Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MACROMECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL MATERIAL ANISOTROPY
6.3 MATERIAL SYMMETRY
6.4 ELASTIC CONSTANTS AND
ENGINEERING CONSTANTS
COMPLIANCES
IN
TERMS
OF
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The heterogeneity in a composite material is introduced due to not only its biphase or in some cases multi-phase composition, but also laminations. This leads to a
distinctly different stress strain behaviour in the case of laminates. The anisotropy
caused due to fibre orientations and the resulting extension-shear and bending-
(6.1)
where
and
are the stress and strain tensors, respectively, and
are the elastic
constants. Here the indices i, j, k and l can assume values of 1, 2 and 3. This implies
that there may exist 34 = 81 independent elastic constants. However, it is known from
the theory of elasticity, that both stress tensor
As
and as
Thus,
are symmetric.
=
,
=
=
(6.2)
=
(6.3)
, then
(6.5)
Equation 6.5 in conjunction with Eq. 6.3 finally reduce the total number of
independent elastic constants from thirty-six to twenty-one only. Such an anisotropic
material with twenty-one independent elastic constants is termed as triclinic. Now,
using the following contracted single index notations
(6.6)
the constitutive relations for the general case of material anisotropy are expressed as
(6.7)
or,
Here, [
i, j = 1, 2,.,6
(6.8)
Conversely, {
(6.9)
} = [Sij ] {
} ;
i, j =1, 2,..,6
] =[
] is modified as
(6.11)
Thus there are thirteen independent elastic constants, and the material is monoclinic.
The compliance matrix [Sij] for a monoclinic material may accordingly be written
from Eq. 6.11 by replacing 'C ' with 'S '.
If there are three mutually orthogonal planes of symmetry, the material
behaviour is orthotropic. The elastic constant matrix
is then expressed as
orthotropic =
(6.12)
Thus there are nine independent elastic constants. Correspondingly there exist nine
independent compliances.
Two special cases of symmetry, square symmetry and hexagonal symmetry,
may arise due to packing of fibres in some regular fashion. This results in further
reduction of independent elastic constant. For instance, if the fibres are packed in a
square array (Fig. 6.2) in the X2X3 plane. Then
[
square array
(6.13)
There exist now six independent elastic constants. Similarly, when the fibres are
packed in hexagonal array (Fig. 6.3),
(6.14)
(6.15)
The compliance matrix [Sij] for an isotropic material can be accordingly derived.
6.4 ELASTIC CONSTANTS AND COMPLIANCES IN TERMS OF
ENGINEERING CONSTANTS
The elastic constants or compliances are essentially material constants.
Incidentally, the determination of all these elastic constants or compliances is not easy
to accomplish by simple tests. The material constants that are normally determined
through characterization experiments (see chapter 4) are termed as engineering
constants. They can also be evaluated using the micromechanics material models
(chapter 5).
All nine independent compliances and therefore elastic constants listed in Eq.
6.12 are now expressed in terms of nine independent engineering constants. The
stress-strain relations for a three-dimensional orthotropic material, in terms of
engineering constants, can be written as follows:
(6.16)
(6.17)
Comparing Eqs. 6.16 and 6.17, we can express the compliances in terms of
engineering constants.
(6.18)
(6.19)
where
(6.20)
In terms of engineering constants, the elastic constants and compliances for an
isotropic material are given by
(6.21)
and
6.5 CYLINDRICAL ORTHOTROPY
Consider cylindrical coordinates r, , z as illustrated in Fig. 6.6. Here the zaxis is assumed to coincide with the X 3-axis. The stress and strain components are
represented as
and
(6.22)
(6.23)
where
(6.24)
[Sij] i.e., [ ] = [Sij]-1 or from Eq. 6.19 by replacing the indices 1,2,3 with r, , z
respectively.
6.6 TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASE: PLANE STRESS
For the case of plane stress (Fig. 6.7)
3 = 4 = 5 = 0
(6.25)
The stress-strain relations, with two-dimensional anisotropy, are
(6.26)
or,
(6.27)
i, j = 1,2,6
Where [Qij] are the reduced stiffnesses (elastic constants) for plane stress.
Similarly, in terms of compliances, the stress-strain relations are
(6.28)
or,
(6.29)
i, j =1,2,6
For the case of two-dimensional orthotropy (Fig. 6.8) the stress-strain relations
are
(6.30)
and
(6.31)
with
(6.32)
and
(6.33)
Note that the engineering constants
,
, , (or
to the orthotropic axis system X'1X'2 (i.e., the material axes).
and
=
=
-1
[T]
[T]T
(6.35)
if the transformation is required from X 1X2 X3 coordinates to theX'1X'2X'3 coordinates.
Note that [T] is defined by Eq. A.13.
Simalarly,
(6.36)
(6.37)
The corresponding elastic constants
(6.40)
(6.41)
and n = sin
and
and
(or
) and
or,
or,
(6.42)
or,
(6.43)
and
The material behaviour for each block with respect to its axes is orthotropic.
The elastic constants for the ith block are then given as
(6.44)
The effective elastic constants for the n-directional fibre reinforced composite are then
determined by averaging the transformed properties as follows:
(6.45)
Note that the overall fibre volume fraction is given as
(6.46)
6.10 UNIDIRECTIONAL LAMINA
A unidirectional lamina is a thin layer (ply) of composite and is normally
treated as a two-dimensional problem. It contains parallel, continuous fibres and
provides extremely high directional properties. It is the basic building unit of a
laminate and finds very wide applications in composite structures specially in the
and compliances
with the help of Eqs. 6.32 and 6.33. The transformed reduced stiffnesses
can now be evaluated employing Eqs. 6.40 and 6.41. The stiffness
and
and
compliances
for three composite systems are computed for various fibre
orientations and are listed in Tables 6.1 and 6.2. Typical variations of transformed
properties
and
with change in the fibre angle are illustrated in Figs. 6.13
and 6.14. Such plots aid to the basic understanding of the stiffness behaviour of an
off-axis lamina with different fibre orientations. Note that the case =0 corresponds
to an on-axis lamina.
6.11 BIDIRECTIONAL LAMINA
A bidirectional lamina is one which contains parallel, continuous fibres aligned along
mutually perpendicular directions, as shown in Fig. 6.15. A lamina reinforced with woven fabrics
that have fibres in the mutually orthogonal warp and fill directions can also be treated as a
bidirectional lamina. The effects of undulation (crimp) and other problems associated with
different weaving patterns are however, neglected. In Fig. 6.15 the X 1' X2' is referred as material
axes. The amount of fibres in both directions need not necessarily be the same. In a hybrid
lamina, even the fibres in two directions may vary, but when the material axes X 1' X2' coincide
with the reference axes X1X2 (Fig. 6.15a), the material behaviour is orthotropic and the lamina
may be termed as on-axis bidirectional lamina. If the X1' X2' plane rotates by an angle
with respect to the X1X2 axes (Fig. 6.15a), then the oriented lamina behaves as an anisotropic
material and it can be identified as an off-axis bidirectional lamina can also be treated as a
two-dimensional problem and its elastic properties can be determined in an usual manner as
discussed in sections 6.6 and 6.10. It may be mentioned that the anisotropy and stiffness
behaviour of a bidirectional lamina can be greatly controlled by varying the types of fibres (say,
carbon fibre along the X1' direction and glass fibre along the X2' direction) and volume fractions
of fibres (Vf) in both directions. When the fibres and Vf are same in both directions, then
E'11 = E'22 and the material behaviour is square symmetric. Note that a square symmetric material
is different from an isotropic material.
(6.50)
The stress and moment resultants (Fig. 6.17) are evaluated per unit length of
the laminate as follows:
and
Thus,
where
where
and
(6.51)
Proceeding in a similar manner, all stress and moment resultants can be expressed as
listed below:
(6.52)
ij
i, j = 1, 2, 6
Equation 6.52 represents the constitutive relations for a general laminate, and
Aij, Bij, and Dij are the inplane, extension bending coupling and bending stiffnesses,
respectively. Note that all these stiffnesses are derived for a unit length of the
laminate. The elastic properties of each lamina are generally assumed to be constant
through its thickness, as these laminae are considered to be thin. Then A ij, Bij, and
Dij are approximated as
(6.54)
From Eq. 6.52, it is seen that there exist several types of mechanical coupling in a
general laminate. These are grouped together as follows:
Extension Shear
: A16, A26
Extension Bending
Extension Twisting
: B16 , B26
Shear Bending
Shear Twisting
Bending Twisting
B16 , B26
B66
:
D16 , D26
Biaxial Extension
A12
Biaxial Bending
D12
As stated earlier, the coupling terms B ij occur due to unsymmetry about the middle
surface of a laminate. However, all terms containing suffices '16 ' and '26 ' are resulted
due to anisotropy caused by the fibre orientation other than 00 and 900. Those
containing suffices '12 ' are due to Poisson's effect. Although a heneral unsymmetric
laminate contains all coupling terms, there are several laminates where some of these
may vanish. These are listed in Table 6.3. There are several important points that are
to be noted here. The first two laminates (serial nos. 1 and 2) which are christened as
off-axis laminate and on-axis laminate; respectively are essentially paralles
ply laminates where all laminae in a laminate have the same fibre orientation and
therefore are stacked parallel to each other. These are, in fact, similar to unidirectional
laminae. For a symmetric balanced angle-ply laminate D 16 and D26 do not vanish,
although A16 = A26 = 0. The only coupling effect that appears in an anti-symmetric
cross-ply laminate is the extension-bending coupling due to presence of B 11and
B22 and note that B22 = - B11. But the existence of B 16 and B26 cause an antisymmetric
angle-ply laminate to experience extension-twisting coupling. Note also that
extension-bending coupling is predominant for an unsymmetric cross-ply laminate.
The mechanical coupling, as discussed above, influences the deformation
behaviour of a laminate to a great extent. This can be better understood by examining
the deformed shapes of a couple of laminates as illustrated in Figs. 6.18 through 6.20.
Here the dotted lines represent the undeformed shape and the firm lines, deformed
shapes. Consider first a simple off-axis laminate (or unidirectional lamina), subjected
to an inplane stress resultant N 1 (Fig.6.18a) and an out-of-plane moment resultant
M1 (Fig. 6.18b). We know from Eq. 6.52 and Table 6.1 (Bij=0) that
(6.55)
Thus, as illustrated in Fig. 6.18a, it is noted that a simple tension causes not only
extension and contraction, but also shearing of the laminate. While the extension and
contraction are due to A11 and A12, respectively and the inplane shear deformation is
due to presence of A16. This characteristic behaviour is seen especially in an
anisotropic (off-axis) laminate. The shear deformation vanishes, if A 16 = 0, as in the
case of an orthotropic (on-axis) laminate (serial no.2 of Table 6.1). Similarly, as can be
seen in Fig. 6.18b, a simple bending due to M 1 has resulted not only longitudinal
bending (due to D11) and transverse bending (due to D 12), but also twisting (due to
D16).
Figure 6.19 describes the deformation behaviour of an antisymmetric cross-ply
laminate. The extension-bending coupling due to B 11 and B22 can be clearly observed.
In Fig. 6.19a a simple inplane tension is found to introduce bending in the laminate.
Conversely, a simple bending causes extension of the laminate, a shown in Fig. 6.19b.
Figure 6.20 depicts the deformed shape of an antisymmetric angle-ply
laminate. Here the extension-bending and bending-shear coupling effects due to
B16 and B26 are presented. In a similar manner, the deformation characteristics of other
types of laminates can be illustrated. The most important point that is to be focused
here is that fibre orientation and lamina stacking sequence affect laminate stiffness
properties, which, in turn, control the deformation behaviour of a laminate.
Table 6.4 provides the stiffnesses [A ij], [Bij]and [Dij] for various stacking
sequences of carbon/epoxy composites. The [Q ij] values given in Table 6.1 have been
used to compute the above stiffnesses.
6.13 LAMINATE HYGROTHERMAL STRAINS
(6.56)
with
(6.57)
and
and
(6.58)
Inversion of Eq. 6.56 yields (see also Eq. 6.26), at any distance z (Fig.
6.16),
Thus, for a general laminate Eq. 6.52 will be modified as
(6.59)
(6.60)
where the expansional force resultants are
(6.61)
and the expansional moments are
(6.62)
These expansional force resultants and moments may considerably influence the
deformation behaviour of a laminate.
Isotropic materials do not have any preferential direction and in most cases
tensile strength and compressive strength are equal. The shear strength is also
dependent on the tensile strength. A strength criterion for an isotropic lamina is,
therefore, based on stress components, 1, 2 and 6for a two-dimensional problem and
a single strength constant i.e., ultimate strength X. An orthotropic lamina (Fig. 6.8), on
the other hand, exhibits five independent strength constants e.g., tensile strength X' 11t a
dcompressive strength X'11c along the X'1 direction; tensile strength X'22t and
compressive strength X'22c along the X'2 direction and inplane shear strength X' 12.
Hence a strength criterion for a two-dimensional orthotropic lamina should involve
the stress components '1, '2 and '6 and strength constants X'11t, X'11c, X'22t X'22c and
X'12. We present here a few important strength criteria that are commonly used to
evaluate the failure of an orthotropic lamina. Maximum Stress Criterian
A lamina is assumed to fail, if any of the following relations is satisfied
, when
,
and
when
are tensile
and
are
compressive.
(6.63)
It is assumed that inplane shear strengths are equal under positive or negative shear
load.
Maximum Strain Criterian
A lamina fails, if any of the following is satisfied
when
when
and
and
are tensile
are compressive.
(6.64)
Note that the addition of suffix 'u' in strain components indicates the corresponding
ultimate strains. The ultimate shear strains are also assumed to be equal under positive
or negative shear load. If a material behaves linearly elastic till failure, the ultimate
strains can be related to ultimate strength constants as follows:
(6.65)
Tsai-Hill Criterion
The general three-dimensional orthotropic strength criterion is given by
(6.66)
and
= X'22,
an dshear stress
and
act independently
(6.67)
(6.68)
Assuming transverse symmetry X'22 = X'33 and two-dimensional plane stress case ( 3 =
4 = 5 =0), Eq. 6.66 reduces to
or,
(6.69)
When
is tensile,
= X'11c, then
(6.72)
and
yields
(6.74)
(6.75)
Now, assuming
C2 and C3:
(6.76)
(6.77)
Further, applying
only and
yields
(6.78)
Now, considering a two dimensional state of plane stress condition
and substituting the values of C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 and C9 from the above relations, the
strength criterion takes the following form:
(6.79)
, F26
and F6
, and substitution of
=X'11t -
=X'11c,
and
, and
=X'22t , -
(6.82)
Employing the von Mises plane stress analogy, the remaining interaction coefficient
F12 can be defined
(6.83)
Combining Eqs. 6.81-6.83, the Tsai-Wu criterian takes the following form:
(6.84)
It is to be mentioned that the Tsai-Wu criterion (Eq. 6.84) accounts for interaction of
stress components as well as both tensile and compressive strength constants and
shear strength and is considered as a reasonably accurate and consistent representation
of failure of an orthotropic lamina under biaxial stresses. The Tsai-Hill criterion (Eq.
6.69) is also very popular with composite structural designers.
and
Material
Kelvar/Epoxy
91.87
4.03
1.41
2.26
Carbon/Epoxy
133.94
8.32
2.16
3.81
Boron/Polyimide
242.39
14.93
3.88
5.53
Material
(deg
ree)
0
91.
87
4.0
3
1.4
1
2.
26
0.0
0
0.
00
30
54.
15
10.
23
17.
17
18
.0
2
28.
12
9.
92
45
26.
93
26.
93
22.
42
23
.2
7
21.
96
21
.9
6
60
10.
23
54.
15
17.
17
18
.0
2
9.9
2
28
.1
2
90
4.0
3
91.
87
1.4
1
2.
26
0.0
0
0.
00
Kelvar/
Epoxy
Carbon/
13
3.9
4
8.3
2
2.1
6
3.
81
0.0
0
0.
00
30
79.
53
16.
72
25.
17
26
.8
2
40.
48
13
.9
2
45
40.
46
40.
46
32.
84
34
.4
8
31.
40
31
.4
0
60
16.
72
79.
53
25.
17
26
.8
2
13.
92
40
.4
8
90
8.3
2
133
.94
2.1
6
3.
81
0.0
0
0.
00
24
2.3
9
14.
93
3.8
8
5.
53
0.0
0
0.
00
30
14
2.8
8
29.
15
46.
53
48
.1
7
73.
87
24
.6
2
45
71.
80
71.
80
60.
74
62
.3
9
56.
87
56
.8
7
60
29.
15
142
.88
46.
53
48
.1
7
24.
62
73
.8
7
90
14.
93
242
.39
3.8
8
5.
53
0.0
0
0.
00
Epoxy
Boron/
Plyimide
and
Material
Kelvar/Epoxy
10.94
249.7
-3.83
443.4
Carbon/Epoxy
7.50
120.6
6
-1.95
262.4
7
Boron/Polyimide
4.14
67.27
-1.08
180.9
6
Material
(deg
ree)
0
10.
94
249
.75
44
3.83 3.
46
0.0
0
0.0
0
30
10
3.4
8
222
.88
31
36.6 2.
6
13
141
.32
65.
50
45
17
4.1
2
174
.12
26
47.6 8. 119. 11
1
35 40 9.4
0
60
22
2.8
8
103
.48
31
36.6 2.
6
13
65.
50
14
1.3
2
90
24
9.7
5
10.
94
44
3.83 3.
46
0.0
0
0.0
0
7.5
0
120
.66
26
1.95 2.
47
0.0
0
0.0
0
30
60.
24
116
.82
16
26.4 4.
0
66
77.
23
20.
76
45
96.
68
96.
68
13
34.5 2.
5
05
56.
58
56.
58
Kelvar/
Epoxy
Carbon/
Epoxy
Boron/
Plyimide
60
11
6.8
2
60.
24
16
26.4 4.
0
66
20.
76
77.
23
90
12
0.6
6
7.5
0
26
1.95 2.
47
0.0
0
0.0
0
4.1
4
67.
27
1.08
18
0.
96
0.0
0
0.0
0
30
40.
06
71.
63
10
21.2 0.
1
42
50.
59
4.0
8
45
62.
56
62.
56
73
27.9 .5
3
7
31.
56
31.
56
60
71.
63
40.
06
10
21.2 0.
1
42
4.0
8
50.
59
90
67.
27
4.1
4
1.08
18
0.
96
0.0
0
0.0
0
Elastic behaviour
Stiffnesses
1. Off-axis laminate
(all plies oriented
at )
anisotropic
and uncoupled
2. On-axis laminate
(all plies oriented either
00 or 900)
orthotropic
and uncoupled
3. Symmetric cross-ply
(odd number of
specially
orthropic and
I. Symmetric Laminates
uncoupled
4. Symmetric angle-ply
Dij
(odd number of /- / ,
etc. plies)
5.
anisotropic and
uncoupled
anisotropic and
uncoupled
6. Antisymmetric cross-ply
B26=
(even number of
D26=0
00 / 900 / 00/900, etc. plies)
Dij are
orthotropic and
partly coupled
7. Antisymmetric angle-ply
(even number of
D26=0
( /- / /- , etc. plies)
Dij are
anisotropic and
partly coupled
A16= A26=B11=B22
B12= B66= D16=
rest of Aij, Bij and
finite.
8. Unsymmetric cross-ply
(irregular stacking of
00 or 900 plies)
9.
General unsymmetric
Dij are
laminate
orthotropic but
coupled
anisotropic and
strongly coupled
[Bij], GPa-mm2;
[Dij], GPa-mm3
1. 00 / 900 / 00 laminates
6.15 BIBLIOGTAPHY
1. S.P. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, McGraw Hill, N.Y.,
1970.
2. Y.C. Fung, Foundations of Solid Mechanics, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1965.
3. S.G. Lekhnitskii, Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body, MIR Publ.
Moscow, 1981.
4. J.C, Halpin, Primer or Composite Materials: Analysis, Technomic Publ. Co.,
Inc. Lancaste, 1984.
5. R.M. Christensen, Mechanics of Composite Materials, Wiley Interscience,
N.Y., 1979.
6. Z. Hashin and C.T. Herakovich (Eds.), Mechanics of Composite MaterialsRecent Advances, Pergamon Press, N.Y.,1983.
7. S.W. Tsai and H.T. Hahn, Introduction to Composite Materials Technomic
Publ. Co., Inc., Lancaster,1980.
8. J.M. Whitney, Structural Analysis of Laminted Composites, Technomic Publ.
Co., Inc.,Lancaster, 1987.
9. J.R. Vinson and R.L. Sierakowski, The Behaviour of Structures Composed of
Composite Materials, Kluwar Academic Publ., MA,1985.
10. S.W. Tsai, J.C. Halpin and N.J. Pangano (Eds.) Composite Materials
Workshop, Technomic Publ. Co., Inc., Lancaster, 1968.
6.16 EXERCISES
1. State the generalized Hooke's law for a three-dimensional elastic anisotropic
material and show that there are twenty-one independent elastic constants for a
triclinic material.
2. Write down the elastic constant matrix for three-dimensional orthtropic, square
symmetric, hexagonal symmetric and isotropic materials.
3. Distinguish between elastic constants and engineering constants.
and
in terms of angle
and
in terms of
and
for