiroutputvoltageinresponsetoinputandoutput
voltage changes. One approach is to use PWM that controls the input to the associated power
switch,whichcontrolsitsonandofftime(dutycycle).Inoperation,theregulator'sfilteredoutput
voltageisfedbacktothePWMcontrollertocontrolthedutycycle.Ifthefilteredoutputtendsto
change,thefeedbackappliedtothePWMcontrollervariesthedutycycletomaintainaconstant
outputvoltage.
Boostconverter
A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter with an output voltage
greater than its input voltage. Boost converters are used when it required higher voltage than
availablevoltagefrombattery.Supposeyouhavea3.7Vbatterybutyouneed5Vforyourdevice
thenyoucanuseboostconverter.
Becauseoftheeasewithwhichboostconverterscansupplylargeovervoltages,theywillalmost
always include some regulation to control the output voltage, and there are many I.Cs.
manufacturedforthispurposeAtypicalexampleofanI.C.boostconverteristheLM27313from
TexasInstruments.ThischipisdesignedforuseinlowpowersystemssuchasPDAs,cameras,
mobilephones,andGPSdevices.AnothercommonadjustableboostconverterisLM2577.

lm317.pdf(/files/orig/FM6/AC33/II0MARA0/FM6AC33II0MARA0.pdf)

lm7805c.pdf(/files/orig/FIM/MFLW/II0MARB6/FIMMFLWII0MARB6.pdf)

lm2577.pdf(/files/orig/FL1/TI9B/II0MAWXY/FL1TI9BII0MAWXY.pdf)

lm27313.pdf(/files/orig/FG2/M2KT/II0MAX0Z/FG2M2KTII0MAX0Z.pdf)

Step13:IntegratedCircuits

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An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or microchip, is a semiconductor wafer on

whichthousandsormillionsoftinyresistors,capacitors,andtransistorsarefabricated.Integrated
circuits(ICs)areakeystoneofmodernelectronics.Theyaretheheartandbrainsofmostcircuits.
An IC can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, computer memory, or
microprocessor.AparticularICiscategorizedaseitherlinear(analog)ordigital,dependingon
itsintendedapplication.
LinearICshavecontinuouslyvariableoutput(theoreticallycapableofattaininganinfinitenumber
ofstates)thatdependsontheinputsignallevel.Asthetermimplies,theoutputsignallevelisa
linearfunctionoftheinputsignallevel.Ideally,whentheinstantaneousoutputisgraphedagainst
the instantaneous input, the plot appears as a straight line. Linear ICs are used as audiofrequency (AF) and radio-frequency (RF) amplifiers. The operational amplifier(op amp) is a
commondeviceintheseapplications.
DigitalICsoperateatonlyafewdefinedlevelsorstates,ratherthanoveracontinuousrangeof
signal amplitudes. These devices are used in computers, computer networks, modems, and
frequency counters. The fundamental building blocks of digital ICs are logic gates, which work
withbinarydata,thatis,signalsthathaveonlytwodifferentstates,calledlow(logic0)andhigh
(logic1).
Dependingonthewaytheyaremanufactured,integratedcircuitscanbedividedintotwogroups:
hybridandmonolithic.Hybridcircuitshavebeenaroundlonger.
ICPackages
Thepackageiswhatencapsulatestheintegratedcircuitdieandsplaysitoutintoadevicewecan
moreeasilyconnectto.Eachouterconnectiononthedieisconnectedviaatinypieceofgoldwire
toapadorpinonthepackage.Pinsarethesilver,extrudingterminalsonanIC,whichgoonto
connecttootherpartsofacircuit.Theseareofutmostimportancetous,becausetheyrewhatwill

connecttootherpartsofacircuit.Theseareofutmostimportancetous,becausetheyrewhatwill
goontoconnecttotherestofthecomponentsandwiresinacircuit.
There are many different types of packages, each of which has unique dimensions, mountingtypes,and/orpin-counts.
PinNumbering
AllICsarepolarized,andeverypinisuniqueintermsofbothlocationandfunction.Thismeans
thepackagehastohavesomewaytoconveywhichpiniswhich.MostICswilluseeitheranotch
oradottoindicatewhichpinisthefirstpin.(Sometimesboth,sometimesoneortheother.)
MountingStyle
One of the main distinguishing package type characteristics is the way they mount to a circuit
board. All packages fall into one of two mounting types: through-hole (PTH) or surface-mount
(SMD or SMT). Through-hole packages are generally bigger, and much easier to work with.
Theyredesignedtobestuckthroughonesideofaboardandsolderedtotheotherside.
Surface-mountpackagesrangeinsizefromsmalltominuscule. They are all designed to sit on
onesideofacircuitboardandbesolderedtothesurface.
CommonICs
Logic Gates (7400 series), Timers (555, 556), Shift Registers (74HC164, 74HC595),
Microcontrollers (PIC16F877A, ATmega328P), Microprocessors (8086, 80386, MC68030),
FPGAs,Sensors(LM35,5843),RTC(DS3231,DS1307),Etc.

Step14:References
Mostoftheimagearetakenfrominternet.Someideaandtextaretakenfrom
1.https://www.sparkfun.com/(https://www.sparkfun.com/)
2.https://learn.adafruit.com/(https://learn.adafruit.com/)
3.https://en.wikipedia.org/(https://en.wikipedia.org/)

Wehaveabenicecommentpolicy.

Pleasebepositiveandconstructive.

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bassman1950(/member/bassman1950)

Onepointshouldbemadeclear.Withelectrolyticcapacitorsifyoureverse
therepolaritytheycanexplodeandcreateadangeroussituation.
Ioncehadasmallcapacitorexplodeputtingaholethesizeofapencilinmy
ceiling.
ifIhadmyheadoverit.Iwouldnotbewritingthis.
Theotherthingthatshouldbepointedoutisthatthesecapacitorscanholda
chargeforalongtimeevenwhentakingoutofacircuit.
ALWAYSmakesurethecapacitorisdischargedbeforehandlingit.
Thesecapacitorsusuallyhaveableedingresistortosafelydischargethemto
groundwhenthepoweristurnoff
Butthefirstthingthatalwaysburnsoutisthebleedingresistor.
DONOTTRUSTTHESEcapacitors

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DONOTTRUSTTHESEcapacitors

joelhacker(/member/joelhacker)

8hoursago

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WehavefoundanewRobert(Bob)Pease!!!
Iwouldhavelovedforsuchasimple,straightforwardguidetobesoreadily
available~40yearsago.
Ihopeyoudon'tgiveupwritingayouhaveagift,anditisingreatneedto
havethistypeofinstructionforthousandsofjuniorhighandhighschoolaged
boysandgirls,whoneedtofeelconfidentthattheycangrasp,understand
andthriveinengineeringandthis,IMOtakestophonorsastrainingI'd
recommendtoanyson/daughter/nephew/nieceofmine.Hatsoff!!!

X
|
8

taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . joelhacker(/member/joelhacker)

ThankyouJoelhacker!

Hallofo(/member/Hallofo)

I'mjustgettingintothewide,wideworldofelectronicsintheformof3D
printers,ArduinoandDrones.Thisisbyfarthemostusefuland
comprehensiveguideI'vefoundanywherethatexplainsthebasicsinone
package.Seriously,youshouldwriteabookonthisifyouhaven'talready!
It'snicetohavesomethingtorefertowhenI'mfollowingaguideor
schematic.NowIhaveabettergraspofwhatI'mdoingthan"solderthis
MagicBoxtothisotherMagicBoxandstuffworks"!

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . Hallofo(/member/Hallofo)

Thanksformotivatingcomment

Hallofo(/member/Hallofo)

I'mjustgettingintothewide,wideworldofelectronicsintheformof3D
printers,ArduinoandDrones.Thisisbyfarthemostusefuland
comprehensiveguideI'vefoundanywherethatexplainsthebasicsinone
package.Seriously,youshouldwriteabookonthisifyouhaven'talready!
It'snicetohavesomethingtorefertowhenI'mfollowingaguideor
schematic.NowIhaveabettergraspofwhatI'mdoingthan"solderthis
MagicBoxtothisotherMagicBoxandstuffworks"!

jeanniel1(/member/jeanniel1)

ThisisperfectasI'mjustgettingintotheelectronicwiththeArduino,
RaspPis,etc.andhaveNOCLUEwhatI'mdoingasIfollowblindlythe
picturesanddirectionsforassemblingsomething.Thedetailedexplanations
reallyhelpmeunderstandwhateachcomponentdoes.Thanksfortaking
thetimetopostthis!

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . jeanniel1(/member/jeanniel1)

Youarewelcome

alishabaka(/member/alishabaka)

14hoursago

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adayago

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19hoursago

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adayago

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19hoursago

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adayago

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Excellentarticleforbigineers,thankyou

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . alishabaka(/member/alishabaka)

Welcome

AlpineLED(/member/AlpineLED)

Thisisoutstandingthatshowingcomponentscolorphotosandgreat
detailed.Thisisgreatguidingformyelectronichobby.Keepaddingmore
newcomponents.

b-b-boom(/member/b-b-boom)

excellentguide

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . b-b-boom(/member/b-b-boom)

Thanks

M3Lab(/member/M3Lab)

Nice!Awesomeguide,thanksforit!Reallyusefullforaphysicianstartingat
DIYtech!

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . M3Lab(/member/M3Lab)

Thankyou

arduino-raspi(/member/arduino-raspi)

Incrediblework!!!

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . arduino-raspi(/member/arduino-raspi)

Thanks

Valvelifter(/member/Valvelifter)

AsayoungengineerIwastaughtarhymeforrememberingthecolourcode:
BillyBrownRevivesOnYourGinButValuesGoodWhiskey.

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . Valvelifter(/member/Valvelifter)

Thanks

JETDRIVER1955(/member/JETDRIVER1955)

Havingreadhundredsofelectronicsbooksandevenmoremagazinesfromthe
'60sonwardandevenmorewebsitesIfoundthistobeaexcellentreference
thathastakentimetoaccumulateandisverywellexplainedtomythinkingfor
anybodystartingoutinelectronics.PuttingthebatterydetailsinIthoughtwas
anexcellentdecisionasmanydon'toronlysayminimalabout.WelldoneandI
wouldliketoseewhatelseyoucandowithbasicIC'sgraduallymovingto
programmable.ThenwhatelseyoucoulddoalongtheProjectlines,from
simpletograduallymorecomplex.
You'vedoneexceptionalworkandshouldbeapplaudedloudlyforit.Thank
you.
Peter

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . JETDRIVER1955(/member/JETDRIVER1955)

adayago

Reply

adayago

Reply

Thankyouforyournicecomment.

AndrewLohmann(/member/AndrewLohmann)

HereissomemoreonelectronicsthatIhavebeendeveloping.Ihopeyoudo
notmindmepostingthis.
http://www.andrew-lohmann.me.uk/engineer/electronics

AndrewLohmann(/member/AndrewLohmann) . AndrewLohmann(/member/AndrewLohmann)
adayago

Reply

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . AndrewLohmann(/member/AndrewLohmann) adayago

Reply

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . AndrewLohmann(/member/AndrewLohmann) adayago

Iplantoreferencetothisguidefrommywebsite.

Youcanpostittoyourwebsite.

Reply

Noproblem.Youcanpostit.

67spyder(/member/67spyder)

adayago

Reply

Fantasticguide!Myknowledgeaboutelectronicsisallself-taughtandassuch
therearegapsinmyknowledgewhichpeoplelikeyouhelpfill,theeffortyou
haveputiniswellappreciated.CouldIsuggestyouaddabitabout
darlingtons?Idon'tknowifyouwouldaddittothetransistorsectionortheIC
section,lol.

AndrewLohmann(/member/AndrewLohmann) . 67spyder(/member/67spyder)

DarlingtonandIGBTtransistorsarefairlystraightforwardone
transistoramplifiestheother.Butthevoltagedropisgreatly
increased.
ButThyristorsaremorecomplex;Theylooklikethey
canbeturnedoffbydrivingthegatenegativebuttheycannot.Only
GTOtypecanbeturnedoffprovidedtheyarenotcarryingexcessive
amountofcurrent.
Triac'scomein3basicmodes-twoquadrant,

Reply

adayago

Triac'scomein3basicmodes-twoquadrant,
threequadrantandfourquadrant.Threequadrantbeingthemostcommon
typebecauseitcanbeturnedonwithanegativegatecurrent
irrespectivelyofMT2'spolarity.
Athyristor(SCR)isthesame
ineffectasa1st.QuadrantTriac.Ratedupto10,000Vand10,000Abut
mustbedrivenwithalargeenoughcurrenttoforthewholechiptoturn
onorelseahotspotcouldoccurandfuseandbreakthepart.Otherwise
theydonotbreakbutwillonlyblowfusesifproperlyratedandused.
IhavenotspeltanythingoutbutIhopeIhavegivenyouenoughcluestoworkout
orlookupthesethingsforyourself.Theseareallexamplesofmultipleamplifying
transistorconfigurations.

AndrewLohmann(/member/AndrewLohmann)

adayago

Reply

adayago

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adayago

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adayago

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adayago

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adayago

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adayago

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adayago

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IsuggestthatyoushowVoltageasheightofwaterandcallitpotentialwitha
taptoshowingthatyoureleasethepotential.Currentaswaterflowingkinetic
thatyouuseatthemoment.InthatwayyoucanexplainACandtunedcircuits
asapendulumthatalternatesbetweenheightandspeedofflow.
ThatishowIgottounderstandACcurrentandvoltagebeing90'outofphase.
Whereasmydadsaidtomehedidnotgetitandgaveuptryingtolearn
electronicsatthatpoint.

billbillt(/member/billbillt)

Aguidetoelectronicsdoesnotcomeanybetterthanthis....WONDERFUL!!...
Youaresuchawonderfulinstructor,pleasedomore!!..

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . billbillt(/member/billbillt)

Ofcourse,Iwilldomore.

billbillt(/member/billbillt)

Justathought...Youcanalsousethecentercarbonrodfromcarbonbatteries
asa"pencillead"resistor..

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . billbillt(/member/billbillt)

Youarecorrect.

Filbert11(/member/Filbert11)

Incrediblejob!!Verycomprehensive!!Thanks!!

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . Filbert11(/member/Filbert11)

Thankyoutoo

Rolloron(/member/Rolloron)

Amazing!

Amazing!

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . Rolloron(/member/Rolloron)

adayago

Reply

adayago

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adayago

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adayago

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adayago

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adayago

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adayago

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adayago

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adayago

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Thanks!

jerry.ericsson2(/member/jerry.ericsson2)

Hi,IhavebeentinkeringwithelectronicseversinceIwatchedmyfather
replacetheoldvacuumtubesinourbatterypackradiooutonorfarminND
backintheearly1950'sandhavecontinuedplayingaroundwithelectric
devicesandcomputerseversince.Ievenstartedtakingacorrespondence
coursefromBellandHowellbackin1970onlytobeinterruptedbyanall
expensepaidvacationintheRepublicofVietnam,thankstoUncleSam.Never
gotbacktothatcourse,buthavewishedIhadmanytimes.Thisguide,
howeverhastaughtmeasmuchormorethenIhavelearnedinmy65years
onthisplanet.ThanksaMillion,IshallbookmarkthisforaplacetogowhenI
feeltheneedtostudy.

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . jerry.ericsson2(/member/jerry.ericsson2)

ThankyouJerry.Yourcommentissomuchmotaviting.

Shadowpap2818(/member/Shadowpap2818)

Veryniceoverviewofelectronics.GoodJob!

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . Shadowpap2818(/member/Shadowpap2818)

Thanks

canuck(/member/canuck)

HiTaifur,
Thankyouforyourinstructable,thisisveryclearandeasytofollow.You
obviouslyputalotofworkintodevelopingthis.Iwillkeepthisasahandy
referencewhenIamworkingonmyprojects.
Welldone!

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . canuck(/member/canuck)

Iamproudtoknowthat.Thanks

donny011(/member/donny011)

iappreciatetheworkyou'veputintothisinstructableitwillhelpeveryonewith
basicelectronics

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taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . donny011(/member/donny011)

Thanks

marlyn(/member/marlyn)

adayago

Reply

adayago

Reply

adayago

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adayago

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adayago

Reply

Whatanabsolutelymarvelousguide!Thankyouverymuch.

taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . marlyn(/member/marlyn)

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Thanks

jeanle1er(/member/jeanle1er)

Merciinfiniment!!!
Tankyousomutch!!!

taifur(/member/taifur)(author) . jeanle1er(/member/jeanle1er)

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Thankyoualso

Instructomaker(/member/Instructomaker)

Asanengineer,Icantrulyappreciatetheworkyou'veputintocollectingand
compilingthisinfoandmakingitrelevanttothekindsofprojectsourfellow
readersgetinvolvedinthesedays.Thanksforsharing.:-)

I MoreComments

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