CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

331

CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN
J McLean, GrainCorp, Narrabri, NSW, Australia
C Wrigley, Food Science Australia and Wheat CRC,
North Ryde, NSW, Australia
2004, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Introduction
Ideally, grain should be harvested in sound and clean
condition, without any form of defect or contamination. Realistically, however, there is always the likelihood that the grain will be harvested together with
nongrain material and with weed or crop seeds, all of
which detract from the value of the harvested crop.
The loss in value relates partly to the fact that the
resulting consignment of grain does not contain
100% of the type of grain ordered, but worse than
that, it is likely that the nongrain materials will cause
problems with the processing of the grain, or that they
may even render the grain unfit for the designated
purpose or for any use.

Historic Perspective
Primitive man, as the hunter-gatherer, had to accept
whatever material grew with the seeds that were collected laboriously from wherever they could be found.
As a result, the presence of contaminants must have
been considerable. Presumably, this unsatisfactory
situation was one of various stimuli for early man
to progress to cultivation and seed sowing, thereby
to improve the purity and quality of grain foods. Nevertheless, throughout the Middle Ages, the presence
of contaminating material was generally extensive,
because of poor agricultural practice and also due
to the lack of purity of the seed for sowing.
Significant improvements in grain quality have been
forced as a result of the progressive change from subsistence agriculture (the farmers family consuming
what they produce) to trading in grain (provision
of the grain produced for sale, in competition with
others). The past century has seen the extension of
trading from the local situation to major international
marketing and transport on a large scale (see Cereals:
Overview). As a result, standard specifications have
been established for the various grades of grain, based
on quality, offered for trade within a country and
internationally. Examples of these specifications are
provided in Tables 1 3.

An important part of these specifications is the levels of contaminating materials, the higher-value
grades being those with the least foreign material.
Examples of these specifications can be examined
on the websites of the export corporations of major
grain-trading countries. The first two examples in
Table 1 contrast a premium Australian wheat grade
(prime hard) with a lower grade (general purpose).
The former has tighter specifications for all aspects
of physical quality, compared to the lower-value
grade, including the requirement for less material in
the category of contaminants.

Types of Contaminants
Nongrain material goes under various names, depending on local terminology and on the species of grain
involved. Common terms include extraneous matter, unmillable material, dockage, besatz,
and screenings. This last term alludes to the general
practice of screening the grain through sieves of suitable size to separate material that is larger or smaller
than the normal size range of the grain involved.
The act of sieving to determine screenings is illustrated in Figure 1. The amount of these screenings
is a significant measure of grain quality, as it indicates
the proportion of the grain consignment that is not the
grain purchased. In addition, the nature of the nongrain material is very important, depending on which
of the following categories are involved.
Plant Material from the Grain Crop

Most obviously, nongrain contaminants are derived

from the plants that produced the harvested grain.
This includes parts of the husks, leaves, and stalks.
For the cereal grains, it is not uncommon for the tips
of the heads to be included with the harvested grain.
This occurs for varieties that may not fragment as
readily as others during harvesting. This is due to
the dilemma facing the breeder in selecting the best
genotypes for the harvest operation. On the one
hand, it is desirable to have a variety that shatters
readily, so that the grain is released from the head on
harvesting. However, this characteristic is likely to
carry the significant disadvantage that some of the
grain will be prematurely shed onto the ground before
or during harvest, thus reducing the yield of available
grain.

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CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

Table 1 Some of the specifications for physical aspects of grain quality for contrasting grades of wheat involved in international trade
Quality attribute

Australian prime hard

Australian general
purpose

Canadian No 1.
CWRS

Canadian CW
feed

Test weight, kg hl 1
Varietal mix
Falling number
Sprouted grains
Unmillable material:
above 2 mm screen
below 2 mm screen
Small foreign seeds

74
Specified
350
Nil

68
Specified
200
Nil

75
Specified

65
Specified

0.5

No limit

0.6% max.
Active scale
0.6% max.

1.2% max.
Active scale
1.2% max.

0.05%

0.05%

From 1 to 50, acc.

to species
Nil
Nil
1
3
Nil
0 10
1
20
10
1
Nil
2
1

From 2 to 150,
acc. to species
Nil
Nil
1
3
Nil
0 10
3
50
15
2
Nil
5
10

Not stated

Not stated

0.01%

0.10%

1.0

No limit

7.0%

No limit

10.0%
7.0%
0.01%
0.03%

No limit
No limit
0.10%
0.10%

0.2%
0.01%
65.0%
0.75%
0.25%
Nil
4.0%
1.0%
Nil
1.5%
0.30%

1.0%
0.03%
No limit
No limit
5.0%
2.0%
No limit
No limit
2.0%
No limit
0.50%

Contaminants in 1/2 l measure

Seeds, see Table 4
Tainting material
Chemicals, dyes, etc.
Ergot pieces
Loose smut pieces
Grain insects
Field insects
Earth pieces
Sand grains
Earcockle
Head scab
Heat damaged or moldy
White-grain disorder
Dry green, sappy or
frosted/distorted grains
Smudge, black point
Shrunken, broken grains
Sclerotinia
Objectionable matter
(stone, sticks, glass, concrete)
Foreign material
Excreta
Vitreous kernels
Grass green
Fusarium damage
Fireburnt
Degermed
Dark, immature
Artificial stain, no residue
Pink grain
Broken grain, seive #5, buckwheat

1
2

1
5

Sources: (1) AWB Ltd. Wheat Receival Standards (2002 03); (2) http://www.grainscanada.gc.ca
Guide, dated 1 August, 2002.

In addition, if the settings of the grain-harvesting

equipment are not correct, there will be excessive
inclusion of plant parts with the grain or damage
to the grain. The resulting presence of shattered or
half grains is undesirable, because they are more susceptible to insect attack and to further damage during
grain handling and transport. The risks of such undesirable consequences during harvest and transport
are greater in very dry, hot conditions.
Hot, dry conditions are also conducive to the production of grain dust
fine particles, comminuted
from the plant material and even from the grain itself.
Ongoing handling and transport of dry grain is likely

Canadian Grains Commission Official Grain Grading

to produce more grain dust, as grains rub against each

other when it is turned or moved from storage facilities to transport containers (trucks or rail cars).
Figure 2 shows that grain dust is largely composed
of fragments broken from the surfaces of grains. In
the wheat dust (Figure 2a), there are short hairs from
the brush end of the grain, and also fragments of the
bran layers, as well as starch from the endosperm of
grains that have been completely broken. The dust
from barley (Figure 2b) shows long spear-like
structures (broken pieces of rachilla hairs) as well
as fragments of awns, lemmas, and paleas (see
Grain and Plants, Morphology). It is a controversial

CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

333

Table 2 Specifications for physical aspects of grain quality for grades of barley involved in international trade
Quality attribute

Australian
malt 2 six-row
malting barley

Australian
malt 3 six-row
malting barley

Australian
food 1 six-row
malting barley

US no. 1
six-row blue
malting barley

US no. 4
six-row blue
malting barley

Test weight
Varietal mix
Falling number
Sprouted grains
Unmillable material

65 kg hl 1
Specified
300
Nil
38.0 below
2.5 mm screen
0.6%

65 kg hl 1
Specified
300
Nil
42.0 below
2.5 mm screen
0.6%

68 kg hl 1
Specified
300
Nil
30.0 below
2.5 mm screen
0.6%

47.0 lb bu 1
Specified
Not stated
3.0%
4.0%

43.0 lb bu 1
Specified
Not stated
13.0%
10.0%

0.5%

3.0%

From Nil to 85,

acc. to species
Nil
Nil
0.5 cm
Nil
Nil live, 10 dead
3
3
50
Nil

From Nil to 85,

acc. to species
Nil
Nil
0.5 cm
Nil
Nil live, 10 dead
3
3
50
Nil

From Nil to 85,

acc. to species
Nil
Nil
0.5 cm
Nil
Nil live, 10 dead
3
3
50
Nil

2.0%

5.0%

Nil
Not stated
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
0.5%
0.5%
Not stated

Nil
Not stated
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
3.0%
3.0%
Not stated

5
10
Nil
Nil

5
10
Nil
Nil

5
10
Nil
Nil

0.4%
Not stated
Nil

0.4%
Not stated
Nil

0.1%

0.1%

Small foreign seeds

Contaminants in 1/2 l measure
Seeds, specified species
Tainting material
Chemicals, dyes, etc.
Ergot pieces
Loose smut pieces
Grain insects
Field insects
Earth pieces
Sand grains
Objectionable matter
(stone, sticks, glass, concrete)
Frosted
Dark tipped (per 100 g)
Odors, moldy
Chemical residues (chemicals
not approved for use on grain)
Heat damage

Sources: (1) Australian GrainCorp Receival Standards 2002/2003; (2) USDA (1995) USDA Grain Inspection Handbook.

Table 3 Specifications for physical aspects of grain quality for grades of oilseeds involved in international trade
Quality attribute

Australian
canola
CSO-1

Test weight
Sprouted grains
Unmillable material

6.2 kg hl
5%

Contaminants in 1/2 l measure

Seeds, specified species From nil
to 200,
acc. to
species
Ergot pieces
Oil content
42%
Green seeds
5%
Chlorophyll
12 mg per kg
Impurities
3%
Broken seed
7%
Damaged seed
3%
Heat damaged
Sclerotinia
Objectionable matter
(stone, sticks,
glass, concrete)
Splits
Grains of other colors
De-hulled seed

Australian Australian US no. 1

sunflower soybean grade
CSO-4
CSO-9
canola

US no. 3
grade
canola

Not stated Not stated

5%
5%

US no. 1 US no. 4 US no. 1 US no. 2

grade
grade
grade
grade
soybeans soybeans sunflowers sunflowers
56 lb bu

5.0%

5.0%

49 lb bu

1.0%

5.0%

2.0%
0.2%

8.0%
3.0%

10.0%
1.0%

40.0%
10.0%

25 lb bu

25 lb bu

From nil
From nil
Not stated Not stated
to 200,
to 200,
acc. to
acc. to
species
species
0.05%
0.05%
40%
Nil
Nil
2.0%
20.0%
4%
7%
3%

4%
20%
3%
0.1%
0.05%
0.05%

2.0%
0.15%
0.05%

5.0%
0.5%

10.0%
1.0%

5.0%

5.0%

Sources: (1) AOF Incorporated Technical and Quality Standards, December, 2001; (2) USDA (1995) USDA Grain Inspection Handbook.

334

CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

matter in international trade as to whether the accumulated dust should be removed before shipping
grain, or whether it is a legitimate part of a grain
cargo. In any case, the dust generated during grain
handling is a significant health problem, causing
irritation to the bronchial tract as well as to the

skin. Dust also creates safety concerns due to its

explosive potential; therefore dust reduction is
a high priority at grain storage centers.

Defective Grains

Defective grains may be regarded as undesirable contaminants, even though of the same grain species.
Such defects include:

Figure 1 Sieving of a grain sample to remove screenings

(nongrain material).

(a)

 Immature cereal grains

these may have come
from side tillers that formed at a late stage compared to the main tillers of the plant. Alternatively,
it may indicate that varieties of different maturity
have been sown as a mixture. These grains are likely
to be green in color and sappy in texture.
 Sprouted grains (Figure 3) these are grains that
have become wet, and have thus started the germination process (see Cereals: Grain Defects).
 Sun-cracked rice grains these are grains that will
probably fall to pieces during rice milling (the removal of the outer bran layers), thereby reducing
the yield of whole rice grains.

(b)

100 m

(c)

100 m

(d)

400 m

10 m

Figure 2 Scanning electron micrographs of grain dust from (a) wheat and (b) barley. The photo of half a barley grain (c) shows where
the rachilla hairs have been broken from the base of the rachilla. The rachilla hairs are also shown at greater magnification (d). In each
photo, the black bar at the bottom, near the right side is: (a) 100 m, (b) 100 m, (c) 400 m, and (d) 10 m.

CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

 Vitreous content, pinched grains, black point,

frosted/distorted are very important but controversial defects. Ear cockle (seed-gall nematode), a disease caused by Anguina tritici, must be detected as
it is an object of exclusion due to quarantine in
certain countries, especially in Iran.
Infected Grains

Various forms of infection with microorganisms

cause grains to become dangerous contaminants
(see Cereals: Grain Diseases). For example, grain
that is harvested with a high moisture content
(416% moisture) may be infected with molds, commonly called field fungi, such as Fusarium and Alternaria causing, in turn, the production of mycotoxins.
Because these toxins are active at very low
concentrations, e.g., a few ppb, their detection is difficult. They are not necessarily present in visually
spoiled grain (e.g., moldy), so there is the need for
ready means of testing. Immuno-assay kits are a means
of doing so quickly and in field situations. If not
detected, mycotoxin-affected grain may cause severe
illness or death to humans or animals. Grain affected
by field fungi may be dark brown, gray, or various
shades of black discoloration or pink, especially when
affected by Fusarium spp.
Ergot infection is another serious contaminant,
mainly present in rye, rye grass, canola, and to

Figure 3 Sprouted heads of wheat. The heads have become

wet when harvest ripe. The one at left is a sprout-susceptible
variety and the grains have started to sprout inside the head.

335

a lesser extent, wheat. In this case, the ergot fungus

(Claviceps purpurea) infects the flowers of the cereal
grain, producing an ergot body in place of the grain
(Figure 4). The ergot bodies often thresh intact, easily
recognizable in grain samples as black bodies (sclerotia) larger and longer than the normal grain length.
The extent of ergot contamination is generally
specified as a percentage by weight, but the length
of ergot bodies placed end-to-end is a simple measure
used in practical situations. Harvested grain of any
species may contain ergots from other species, especially from rye grass (Lolium perenne). Any of these
sources of ergot produce toxic alkaloids, which may
cause injury in cattle when present at a level as low as
0.05%. On the other hand, some poultry species appear to be much more tolerant to ergot poisoning (see
Cereals: Grain Diseases).
Another serious infection of cereal grains is bunt,
also known as ball smut or stinking smut, caused by
Tilletia caries or T. foetida. This defect also involves
the replacement of the endosperm of the grain by bunt
spores, which have a pungent unpleasant odor. As
a result of this form of contamination, sound grain
may be tainted by admixture with bunt-affected grain
(Figure 5). If these grains are broken, black bunt
spores spread through the grain as a further source
of contamination. In the case of wheat, the bunt spores
catch in the brush hairs of sound grains (Figure 6).
In grain storage, excessive moisture can lead to
moisture migration and bin burn of the grain (causing heat damage and moldy appearance) resulting

Figure 4 Ergot-infected heads, in which ergot bodies have replaced grains in the head. (Reproduced with permission from
Ferns GK, Fitzsimmons RW, Martin RH, and Wrigley CW (1978)
Australian Wheat Varieties: Supplement No 1. Melbourne,
Australia: CSIRO.)

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CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

Figure 5 Bunt of wheat. (Reproduced with permission from

Ferns GK, Fitzsimmons RW, Martin RH, and Wrigley CW
(1978) Australian Wheat Varieties: Supplement No 1. Melbourne,
Australia: CSIRO.)

are likely to be other agricultural species (e.g., barley

or rye in a wheat crop) that has been present in the
seed sown, or that have been carried over from
a previous crop at this growth site. Such contaminants
may not be critical unless they interfere with the subsequent processing of the grain, such as milling into
flour. A further consideration is how readily they can
be removed, if their removal is essential, because this
exercise will add to processing costs. Oilseeds, for
example, pose the threat of disrupting wheat-milling
equipment with the build-up of oil residues, although
contaminants such as canola are relatively easy to
separate from wheat before milling.
For a wheat consignment, there may be no need to
remove minor contamination with other cereal grains,
such as barley and oats (up to 5%). Canadian research has shown that flour yield decreased by 0.4%
for each addition of 1% of barley added to a wheat
sample. Milling stocks fed well during flour milling,
despite the barley contamination. Likewise, the effects of contamination of wheat with cultivated
oats (or even wild oats) were similar to that of barley,
except that at 5% addition, oats caused difficulty with
the milling process.
Weed Seeds

Figure 6 Bunt spores caught in the brush hairs of sound grains.

(Reproduced with permission from Ferns GK, Fitzsimmons RW,
Martin RH, and Wrigley CW (1978) Australian Wheat Varieties:
Supplement No 1. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO.)

from the development of field fungi, which may produce dangerous toxins and offensive odors.
Other Crop Seeds

Commonly found contaminants are the seeds of other

crop plants. These are likely to be species whose
plants are of similar size and maturity to the target
seed. It is thus difficult to avoid harvesting them
together with the intended crop. Such foreign seeds

Weed seeds present problems of greater severity than

crop seeds (Table 4). Some weed seeds are the same
size as grain kernels, which make it virtually impossible for them to be sieved out of a parcel of grain (e.g.,
Phalaris). For a start, agricultural authorities must
restrict the seeds of noxious weeds, due to the threat
that they pose to cropping and grazing. However, in
small amounts, their presence may not be serious to
agriculture because they are likely to be destroyed by
processing, such as flour milling. If wheat contains
seeds with a dark seedcoat, they are likely to cause
dark specks in flour, which can decrease the visual
appeal of the end product for the market. On the
other hand, some weed seeds cause serious problems
because some are toxic to humans and animals. In this
category are species such as castor oil seed (Ricinus
communis), Mexican poppy (Argemone species), and
thornapple (Datura species). Ricin, the toxic principle
in the castor oil seed, is reported to be one of the most
toxic plant substances known.
Tainting seeds, whose scent may taint a whole consignment of grain, must be avoided, and they are
generally specified as nil tolerance, i.e., none of
this type is allowed. In Australia, for example,
seeds called Hexham scent (Melilotus indicus) impart their scent to the grain with which they may be
mixed, with the risk of a large consignment of grain
being tainted by the presence of a relatively small

CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

337

Table 4 Groupings of contaminating seeds (a few examples only) used by the Australian wheat industry to indicate their severity
as contaminants
Seed type

2
3

4
5
6

Botanical name

Ricinus communis
Coriandrum sativum
Allium vineale
Datura spp.
Gossypium spp.
Zea mays
Lupinus spp.
Helianthus annuus
Melilotus indicus
Argemone spp.
Sorghum halepense
Lolium temulentum
Secale cereale
Sorghum bicolor
Avena sativa

Local common name

Castor oil plant

Coriander
Crow garlic
Thornapple
Cotton seed
Maize
Lupin
Sunflower
Hexham scent
Mexican poppy
Johnson grass
Drake, darnel
Cereal rye
Sorghum
Oats

Maximum number allowable in 1/2 l

Most grades

GP1a

Feed

Nil

Nil

Nil

50

100

50

50

20

80

200

50

200

500

a
General Purpose 1.
Source: AWB Ltd., Melbourne, Australia.

contribution of grain with this contamination; similar

problems may be produced by the presence of eucalyptus leaves. Animals will probably reject feed grain
if it is tainted. Alternatively, if they do consume it,
the taint may be passed through to the animal
by-products, such as milk.
There is naturally great variation in the range of
weed-seed species that are relevant to specific regions
and grain species. Regional and national booklets are
published for many grain-growing regions, illustrating a relevant range of weed and crops seeds. Examples of weed seeds that must be identified and
restricted are shown in Figure 7.
Insects

Insects that attack grains are a serious case of

contamination (Figure 8). Accordingly, there is
a nil tolerance for live insects in many regions
(Tables 1 3). This specification may be relaxed to
a small extent in the cases of dead insects and for
species of insects that do not attack grains, (on
a case-by-case basis only) such as field insects. Infestation with grain-attacking insects (previously or currently present) may be indicated by the presence of
grains that have been partly eaten by insects (Figure 9).
There are two main types of grain insects. Primary
insects are more destructive as they can attack sound
grain, while secondary insects can only attack grain
that has been damaged. Insects can deplete the energy
value of the grain, greatly reducing its value even for
stock feed. Insect infestations are often associated
with bad odors. Due to the serious threat that some

insects can impose, there is a strict nil tolerance on

specific species. For example, the Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium, is the worlds most serious insect
pest. This insect does not occur in some countries
(e.g., Australia). However, the warehouse beetle,
T. variable, is often mistaken for the Khapra beetle
and this can jeopardize not only the acceptance of
a parcel of grain but the whole countrys reputation.
Animals and Animal Products

Further contaminants include snails, rodents, urine,

feces, rodent hairs, birds, bird feathers, and snakes.
Snails rarely live more than 2 weeks in storage, so that
they are unlikely to reproduce during storage. Most
animals contaminate grain through the grain-storage
system (with the exception of snails) due to their reproduction and spread throughout the grain store.
Rodents and birds are attracted to the grain as a
food source and they will often nest there. As a result,
there can be the added contamination from the accumulation of their urine, feces, rodent hairs, feathers,
eggs, and decaying carcasses. For example, a single rat
can produce 12 000 droppings, 2.9 l of urine, and 0.9
million shed-hairs in 6 months. Rodents thus become
an important issue, especially when there is a plague.
Animals and birds are also potential vectors for diseases. Snakes and some bird species will be present
around storage sites, preying on rodents and other
birds. All of these animals can become included in
a consignment of grain accidentally if present on
one of the transport belts or elsewhere on the
grain-transport path when it is turned on.

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CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

Silybum marianum
variegated thistle

Carthamus lanatus
saffron thistle

Emex spp.
double gee
threecornered Jack
spiny Emex
cats heads

Galium tricornutum
(Galium tricorne)
threehorn bedstraw

Figure 7 Weed seeds that are likely to cause problems if identified in grain consignments. (Reproduced with permission from Ferns
GK, Fitzsimmons RW, Martin RH, and Wrigley CW (1978) Australian Wheat Varieties: Supplement No 1. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO.)

Agricultural Chemicals

Pickling compounds (fungicides) applied to seed grain

render the grain unfit for consumption (human or
animal). Pickling colors range from bright pink or
green through to a slight pink or green coloration.
There is a strict nil tolerance for pickled grain as
a small amount can render a whole stack unusable.
Parcels are regularly checked for pesticide residue levels (obtained through the application of herbicides
and/or insecticides). There are tolerances by national
regulatory bodies, known as maximum residue limits
(MRL). Grain with levels above these limits cannot be
used or sold legally.
Grain that is fed to cattle and chickens can transfer
the chemicals, thus posing a threat to their markets,
with the likelihood that the resulting meat will be
prohibited from human consumption. Examples
include endosulfan in cottonseed hulls and wheat

resulting from spray drift. It is necessary to observe

and follow chemical instructions for correct application rates and withholding periods to ensure that
MRL levels are not exceeded and to reduce the chance
of insect resistance building up.
Heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, and lead) are
contaminants that must be tested for routinely as
a precautionary measure, especially in industrialized
countries.
Inanimate Materials

Sticks, stones, and other inanimate materials cause

problems in both analysis and processing, as they
can damage grinders and technical equipment. The
severity of the material depends on their size. If the
material is a similar size to the grain, it cannot be
sieved out easily and this can become a serious
issue. Such materials can be picked up during the

CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

Sitophilus granarius
Granary weevil

Sitophilus oryzae
Rice weevil

Rhyzopertha dominica
Lesser grain borer

Tribolium castaneum
Rust-red flour beetle

Cryptolestes spp.
Flat grain beetle

Oryzaephilus surinamensis
Saw-toothed grain beetle

339

Figure 8 Insect species that attack grains. (Reproduced with permission from Ferns GK, Fitzsimmons RW, Martin RH, and Wrigley
CW (1978) Australian Wheat Varieties: Supplement No 1. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO.)

harvesting process or introduced through the storage

and handling processes if equipment is not carefully
calibrated and cleaned prior to use.
Tainting Contaminants

In addition to the contamination of grain with tainting materials as a result of harvest, tainting of a grain
consignment can occur during storage and transport if
a taint or odor is acquired from materials with the
grain. One such source can be the packaging material
used, in the case of grain that is stored and transported
in bags, for example, hessian bags.
GM Grain

Figure 9 Wheat grains that have been partly eaten by insects,

indicating previous (or current) infestation. (Reproduced with permission from Ferns GK, Fitzsimmons RW, Martin RH, and Wrigley
CW (1978) Australian Wheat Varieties: Supplement No 1.
Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO.)

With the introduction of genetically modified (GM)

grain (initially involving maize, canola, and cotton),
and in response to various international market demands, the presence of GM grain within conventional
grain delivered can lead to rejection of that grain.
Methods are being put into place that will permit

340

CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

Figure 10 Sampling grain from a truck using a spear sampler.

the detection of such contamination thereby guaranteeing the required grain quality required by specific
markets.

Analysis of Contaminating Materials

Given the wide range of contaminants that may be
harvested with grain, plus the variations in allowable
levels, it is important that there should be rapid means
of identifying them. This requirement applies especially to identifying the species of contaminating
seeds, since the range of species varies considerably
from one region to another. Accordingly, manuals
illustrating the range of contaminants are provided
for staff training, to inform growers and for use
when grain is delivered.

(ICC) (see Appendix: Test Methods for Grain and

Grain-Based Products).
A critical stage of grain sampling is taking a representative set of samples from a truck when grain is
first delivered from harvest to the elevator (Figure 10).
In this case, sampling is done so that a whole trucks
contents can be observed from above. Routinely, the
grain in the truck is sampled by pushing a sampling
spear into the grain at several points. This form of
sampler is designed to take grain from several vertically separated points throughout the depth of grain.
Alternatively, vacuum probes are used to spear the
truck in a straight vertical line right down through
to the bottom of the load. If the grain is delivered
by road, train, or other vehicle with multiple
compartments, each bin is sampled three times.
Sieving

Sampling

However, an essential prerequisite of valid analysis is

the initial step of taking a representative subsample of
the load being analyzed. Sampling procedures are generally specified together with the manuals illustrating
the contaminants. Procedures are also published by
grain-trading authorities. The website of the US Department of Agriculture (www.usda.gov/gipsa/pubs/
farm-proc/practical_proc.htm) specifies standard
sampling procedures for various grain-production
situations. Standard procedures for sampling are provided in the Methods of the American Association
of Cereal Chemists (AACC) and the International
Association for Cereal Science and Technology

An example of the use of mechanical sieving is

provided by the routine practice of GrainCorp in
eastern Australia using the Agtator (Figure 11).
Forty shakes are automatically performed to and
fro, as specified by Australian receival standards.
The use of a mechanical sieve such as this ensures
repeatable movement, speed, and duration. The
following screen sizes are appropriate: wheat,
2.0 mm slotted; for barley, 2.5 mm and 2.2 mm
slotted; for sorghum, 2.0 mm slotted (wheat screen);
for sunflowers, 2 mm round; for chickpeas, top
3.97 mm slotted over bottom 2 mm slotted; and for
canola, top 2.58 mm round over bottom 1.00 mm
round.

CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

Figure 11 Agtator equipment for sieving grain.

Visual Examination and On-the-Spot

Instrumental Analysis

Traditional methods of analyzing contaminants involve visual inspection, and this approach is still
the best with respect to providing an immediate outcome and requiring no expensive equipment. However, this approach is subjective and highly dependent
on the experience of the inspector. This expertise is
acquired and maintained by ongoing training, the use
of illustrated manuals and actual samples, requiring
ongoing monitoring to ensure the standards are applied consistently. By this approach, grain samples are
first evaluated visually at the site of grain receival, and
then a representative portion may be sent back to
a regional laboratory for a second cross-reference assessment. In addition, a further portion may be presented to buyers of the grain for their additional
evaluation. The identification of the species of insects
is also an important part of this process, because the
various insect species differ in the severity and consequences of infestation.
The immediate detection of serious contaminants is
critical at the time of delivery, so that defective grain
loads are not combined with sound grain, as this
might downgrade the grain to which it is added. Subsequent analysis in the laboratory provides results too
late to prevent damage of a large grain consignment
by, for example, the incorporation of a relatively
small load of grain that is tainted or insect infested.
On-the-spot analysis is thus critical.
It has become usual for visual inspection to be
complemented by on-the-spot testing to provide objective results for specific critical aspects of contamination. Image analysis has great potential for
replacing the subjectivity of human involvement by
analysis of the image of grains and contaminants
provided by a television camera. However, the

341

introduction of image analysis is a slow process due

to the expense and technical input required to develop
methods and monitoring procedures.
NIR analysis has been used to detect the presence of
insect infestation, probably due to the ability of this
spectroscopic method to detect the distinctive presence of insect protein and/or chitin. The use of NIR
methodology has the potential advantage that NIR
equipment is already in routine use to determine
moisture, protein content, and oil content, but the
NIR units in routine use may not be adequate for
more complex analyses. Ultraviolet light inspection
provides an immediate means of checking for rodent
urine, which fluoresces with a blue-green color (see
Appendix: Test Methods for Grain and Grain-Based
Products; AACC Method 28 85). Rapid immunoassay kits are now available to detect and quantify
a range of chemical contaminants, aflatoxins, and
damage from sprouting.
Analysis in the Laboratory

Contaminant identification may continue by visual examination at a regional or central laboratory, where
a higher level of expertise may be expected of the
inspectors. There is also a role for image analysis
and sophisticated NIR equipment at a central site,
where the volume of samples would warrant the expense and need for operator expertise. A wide range of
laboratory methods is available for the detection of
specific contaminants. For example, the AACC Methods provide many standard procedures in section
28 AACC Method Group (see Appendix: Test
Methods for Grain and Grain-Based Products).
Laboratory methods include gas or liquid chromatography to analyze for agricultural chemicals
and ELISA immuno-assays for many contaminants,
especially aflatoxins.

Avoidance of Contaminants
Purity of Seed Sown

An obvious source of contaminants is the seed originally sown. If it contains foreign seeds, these are
likely to multiply and downgrade the harvested
grain. Additional risks include the presence of diseased seed, which will lead to the spread of diseases
during growth. It is thus important to obtain seed of
guaranteed purity at the time of purchase.
Farm Management

Use of best farm-management practices includes

cleaning and calibrating of harvester and sowing
equipment before use, proper preparation of fields
before sowing, ensuring that the crop is mature before

342

CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN

harvesting, and storage of the grain so that it does not

become contaminated. During growth of the crop,
weeds must be controlled. In addition, it is valuable
to use crop rotations as bio-fumigants to avoid the
buildup of microbial spores in soils.
Quality Assurance Methods

All these methods of contaminant avoidance should

be combined for implementation via a system of quality assurance, to provide systematic recognition of
potential hazards, intentional approaches to avoid
the hazards, and records to indicate how and when
the preventive measures were taken. This approach
extends beyond the farm, to involve, for example, the
use of traceable and repeatable methods of appropriate farm practices, working only with companies that
are themselves quality-assurance certified.

International Regulations on
Contaminants
International regulations on many food matters are
administered by parts of the Codex Alimentarius. The
Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants (CCFAC) establishes or endorses maximum or
guideline levels of contaminants in food and animal
feed, as well as dealing with food additives and naturally occurring toxicants. CCFAC is developing
risk-analysis approaches to be applied to all foods.
The resulting document is the General Standard for
Contaminants and Toxins in Foods. Further details of
the latest developments are available at the USDA
website: www.fsis.usda.gov/oa/codex/fac.htm.

Future Prospects
Traditionally, the presence of contaminants of any
type in a grain consignment has prompted
a reduction in its market value, because any variation
in appearance can provide grounds for bargaining and
for price reduction. More recently, there has been
a growing awareness that some defects and contaminants may have relatively small financial consequences. In some instances, the economic effects
can readily be assessed. For example, the presence
of 2% screenings (by weight) at a 5% reduction in
price would be a worthwhile bargain, if the cost of
cleaning is more than covered in the price difference.
Similar considerations apply to other innocuous contaminants, if their dimensions make them easily removable. Another approach to overcoming such
problems may involve the intelligent blending of diverse grain samples. Relatively simple research activities can establish the extent of economic penalties for

the presence of one grain type as a contaminant in

another, e.g., oilseed in cereal or the reverse.
There is a continuing need for more effective methods of analysis to characterize and quantify the presence of contaminants in grain deliveries at the point of
receival and during grain handling. New screening
methods should preferably be deployable on-thespot and be nondestructive of the grain. Most of
all, they need to be cost-effective, the cost of deployment warranting the benefits, and the risks thereby
avoided. Detection of contaminants by image analysis
is likely to increase in its application. We can expect
that large grain sorters will be placed into grainstorage sites and cleaning facilities.
Increases in quality demands will mean the need to
increase the efficiency of detection and measurement
requirements at the receival point. In summary, these
new methods must be rapid (taking less than 5 min),
easy to operate with minimal operator skill required,
nondestructive and cost-effective, being able to
operate in a wide range of temperature variation,
under dusty conditions, occupying minimal bench
space . . . but the fulfillment of these requirements is
a tall order.
See also: Cereals: Grain Defects; Grain Diseases. Plants:
Diseases and Pests.

Further Reading
AOF Incorporated Technical and Quality Standards,
December, 2001.
American Association of Cereal Chemists (1983) Approved
Methods of the American Association of Cereal
Chemists, 8th edn. St. Paul, MN: American Association
of Cereal Chemists.
Australian GrainCorp Receival Standards 2002/2003.
AWB Ltd. (2001) Australian Graincrop Receival Standards
2002/03. Melbourne, Australia: AWB Ltd.
AWB Ltd. (2001) Wheat Receival Standards 2002/03
Season. Melbourne, Australia: AWB Ltd.
CCFRA (2002) Manual of Methods for Wheat and Flour
Testing. Guideline No. 3, (3rd edn.). Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, UK: CCFRA Technology.
Ferns GK, Fitzsimmons RW, Martin RH, and Wrigley CW
(1978) Australian Wheat Varieties: Supplement No 1.
Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO.
Fitzsimmons RW and Wrigley CW (1979) Australian
Barleys: Identification of Varieties, Grain Defects and
Foreign Seeds. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO.
National Institute of Agricultural Botany (2000) Botanical
Descriptions of Cereal Varieties. Cambridge, England:
National Institute of Agricultural Botany.
USDA Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyard Administration (1995) Grain Inspection Handbook: Book 1.
Washington, DC: USDA (http://www.usda.gov/gipsa).

COTTONSEED
Wrigley CW (ed.) Identification of Food-Grain Varieties.
St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemist.

Relevant Websites
http://www.grainscanada.gc.ca
Canadian Grains
Commission Official Grain Grading Guide, dated 1
August 2002.
http://www.aaccnet.org
American Association of
Cereal Chemists.
http://www.aocs.org
American Oil Chemists
Society; Standard Methods.
http://www.awb.com.au
AWB Ltd, Melbourne,
Australia.
http://www.campden.co.uk
Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association.

Corn

343

http://www.cgc.ca; www.grainscanada.gc.ca
Canadian Grains Commission, Winnipeg.
http://www.fsis.usda.gov
Codex Committee on
Food Additives and Contaminants.
http://www.pi.csiro.au
CSIRO Plant Industry,
Australia.
http://www.wheat.pw.usda.gov Graingenes.
http://www.icc.or.at International Association for
Cereal Science and Technology.
http://www.seedtest.org International Seed Testing
Association.
http://www.crop.cri.nz
New Zealand Institute of
Crop and Food Research.
http://www.sgrl.csiro.au
Stored Grain Research
Laboratory, Canberra, Australia.
http://www.usda.gov United States Department of
Agriculture.

see Maize: Genetics; Breeding; Quality Protein Maize; Dry Milling; Wet Milling; Foods from Maize.

COTTONSEED
E Hernandez, Texas A&M University, College Station,
TX, USA
2004, Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Introduction
Most varieties of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L., G.
aboreum L., G. barbadense L., or G. herbaceum L.)
are grown mainly in warm climates around the world.
Over 98.5 million tons (Mt) of cotton were produced
worldwide in 2001 02 and over 33.6 Mt of cottonseed. Cotton is grown for its fiber (over 80% of its
value) and the seed is used mostly for oil recovery and
feed. Whole cottonseed can be fed to dairy cattle, and
the meal resulting from oil extraction is fed primarily
to ruminants and, in limited amounts, to poultry and
swine.
Traditional varieties of cottonseed contain gossypol, a yellow-green polyphenolic compound considered toxic to man and monogastric animals (Figure 1),
reportedly affecting the heart, liver, and reproductive

organs. It has been used in China as a male contraceptive but the practice was abandoned because of
permanent side effects. Gossypol is dispersed in the
plant as deposited structures or glands, which can
be seen as black specks in the stems, leaves, and seed
(Figure 2). The glands in the seed are ovoid structures
containing 35 50% gossypol and are 0.025
0.178 mm in diameter. These gossypol glands are
difficult to break by mechanical means, but heat
generated in extraction of oil by pressing, binds gossypol to protein, turning it nontoxic. Switching to
solvent extraction with hexane, where no appreciable
heat is generated, increases the free gossypol content
in the meal over ten times.
Raw cottonseed kernels may contain 0.6 2.0%
free gossypol. The Food and Drug Administration
in the US (FDA) limits free gossypol in human food
products and ingredients at 450 ppm, and the Protein
Advisory Group of the United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health
Organization (WHO) has set maximum guidelines
of 600 ppm for free gossypol and 12 000 ppm total