An On-line Water Monitoring System Using a Smart ISFET Array

Sergio Berrnejo, Guillermo Bedoya, Vicenq Parisi and Joan Cabestany

Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya (UPC)
Jordi Girona 1-3,08034 Barcelona, SPAIN
{sbermejo.bedoya, parisi, cabestan}@eel.upc.es
Abshnct -In this work we present a new on-line water pollution

monitoring system. The system includes a smart array of ionselective field effect transistors (ISFETs) as a front-end and also
at post-processing stages in order to transmit the stored
measures of ion concentrations. The intelligence in the smart
sensors is provided by a blind source separation (BSS)
algorithm which continuously learns from measures how to
detect the ion concentrations available in the mixed signal
observed in the array's output. The computational simplicity of
the BSS algorithm and its capability of continuous learning
from the environment, allow the design of a low-power, cheap
and smaU system that monitors water in real-time, and is a
contrast to the classical ON-line approach based on a water
analysis of the extracted measures in the laboratory. The work
is in progress, as part of the SEWING project (IST-2000-28084)

I. INTRODUCTION
An enormous interest in managing hydrological resources
properly and detecting their pollution levels have been
aroused in recent times [I]. Monitoring of toxic substances in
industrial effluents is becoming a priority. Consequently, the
next generation of water monitoring systems must be
designed in order to give precise information about the
quality of the water to the end user, which implies accurately
monitoring certain physical and chemical parameters
detected in the water.
A . Commercial WaferPollution Monitoring System

In a typical water pollution monitoring system, four phases

can be distinguished: measurement of parameters, storage of
information, data transmission and finally treatment and
evaluation. Today these monitoring equipment include: pH
sensors, temperature sensors, dissolved oxygen sensors,
conductivity sensors and others [2]. In these systems, data
can be processed in two ways:
1) Off-line processing: The system only performs a
compilation of samples. Hence, the study of the collected
samples is done later in a laboratory using analytical
techniques like spectrophotometry, chromatography and
electrochemical. However, these techniques are often quite
expensive since complex analytical processes must be
performed using sophisticated laboratory equipment.
2) On-line processing: The quality of the water is
examined in real-time by the monitoring system using lowcost electronic devices which can store, analyze and send the
relevant information extracted from the gathered measures.
This approach is mandatory when either the laboratory
instruments and procedures are extremely expensive or the
off-line processing takes too much time. However, even in
the cases in which the processing time in the off-line system
is assumable, the availability of low-cost, portable, real-time

0-7803-7474-6/021$17.00 02002 IEEE

measuring instruments could also be of great interest since it

would reduce considerably time spent on laboratory
processing. Presumably the design of on-line systems, which
is currently an active area of research, will also have a great
impact on the off-line data analysis performed in the
laboratory.

B. The SE WING Project

In the SystEm for Water MonitorING (SEWING) project
(IST-2000-28084), a full system based on a smart array of
ion-selective field effect transistors (ISFETs) array is
proposed to overcome the limitations of the present
commercial approaches to water monitoring. This project
proposes a novel synergistic combination of recent
progresses in different areas like semiconductor-based sensor
technology and artificial intelligence, in order to design a
low-power, cheap, small and smart system that monitors
water quality in real-time.
The goals of the project include detecting a large variety of
non-organic polluting ions with a broad range of sensitivity
for ion concentrations, which will make sensors suitable for
all types of water resources and waste water in high-risk
industrial regions, giving the possibility of early warnings.
The micro system will be flexible, reliable, and will take into
account undesirable effects such as interferences of other ion
concentrations in the desired measure, dependence of the
response on temperature and ageing. It will be implemented
and verified by end-users, and prepared for industrial
implementation. Such a system will allow the design of a
general (or regional) European policy in water management.
The SEWING Consortium is formed by 9 partners (7 of
them come from academia and 2 from industrial activity):
Politechnika Warszawska (coordinator), Instytut Technologii
Elecktronowej, Technical University of Lodz from Poland;
Valtion Teknillinen Tutkimuskeskus from Finland; CNRSLAAS from France; Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya
from Spain; IWGA from Austria; and the two companies:
Microsens from Switzerland and Systea from Italy. The
Project is multidisciplinary, and each partner was chosen in
relation to specific parts of it, according to their respective
area of expertise.
The contents of this paper are organized as follows.
Section 2 presents the SEWING architecture, which is based
on array of ion-selective field effect transistors (ISFETs) plus
a blind source separation (BSS) algorithm as a front-end for
detecting concentrations of ions in water. Section 3 reviews
the basics of ISFETs while BSS fundamentals are presented
in Section 4. The smart array of ISFETs with some
preliminary experimental results are shown in Section 5 .
Finally, preliminary conclusions are given.

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W
V

11. AN OVERVIEW OF THE SEWING ARCHITECTURE

I
R
0
R
Y

Figure 1 shows the three hierarchical levels in which the

SEWING architecture is divided:
1) A smart sensor array for detecting ion concentrations
2) A data acquisition system with local processing
capabilities
3) A central data processing and storage stage

A . The Smart Sensor Array for Detecting Ion Concentrations

The front-end of the SEWING architecture must be able to
detect several ion concentrations in the water. In order to do
that, several silicon sensors that are sensitive to chemical
components (ISFETs [3]) are used. As we will see later,
each ISFET mainly responds to a particular chemical
component. Therefore, an array of different ISFETs must be
employed to detect several ion concentrations. In this way,
the response of each output in an idealistic array would
correspond only to detected chemical compounds in the
water. However, the actual response is a signal formed by a
mixture of ions detected in the water (see Section 111). On the
other hand, the response to a particular ion concentration
greatly varies between different ISFET of the same class so
calibration is a must. All these factors advocate the design of
a smart sensor array for detecting ion concentrations
available in the mixed signal observed in the array's output.
The so-called smart sensors [4] were bom with the
integration of artificial intelligence processing techniques
into, traditional sensor systems. The underlying idea of these
systems is to overcome the inherent limitations of sensors by
introducing statistical signal processing techniques that:
1) enhance their output signals in order to facilitate the
extraction of relevant information in further stages
2) provide functions like self-calibration, self-diagnostic or
self-adaptation which are not available in the usual integrated
sensor with embedded data processing circuitry.
As in our problem, smart sensors are typically involved in
the monitoring and control of complex real-world processes
which require the processing of signals from multiple sources
provided by an array of sensors. Hence, some kind of array
processing of the sensors' output signals must be performed.
One of the emerging methods for array processing in the last
few years is BSS [SI that can be very effective in separating
sources from a mixture of observed signals, which is our
case. See e.g. [6][7] for recent applications of BSS
techniques in smart sensors.

W
T

Fig. I . Hierarchical levels of the SEWING system

There are two traditional data acquisition methods widely

used in modem automatic control and measuring systems:
1) Methods with time division channeling based on the
multiplexing of the data acquisition channel over time
2) Methods with space-division channeling based on the
simultaneous data acquisition from all sensors at the same
time.
In both cases, the permanency of data sources, i.e. the
opportunity to access information at any time depending on
the control and the measuring task, is used.
The micro-controller (processing element) can store the
sensor's characteristic data in its internal ROM and then
transfers the corrected signal, which has been previously
processed, to the bus.

111. ION SENSITIVE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

A. Principles of Operation

A new era in sensing began in 1970 when Bergveld

reported the first ISFET [3], which merged solid-state
electronic technology with chemical sensors. Several decades
later, the principles of operation of such devices are clear
enough to use them in practical applications as [9][10]
reported.
ISFETs are sensitive to the concentration of a particular
ion in a solution, which is done by replacing the metal gate of
a field-effect transistor with a membrane sensitive to a
particular kind of ion. Accordingly, the mode of operation of
this device is based on being submerged in a chemical
solution (see Fig. 2). When there is a high concentration of
positive ions in the solution, many of them are accumulated
on the gate, causing an amplification of the channel. To
assure that the channel of the transistor is correctly polarized
on the sensitive surface, the solution is linked to a potential
of reference by introducing an electrode. In this way, the
potential of reference is adjusted to keep the source current
constant, so that the ionic concentration will be directly
related to the potential of reference with regards to the
potential of substrate.

B. The Data Acquisition System

"g*

The data acquisition system is the link between the output

of the smart sensor and a remote central computer. It is
possible to have various data acquisition systems and they
can be chosen depending on the smart sensor architecture [SI.
In the SEWING project we have a sensor architecture in the
form of an array. With the help of a multiplexingkonversion
circuit, we can feed signals coming from the sensors.

. .

..,
I
I
Fig. 2. Representationofan ISFET measuring system

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B. The Ion Sensitive Membrane

An important problem in the ISFETs design and

manufacture is the safety in which the membrane is adhered
to the sensor. If the integrity of the membrane is
compromised, the device will be useless. On the other hand,
the ion sensitive membrane must only respond to one kind of
ion. Many different types of oxide coatings (e.g. silicon
dioxide, silicon nitride and tantalum oxide) are used
[I 1][12][13] in order to generate a specific ion-selectivity.
C. Response of an Arrav of ISFETs as a Linear Mixture of
Ion Concentrations

According to [ 141, the drain current of an ISFET i which is

active in ions of class k can he expressed in a linear range as
Id, =a,[V,,-V, -O.SVds)Vds=

[ [ [

(1)

zkII 1

Vds
= a , Vgs- EOi+bilna k + ~ K k J a -0.5Vds
j ~
j

B. BSS Models

where V,, is the gate-source voltage, Vds is the drain-source

voltage, EOiis the membrane potential referring to the hulk
solution consisting of a single type of ions of ISFET i, ak is
the activity of the main ion k, Kkj is the selectivity coefficient
which relates the response to the interfering ions a,, Zk is the
valence of the main ion k and Zj is the valence of the
disturbing ion j in the solution. See [15][16] for additional
information about models of ISFETS.
The use of the first-order approximation of the natural log
function around a working point q,
+0(x2)

allows the transformation of (I), after some simple algebraic

manipulations, into the following expression:

(3)

Id, = A , + B , a k + z K y a J 5
J

In the simplest BSS model [SI, we observe m discrete-time

signals xl[n], ..., x,[n] that correspond to a linear mixture of
a p source signal sl[n],. .., s,[n]. i.e.
x, [n]= a , IsI[n]+ ...+ alpsp[n]

where Ai and Bi are constants that depend on the physical

and electrical characteristics of the ISFET.
111. BLIND SOURCE SEPARATION

(4)

x,[n]= a,,s, [n]+ ...+ a,,sp[n]

or expressed in a vector form
x[n]=(x,[n] ...x m [ n r = As[n]

tI

In(x)=In(q)+ ---I

which allows learning from data in order to recover the

original signals. A BSS method, as. a statistical learning
procedure, mainly consists of three parts:
1) A probabilistic model of the data (i.e. sources) that
denotes in which way the data is distributed and how the
original sources are related to the mixing signals. There are
.two main approaches for determining the data distribution:
parametric and non-parametric models. In parametric
modelling a particular distribution is assumed (e.g. uniform,
exponential, etc.) while non-parametric approaches attempt
to produce consistent estimates of any distribution given
enough training samples to construct the non-parametric
model. On the other hand, the simplest model assumed
between sources and mixing signals is linear.
2 ) An objective function in which the minimum (or
maximal) point assures the achievement of a good solution
for the BSS problem.
3) An optimization (or learning) algorithm which
minimizes (or maximizes) the objective function in order to
compute the solution.

(5)

where A is known as the mxp mixing matrix and T denotes

transpose. A simple extension of (5) includes the presence of
a noise vector n as an additive presence in the BSS model,
seee.g.[17],
x[n]= As[n]+n[n]

(6)

Other extensions of the basic model denoted in ( 5 ) include

the generalization to a non-linear mapping [IS]. A non-linear
BSS can be expressed as the estimation of the following
generative model for the data,
x[n]= f(s[nD

(7)

A . BSS as a Statistical Learning Method

where f is an unknown function from !Rpto !Rm.

Blind source separation (BSS) attempts to reconstruct a set

of hidden signals {si}from several observed signals {xj) that
(presumably) have been generated from a linear mixture of
the original signals. The term blind refers to the fact that
we must recover the unseen signals from the observed ones
and also that there is no (or little) prior information about
how the mixture has been produced.
However, this
deficiency is compensated to some degree by the existence of
a set of (empirical) samples of the observed signals D,={xi},

C. A BSS Learning Algorithm

According to the classical blind source separation (BSS)
model (5), and given a temporal window of the observable
vector x, i.e. D,={xi[n], n = l , . _ _T,, i=l, ...,m}, we must
compute a pnm separating matrix B which allows a
estimation of the source signals {%[n], i=l, ...,p} using the
following reconstruction algorithm,

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Clearly, the solution to the BSS reconstruction problem is

B=A-l if no noise is assumed.
The point of departure for computing B is the assumption
that the source signals s=(sI ...
independent, which is
often true in an array of sensors since unrelated physical
information can be detected. I f s is formed by independent
random variables, then its pdf can be expressed as the
product of the marginal distributions,

where f(y[nD= (fl(y,[nD...fp(yp[nl))tis obtained from qi(yi) as

are

i=l

In order to compute B using D, an objective function must

be defined and minimized by the BSS learning algorithm.
The Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence is a natural candidate
for this purpose since it measures the divergence between
two probability distributions py(y) and q(y) as follows,

Observe that (14) involves the computation o f t h e inverse

of the matrix B[n]', which can be time-consuming since we

would typically apply an iterative algorithm in order to
compute (B[n]'}-' numerically. On the other hand, it has been
observed [20] that the ordinary gradient descent does not
work for non-Euclidean spaces since the descent direction in
such a situation is represented by the usual gradient direction
multiplied by the inverse of the Riemannian metric G(B). In
BSS, G"(B) can be easily computed and then (13) can be
modified as
B[n+l]=B[n]-v[n]dR(B[nDB'[n]B[n]

74-

Equation (16) is known as the natural gradient descent

learning algorithm for BSS [19], which gives
Note that KL=O if and only if p=q and >O otherwise.
Hence, if pdy) is the pdf ofthe reconstructed signal and q(y)
is the probability o f , t h e source signals n i f s , , the KL
divergence will measure how close y=Bx is to the original
source s. It can be shown .[I91 that (IO) can be estimated
using the set of samples DTas

B b +I]= B b - v b l b -f(~bb'[n]}B[n]

(17)

where I denotes the identity matrix. Equation (17) involves

performing p[2m+p(l+m)] multiplications, pm(l+p)
additions, p(p+m) subtractions and p non-linear transforms
fj(yi). For instance, if the true pdf of the sources is unknown,
2

we can select f,(yi)=ayi+yjlyil for sub-Gaussian source

signals with negative kurtosis ([19], p.2034), which implies
that the p non-linear operations are in fact 3p multiplications
and p additions. However, other more complex functions can
be employed, e.g. f i ( y i ) = a y i+ t a n h h i ) for super-Gaussian
sources and consequently additional computations will be
needed.
an on-line learning algorithm [ZI], we must use the
instantaneous empirical estimate of (IO), which only uses one
training sample,

Thus, we can apply the stochastic gradient descent method

to compute B,

where ~ [ nis] the step size function of the learning algorithm.

It is worth noting that the use of the stochastic approach
avoids the need to store all of set DTin the memory and only
the. sample x[n] is necessary. However, in order to ensure a
good convergence of the algorithm, it is desirable to store as
much training samples as possible and perform the on-line
approach using a sample procedure (e.g. a cyclic sampling)
over Dr. As it is shown in [19], (13) gives

IV. THE BBS-BASED SMART ISFET ARRAY

In the SEWING project, we are considering an array of
ISFET sensors, as the front-end of the data acquisition
system, which aims to detect several ion concentrations on
the water. As we will show below, the output of this array
can be considered as a mixture of several ion concentrations
and an additive noise caused by the interference in the
sensing process of the multiple ions located in the water
sample. Given this mixture corrupted by noise, the central
problem is to recover the original signals, i.e. the ion
concentrations using a BSS algorithm.
A . The ISFET Array as a Linear Mixture of Ion
Concentrations

According to (3), the outputs of an array of ISFETs can be

expressed as

where m denotes the number of sensors in the ISFETs array.

2800

Since the sum of interference ions a;vzi

can be considered

as noise, (18) can he reduced to a linear BSS model with

noise given by (6). Consequently, we have a problem of
source separation that is suitable to be solved by BSS
techniques. Note that if we only have one class of ISFETs,
which responds to one kind of ion, in the array, the BSS
problem is reduced to one source signal (1-dimensional
case).
B. Simulations

The goal of this experiment was to get some idea about the
possible quality of the separation taking into account the
presence of different ions in the sample solution. The
experiment consists in simulating the CaZC ISFET (or
ChemFET) sensor array introducing into the algorithm four
different signals (Fig. 3). The first one re resents the Ca2'
concentration (based on the CHEMFET Ca characteristics),
the second one represents'the NH4' concentration (based on
the CHEMFET Ca2' characteristics), and two additional
signals (sin and saw-tooth) that represent disturbing ions.
Four sensors compose the array and the goal is to separate
and to recover the four different souce signals. The
CHEMFETs curves were obtained by taking samples from
the cumes presented in [I41 between the intervals of values
that correspond to the linear region. Data blocks of length
from 1 to 200 were generated by means of a linear spacing
relation and the four signals were adjusted to have a zero
mean and unit variance. Then, the generated signals were
mixed using a random mixing matrix. We made a set of
preliminary experiments with the FastICA algorithm [22],
which is related to the BSS learning algorithm described in
Section III.C, in order to restore the original signals. Results
are shown on Fig. 4, which demonstrate that restoration is
possible.

C. Hardware Considerations
As it's shown through this paper we must use hardware able
to implement adaptive algorithms and learning competences,
to read analog input signals, at the cheapest price possible,
and with the minimum wastage of energy, since it must be
portable and expendable, if possible. This leads us to, at least
two approaches.

p'
0.3

Fig. 4. The recovered signals using FastlCA.

Starting from the processing perspective, in the last

paragraph, one tends to settle on digital signal processors
(DSPs) as a common solution for adaptive algorithms. These
processors were initially conceived to satisfy the numerical
demands of signal treatment, based on Harvard architecture
which allows efficient computations, and have been evolving
to offer additional inpudoutput capabilities as a response to
market demands. Nowadays several devices are available,
announced as lowpower, at very attractive prices.
On the other hand, if we choose power as a primaly
characteristic, we'll surf above the micro-controller units
(MCUs) market, finding devices really ecologic at a cost of
several cents of Euro. They were designed initially to
integrate versatile inpuUoutput peripherals and lately they
have been incorporating more complex Central Processing
Units, so in this way they are an alternative to DSPs.
An initial exploration of the market leads us to the c5000 as
the most preferred DSP and to the MSP430 as the most
appropriate MCU, both families of devices come from Texas
Instruments (TI).
'The Texas Instruments MSP430 series [23] is an ultralowpower microcontroller family consisting of several devices
designed to be hattely operated for use in extended-time
applications, it consumes less than 400 pA in active mode
operating at 1 MHz in a typical 3-V system.
On the other hand, the C5000 DSP architecture [24], is a
precious alternative due to its high performance and low
power achieved through increased parallelism and total focus
on reduction in power dissipation. The CPU supports an
internal bus structure that is composed of one program bus,
three data read buses, two data write buses, and additional
buses dedicated to peripheral and DMA activity. These buses
provide the ability to perfom up to three data reads and two
data writes in a single cycle.
V. CONCLUSIONS

Fig.3. The four source signals used in the experiment.

A new on-line water pollution monitoring system has been

introduced. As a front-end, the system includes a smart array
of ISFETs in order to detect different ion concentrations in
real-time. Since, the drain current of an array of ISFETS can
he reduced to a linear model in which concentrations of ions
appear mixed in the output's array, BSS methods could he
employed to recover the original concentrations. The BSS

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algorithm introduced in Section IILC can learn in real-time

from measures how to detect the ion concentrations available
in the mixed signal observed in the arrays output.
Preliminary experimental results have shown how this kind
of learning algorithms can work in the context of an ISFET
array. Due to the computational simplicity of the proposed
BSS algorithm, the design of a low-power, cheap and small
system is suitable using standard processing systems like
DSP or MCU.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is supported by the IST Programme, under
contract No. 2000-28084 (SEWING) of the EU.
Information concerning the project can be found in
htm://www.sewine.mixdes.org

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