Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
While choosing the materials for prefabrication, the following special characteristics are to be
considered:
(a) Easy availability;
(b) Light weight for easy handling and transport, and to economise on sections and
sizes of foundations ;
(c) Thermal insulation property ;
(d) Easy workability ;
(e) Durability in all weather conditions ;
(f) Non-combustibility ;
(g) Economy in cost, and
(h) Sound insulation.
The material used on prefabricated components can b various and the modern trend is
to use concrete, steel, treated wood, aluminum, cellular concrete, light weight concrete
elements, ceramic products, etc. However, this chapter pertains to prefabricated concrete
elements.
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and convenience. The symbol used for basic module is M. After adopting this, further work is a
necessary to outline suitable range of multi module with greater increments, often referred to as
preferred increments. A set of rules as detailed below are adequate for meeting the requirements of
conventional and prefabricated construction. These rules relate to the following basic elements:
(a) The planning grid in both directions of the horizontal plan shall be:
(1) 3 M for residential and institutional buildings ;
(2) For industrial buildings;
15 M for spans up to 12 m,
30 M for spans between 12 m and 18 m and 60 M for spans over 18 m.
The centre lines of load bearing walls shall coincide with the grid lines;
(b) In case of external walls, the grid lines shall coincide with centre line of the wall or a line on the
wall 5 cm from the internal face;
(c) The planning module in the vertical direction shall be 1 M up to and including a height of 2.8 M ;
above the height of 2.8 m it shall be 2 M;
(d) Preferred increments for soil heights, doors, windows etc. shall be 1 M ; and
(e) In the case of internal columns, the grid lines coincide with the centre line of the columns. In
case of external columns and columns near the lift stair and stair walls, the grid lines shall
coincide with centre lines of the column in the topmost storey or a line in the column 5 cm from
the internal face of the column in the topmost storey.
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
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(c) Finishes obtained by washing, tooling, grinding, grooving of hardened concrete,
(d) Exposed aggregates in-situ, and
(e) Finishes added in-situ.
(b) Beams
(1) Length
Nominal length shall be in multiples of 3 M;
(2) Width
Nominal width shall be in multiples of M/4;
and
(3) Overall depth. Overall depth of the floor zone (that is, from the soffit of the beam to the top
of in-situ decking) shall be in multiples of M/4.
(c) Columns
(1) Height.
Overall height (that is, floor to floor or the clear height) shall be in multiples of 1
M for heights up to 2.8 M; and
(2) Lateral dimensions. Overall lateral dimensions or diameter of column shall be in multiple of
M/4.
(d) Walls
Thickness.
(e) Staircase
Width.
(f) Lintels
(1) Length.
(2) Width.
and
(3) Depth.
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PREFABRICATION SYSTEMS
The word System is referred to a particular method of construction of buildings using
prefabricated components which are inter-related in functions and are produced to a set of instructions.
With certain constraints, several plans are possible, using the same set of components. The degree of
flexibility varies from system to system. However, in all the system there is a certain order and
discipline.
The following characteristics, among others, are to be considered in devising a system:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
Prefabrication System
The system of prefabricated construction depends on the extent of the use of prefab
components, their materials sizes and the technique adopted for their manufacture and use in building.
The various prefabrication systems are outlined below:
(1) Open prefab System
This system is based on the use of the basic structural elements to form whole or part of a
building. The standard prefab concrete components which can be used are:
(a) Reinforced concrete channel units,
(b) Hollow core slabs,
(c) Hollow blocks and battens,
(d) Precast planks and battens,
(e) Precast joists and tiles,
(f) Cellular concrete slabs,
(g) Prestressed/reinforced concrete slabs,
(h) Reinforced/prestressed concrete beams,
(i) Reinforced/prestressed concrete columns,
(j) Precast lintels and chajjas,
(k) Reinforced concrete waffle slabs/shells,
(l) Room size reinforced/prestressed concrete panels,
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(m) Reinforced/prestressed concrete walling elements, and
(n) Reinforced/prestressed concrete trusses
The elements may b cast at the site or off the site.
Foundation for the columns could be of prefabricated type or of the conventional cast in-situ type
depending upon the soil conditions and load; and the columns may have hinged or fixed base
connections depending upon the type of components used and the method of the design adopted.
There are two categories of open prefab systems depending on the extent of prefabrication used in
the construction as given below:
(a) Partial prefab open system. This system basically emphasizes the use of precast roofing and
flooring components and other minor elements like lintels, chajjas, kitchen sills in conventional building
construction. The structural system could be in the form of in-situ framework or load bearing walls.
(b) Full prefab open system. In this system almost all the structural components are
Prefabricated. The filler walls may be of bricks or any other local material.
(2) Large Panel Prefab System
This system is based on the use of large prefab components. The components used are
Precast concrete large panels for walls, floors, roofs, balconies, staircase, etc. The casting of the
components could be at the site or off the site.
Depending upon the extent of fabrication, this system can also lend itself to partial prefab
system and full prefab system.
Wall Systems
Structural scheme with precast large panel walls can be classified as:
(a) Cross Wall System. In this scheme, the cross wall are load bearing walls whereas the facade
Walls are non-load bearing this system is suitable for high rise buildings.
(b) Longitudinal Wall System. In this scheme the cross walls are non-load bearing whereas
Longitudinal walls are load bearing walls. This system is suitable for low rise buildings.
A combination of the above system with all load bearing walls can also be adopted.
Precast walls could be:
(a) Homogeneous Walls
(b) Non-Homogeneous Walls
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Based on the structural functions of the walls, the walls could be classified as:
(a) Load bearing walls,
(b) Non-load bearing walls,
(c) Shear walls,
Based on their locations and functional requirements the walls are also classified as:
(a) External walls,
which can b load bearing or non-load bearing depending upon the layout and are usually non-homogeneous walls of sandwich type to impart better thermal
comforts; and
(b) Internal walls providing resistance against vertical loads, horizontal loads, fire, etc. and are
normally homogeneous walls.
Types of Precast Floors
Depending upon the composition of units, precast flooring units could be homogeneous or non
homogeneous.
(a) Homogeneous floors could be solid slabs, cored slabs, ribbed or waffle slabs.
(b) Non-homogeneous floors could be multi-layered ones with combinations of light weight
Concrete or reinforced/prestressed concrete, with filler blocks.
Depending upon the way the loads are transferred, the precast floors could be classified as one
way or two way systems.
One way system transfers loads to the supporting members in one direction only. The precast
elements which come under this category are: channel slabs, hollow core slabs, hollow blocks and
battens, battens plank system, channels and tiles system, light weight cellular concrete slabs, etc.
Two way systems transfers load in both directions imparting loads on the four edges. The
precast elements under this category are room sized panels, two way ribbed or waffle slab systems, etc.
Staircase Systems
Staircase system could consist of single flights with in-built risers and treads in the element only.
The flights are normally unidirectional transferring the loads to supporting landing slabs or load bearing
walls.
Box Type Construction
In this system, room size units are prefabricated and erected at site. Toilets and kitchen blocks
also be similarly prefabricated and erected at site.
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This system derives its stability and stiffness from the box unit which are formed by the four
adjacent walls. Walls are jointed to make rigid connections among themselves. The box unit rests on the
plinth foundation which may be of conventional type or precast type.
JOINTS
The joints should be provided in the light of their assessment with respect to the following
considerations:
(a) Feasibility. The feasibility of joint shall be determined by its loads-carrying capacity in the
particular situation in which the joints is to function.
(b) Practicability.
Material, fabrication and erection and the time for fabrication and erection.
(c) Serviceability.
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When considering thermal shrinkage and heat effects, provision of freedom of movement or
introduction of restraint may be considered.
Joint techniques/materials normally employed are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
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arrangements for quality control. Normal benefits of continuity of work is not available in this system of
construction.
Processes of manufacture
The various processes involved in the manufacture of precast elements may be classified as
follows.
Main Process
(a) Providing and assembling the moulds, placing reinforcement cage in position for reinforced
concrete work, and stressing the wires in the case of prestressed elements;
(b) Fixing of inserts and tubes, where necessary;
(c) Pouring the concrete into the moulds;
(d) Vibrating the concrete and finishing;
(e) Demoulding the forms and stacking the precast products;
(f) Curing (steam curing, if necessary).
Auxiliary process
Process necessary for the successful completion of the processes covered by the main process:
(a) Mixing and manufacture of fresh concrete (done in a mixing station or by a batching plant);
(b) Prefabrication of reinforcement cage (done in a steel yard or workshop);
(c) Manufacture of insets and other finishes items to be incorporated in the main precast
products;
(d) Finishes the precast products ; and
(e) Testing of products.
Subsidiary process
All other work involved in keeping the main production work to a cyclic working:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Storage of materials;
Transport of cement and aggregate;
Transport of concrete green concrete and reinforcement cages;
Transport and stacking the precast elements;
Repairs and maintenance of tools, tackles and machines; and
Generation of steam, etc.
For the manufacture of precast elements all the above processes shall be planned in a
Systematic way to achieve the following:
(a) A cyclic technological method of working to bring in speed and economy in manufacture.
(b) Mechanization of the process to increase productivity and to improve quality.
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(c) The optimum production satisfying the quality control requirements and to keep up the
expected speed of construction aimed.
(d) Better working conditions for the people on the job ; and
(e) To minimize the effect of weather on the manufacturing schedule.
The various stages of precasting can be classified as in Table 20.1 on the basic of the machine
Complexes required for the various states. This permits mechanization and rationalization of work in the
various stages. In the precasting, stage 6 and 7 given in the elements. For these precasting stages there
are many technological processes to suit the concrete products under consideration which have been
proved rational, economical and time saving. The technological line or process is the theoretical solution
for the method of planning the work involved by using machine complexes. Figure 20.1 illustrates
diagrammatically the various stages involved in a plant process.
The various accepted methods of manufacture of precast units can be broadly classified into
two methods:
(a) The Stand Method where the moulds remain stationary at places, when the various
processes involved are carried out in a cyclic order at the same place, and
(b) The Flow Method where the precast unit under consideration is in movement according to
the various processes involved in the work which are carried out in an assembly-line
method.
The various accepted precasting methods are listed in Table 20.2 with details regarding the
elements that can be manufactured by these methods.
TABLE 20.1
Sl.
Precasting
No.
Stage No.
(1)
(2)
(i)
Name of process
Operations Involved
(3)
(4)
Procurement and
Storage of const-
ruction materials
(ii)
Testing of raw
Materials
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(iii)
Design of concrete
Mix
(iv)
Making of reinforcement
Cages
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
Moulds are cleaned, oiled and assembled and placed at the right place.
Concrete.
(x)
10
Of concrete.
Good finish
Demoulding
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with the green concrete into the trench
or autoclave and taking them out from
the mould. In the case of pre-tensioned
element cutting of protruding wires also
falls in this stage. In certain cases the
moulds have to be partly removed and
inserts have to be removed after initial
set. The total demoulding is done after
a certain period and the components
are then allowed to be cured. All these
fall in this operation.
(xi)
11
Stacking of precast
Elements
(xii)
(xiii)
12
13
Testing of finished
Components.
Miscellaneous
Note. For ready mixed concrete, stage 1, 2, 3 and 7 are not applicable.
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Table 20.2. Precasting methods
Sl.
Precasting Method
Where used
No.
(1)
(i)
(ii)
Dimensions and
Advantages and
weights
(2)
(3)
Remarks
(4)
Individual mould
Method (precasting
weight up to 20 tonnes,
(5)
Elements as below:
(a)
Strengthening
Length:
possible.
Breadth:
Be either in timber or
Thickness:
Weight:
tressing forces.
Up to 5 tonnes
possible in two
panels.
Interior wall
Length: 18 m
shuttering panels
Breadth: 3 m
mass production of
May be adjusted in
concrete battens,
Te members)
may be adopted by
Taking the steam
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(iii)
Stack method
Slab panels
able length.
Reinforced or pre-
Breadth: 1 to 4 m
Weight: 5 tonnes
(iv)
Tilting,
Length: 6 m
Method
Breadth: 4 m
panels.
Stressing bed
Breadth: 2 m
tensioned members
Method.
Beams
Height: 2 m
Weight: up to 10 tonnes
(vi)
Extrusion method
(Long concrete m-
concrete wall
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Storage of cement
Storage of cement can be effected either in especially erected storage sheds where cement can be
stored in the form of bags or in silos where it is stored loose.
In planning storage of coarse and fine aggregates, bins silos, etc. shall have a minimum storage capacity
and shall be designing silos are concerned, 2 to 4 hours storage capacity shall be provided.
Moulds
Moulds for the manufacture of precast elements may be of steel, timber, concrete and plastic or
a combination thereof. For the design of moulds for the various elements, special importance should be
given to easy de-moulding and assembly of the various parts. At the same time rigidity, strength and
watertightness of the mould, taking into consideration forces due to pouring of green concrete and
vibrating, are also important.
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Slopes of the mould walls, for easy demoulding of the elements from the mould with fixed sides,
the required slopes have to be maintained. Otherwise there is a possibility of the elements getting stuck
up with the mould at the time of demoulding.
Curing
Accelerated hardening
In most of the pre casting factories, it is economical to use faster curing methods or artificial
curing methods, which in turn will allow the elements to be demoulded much earlier permitting early reuse of the forms. Any of the following methods may be adopted:
(a)
By heating the aggregate and water before mixing the concrete. By heating of the
aggregate as well as water to about 70 C to 80 C before making the concrete mix and placing the same
in the moulds, sufficiency high earlier strengths are developed to allow the elements to be stripped and
transported.
(b)
Steam curing. Steam curing may be done under high pressure and high temperature in
an autoclave. This technique is more suited to smaller elements. Alternatively this could be done using
low pressure steam having temperature around 80 C. for light weight concrete products when steam
cured under high pressure, the drying shrinking is reduced considerably. Due to this reason, high
pressure steam curing in autoclave is specified for light weight low densities ranging from 300 to 1,000
kg/m. For normal heavy concrete as well as light weight concretes of higher densities, low pressure
steam curing may be desirable as it does not involve using high pressure and temperature requiring high
investment in an autoclave.
(c)
Steam injection during mixing of concrete. In this method low pressure saturated steam
is injected into the mixer while the aggregate are being mixed. This enables the heating up of concrete
to approximately 60 C. Such as concrete after being placed in the moulds attains early strength.
(d)
Heat air method.
In this method, the concrete elements are kept in contact with
hot air with a relative humidity not less than 80 percent. This method is specially useful for light
concrete products using porous coarse aggregates.
(e)
Hot water method.
In this method the concrete elements are kept in a bath of hot
water around 50 C to 80 C. The general principles of this type of curing are not much different from
steam curing.
(f)
Electrical method.
The passage of current through the concrete panels generates
heat through its electro-resistivity and alternating current ranging from 50 volts for a plastic concrete
and gradually increasing to 230 V for the set concrete. This method is normally used for massive
concrete products.
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(g)
Consolidation by spinning. Such a method is generally used in the centrifugal moulding
of pipes and such units. The spinning motion removes excess water, effects consolidation and permits
earlier demoulding.
(h)
Pressed concrete.
This method is suitable for fabrication of small or large products
at high speed of production. A 100-200 tonnes press compresses the wet concrete in rigid moulds and
expells water. Early handling and a dense wear resistant concrete is obtained.
(i)
Vacuum treatment.
This method removes the surplus air and water from the newly
places concrete as in slabs and similar elements. A suction up to about 70 percent of an atmosphere is
applied for 20 to 30 minutes per centimeter thickness of the units.
(j)
Consolidation by shock. This method is suitable for small concrete units dropped
repeatedly from a height in strong moulds. The number of shocks required to remove excess water and
air may vary from 6 to 20 and the height of the lift may be up to as much as half the depth of the mould.
After the accelerated curing of the above products by any of the above accepted methods, the
elements shall be cured further by normal curing methods, to attain full final strength.
The curing of the prefabricated elements can be affected by the normal methods of curing by
sprinkling water and keeping the elements moist. This can also be done in the case of smaller elements
by immersing them in a specially made water tanks.
Care should be taken to ensure that the flat elements are stacked with right side up. For
identification, top surface should be clearly marked.
(b)
Stacking should be done on a hard and suitable ground to avoid any sinking of support
when elements are stacked.
(c)
In case of horizontal stacking, packing materials must be at specified locations and must
be exactly one over the other to avoid cantilever stress in panels.
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(d)
Handling arrangements
Lifting and handling positions shall be clearly defined particularly where these sections are
critical. Where necessary special facilities, such as bolt holes or projecting loops, shall be provided in the
units and full instructions supplied for handling.
For precast prestressed concrete members, the residual prestress at the age of particular
operation of handling and erection shall be considered in conjunction with any stresses caused by the
handling or erection of member. The compressive stress thus computed shall not exceed 50 percent of
the cube strength of the concrete at the time of handling and erection. Tensile stresses up to a limit of
50 percent above those specified shall be permissible.
Transport
Transport of precast elements inside the factory and to the site of erection is of considerable
importance not only from the point of view of economy but also from the point of view of design and
efficient management. Transport of precast elements must be carried out with extreme care to avoid
any jerk and distress in elements and handled as far as possible in the same orientation as it is to be
placed in the final position.
Transport inside the factory.
Transport of precast elements moulded inside the factory
depends on the method of production selected for the manufacture as given Table 20.2.
Transport from stacking yard inside the factory to the site of erection. Transport of precast
concrete elements from the factory to the site of erection should be planned in such a way so as to be in
conformity with the traffic rules and regulations as stipulated by the authorities. The size of the
elements is often restricted by the trailers, to suit the load and dimensions of the member in addition to
the load-carrying capacity of the bridges on the way.
While transporting elements in various systems, that is, wagons, trucks, bullock carts, cares
should be taken to avoid excessive cantilever actions and desired supports are maintained. Special care
should be taken at location of sharp bends and on uneven or slushy roads to avoid undesirable stresses
in elements.
Before loading the elements in the transporting media, care should be taken to ensure the base
packing for supporting the elements are located at specified positions only. Subsequent packings must
be kept strictly one over the other.
Erection
In the erection of precast elements; all the following items of work are meant to be included:
(a)
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(b)
(c)
(d)
Cleaning of the steel inserts before incorporation in the joints, lifting up of the elements,
setting them down into the correct envisaged position;
(e)
(f)
Welding of cleats,
(g)
(h)
(i)
Welding of the inserts, laying of reinforcement in joints and grouting the joints; and
(j)
Finishing the joints to bring the whole work to a workman like finished product.
In view of the fact that erection work in various construction jobs using prefabricated concrete
elements differs from place to place depending on the site conditions, safety precautions in the work
are of utmost importance. Hence only those skilled foremen, trained workers and fitters who have been
properly instructed about the safety precautions to be taken should be employed on the job.
The manufacture of cellular concrete being a highly controlled process has to be done in
a factory;
(b)
The principal raw material are cement or lime and fine materials (silicious sand, fly ash,
grannlated blast furnace slag);
(c)
The silicious material is ground finely in a ball-milland the alurry is prepared with
predertmined quantity of cement or lime and water. Gas generating materials and
harmless additives are also added in the required amount before the concrete is poured
into the moulds;
(d)
The cellular concrete is cast in structural moulds and the various components are cut to
the required size before it is autoclaved.
(e)
Curing is done in autoclave at high temperatures (180 C to 200 C) and at high pressure
(7 to 15 kgf/cm). The components are taken out after they are fully autoclaved.
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(f)
Each slab is provided with tongue at one side and groove at the other or any other
provision is made to transfer load from one unit to another; and
(g)
In view of the above there will be some changes in the stages of manufacture given in
table 20.1
Equipment
General.
The equipment used in the precast concrete industry can be classified into the
Following categories:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Erection equipment, such as cranes, derricks, hoists, chain, pulling blocks, etc.
(f)
(g)
Workshop machinery for making and repairing steel and timber moulds.
(h)
(k)
In addition to the above, pumps and soil compacting machinery are required at the building site
for the execution of civil engineering projects involving prefabricated components.
Each of the above groups can further be classified into various categories of machines and
further to various other types depending on the source of power and capacity.
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(b)
(c)
In simple mechanization, simple mechanically operated implements are used to reduce the
manual labour and increase the speed.
In partial mechanization, the manual work is more or less eliminated in the part of a process. For
example, the batching plant for mixing concrete, hoists to lift material to a great height and bulldozer to
do earthwork come under this category.
In case of complex mechanization leading to automation, a number of processes leading to the
end-product are all mechanized to a large extent (without or with a little manual or human element
involved). This type of mechanization reduces manual work to the absolute minimum and guarantees
the mass production at a very fast rate and cheap price.
As described chapter 7, walls and columns made of hollow block masonry are advantageous as
they are easy to construct, are cheaper and have a got a great thermal insulation effect. They
considerably save mortar compared to brickwork since the numbers of joints are less. Internal plastering
is reduced since a good finish can be obtained with one coat only; instead of two.
These blocks are built in concrete, the forms of which can be reused a number of times. Special
types of forms are used keeping in view the shape of the hollow space to be left in the blocks.
(2)
Lintels
Prefabricated RCC lintels can be used conveniently over window and door openings, thereby
accelerating the speed of construction by eliminating curing period.
(3)
Precast concrete door and window frames can also be built. Steel bars of about 4 mm to 4o mm
in diameter run through them. Sitable hard wood blocks are used for the fixing hinges, etc. to them.
Concrete is vibrated on a table vibrator and is then poured into the mould, thereby forming a durable
mix.
(4)
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Prefabricated reinforced concrete battens and plain concrete tiles can b used for roofing and
flooring for flat roofs, instead of wooden sections and brick tiles. For sloping roof, precast reinforced and
prestressed concrete triangulated trusses can b used.
Plain concrete or lightly reinforced concrete can be used in the form of precast shells for
roofing. Plain concrete, doubly curved shells have been developed at C.B.T.I.; Rookee. While making
them, a suitable frame is built over which hessian cloth is spread. This cloth has to be given a sort of sag
and internal tension is controlled by the depth indicating frame. Over this, a thin frame of about 2.5 cm
height is placed to retain the wet concrete and regulates its thickness. A piece of chicken mesh is next
placed on the mould to act as reinforcement. Cement concrete is poured over the hessian and manually
compacted. The frame is made to rest to permit the hessian to sag with the wet concrete. Moulds are
set up for the edge beams and suitable steel rods are placed within these moulds. These beams are then
cast. The beam sides are demoulded after an hour of casting. The unit is cured for about two days and is
inverted for use. The final shape of the unit, as placed on small T-beams, is shown in Fig. 20.3. The top
surface of the roof thus formed is wavy and as such the depressions are filled with concrete or earth so
that level surface may b obtained. These units can be of 1m x 1m to about 3m x 3m in size.
(5)
Stairs
Treads of pre-cast plain concrete slabs and the risers of small, precast concrete blocks can be
used for construction of stairs. The details are shown in fig. 14.14 in chapter 14.