CHAPTER FOUR

The Language of Ratios

Frequencies
as Ratios
Or rno unNy characteristics of a musical tone the most important for
musical scienceis the number of pulsations it creates, in a given length of
time, in the air in which it is heard. We call thesepulsationsvibrations,and
u'hen we use the sixtieth part of a minute as our measureof time, it is now
customary to call them cycles. The number of cycles-per second-determinesthe pitch of the tone.r
A systemof music is an organization of relationships of pitches, or tones,
to one another, and these relationships are inevitably the relationship of
numbers. Tone is number, and since a tone in music is always heard in relation to one or severalother tones-actually heard or implied-we have
at leastt o numbers to deal with: the number of the tone under consideration and the number of the tone heard or implied in relation to the first
tone. Hence, the ratio.2
It is u'ell to plunge at once into ratio nomenclatureand to disregardthe
more familiar "A-B-C " terminologv by which the ratios in our conventional scalesare expressed.The advantagesof doing so, in opening new
tonal vistas, in getting to the analyzable root of music and the core of the
universe of tone, are inestimable. If time is taken out to translate each ratio
into what is assumed to be a synonymous word value, these vistas are
dimmed or lost altogether, and the values, u'hich are not synonyms, are
nevertheless convicted of fraud by alleged synonyms. After hearing a
"major third" on-the organ or piano or some other instrument with tempered intonation, this interval becomesfixed in the mind as a pretty poor
consonance,at leastby some comparisons,A certain modern composer,one
Ifhe use ofthe word cycles prevents any confusion as between vibrations in whole and
halves of vibrations, thc latter being the French manncr of indicating frcquencies.
parts numcrical, whcn compared togethr,
'1In Euclid's words, "all things which consist of
arc subject to the ratios ofnumber; so that musical sounds or notes [tones] compared together,
must consequently be in some numerical ratio to each othcr." Da\\, L.lk$,2t265.

76

of numerous possibl
is, of not being exac
just intervals and te
If ratios seem a
languageso old that
of musical sound car
results are more imn
um surrounds and p,
ing and tedious th;
any case.
Before proceedin
instrumentswill be c
tonestested.For the
this precisearticlefacile thinking it is n
and functions.
The handling an
exact
mathcmati
an
tave") above it mak
This additional 200
since 200 cyclesadd
cycles.To get the 2/
the 2/1 below 400 w
constitute a ratio, al
with the sameratiofor example, both I
relationships.
This2tolrelati,
why they cannot adc
result,just as they a
"octave" at the piar
and its doubling (2[
samequality of relat
(200 to 600, for exar

3Hindemith, crul
d ,
4W i th c ents ,ex pl ai nc c
which represcnt ratios.

THE LANGUAGE OF RATIOS

most important for

in a given length of
tions vibrations,and
ure of time, it is now
:s-per second-des of pitches, or tones,
I the relationship of
; always heard in rerr implied-we have
rne under considerarelation to the first
and to disregard the
ratios in our cong so, in opening new
: and the core of the
) translate each ratio
lue, these vistas are
r not synonyms,are
os. After hearing a
Ntrument with temind as a pretty poor
odern composer,one
vibrations in whole and
frcquencies.
whcn compared together,
ooes] compared together,
L. t k rs,2. 265.

77

of numerous possibleexamples, convicts his "thirds" of inexactitude-that

is, of not being exact widths-for no real reason except his confounding of
just intervals and tempered intervals3 (seepage i53).
If ratios seem a new language, let it be said that it is in actual fact a
Ianguage so old that its beginnings as an expressionof the essentialnature
of musical sound can only be conjectured. In learning any new language,
results are more immediate if a total plunge is made, so that the new medium surrounds and permeatesthe thinking; and it is no more time-consuming and tedious than translation, which frequently cannot be exact in
any case.
Before proceeding to a study of the Monophonic intervals, experimental
instruments will be described on which each ratio can be computed and its
tones tested. For the present, what is required is a facility in thinking with
this precise article-this sine qua non of musical structure-and for such
facile thinking it is necessaryto have a thorough understanding of its nature
and functions.
The handling and consideration of tones is, by virtue of their vibrations,
an exact mathematical process.If a tone makes 200 cycles,the 2/l ("octave") above it makes 400 cycles,a doubling of 200, or 200 more cycles.
This additional 200 cycles is not, however, constant for the 2/1 measurer
since 200 cycles added to 400 do not give the 2/1 ("octave") above 400
cycles. To get the 2/l above 400 we multiply by 2 and,,conversely, to get
the 2/1 below 400 we divide by 2. The cycles, or frequencies,of two tones
constitute a ratio, and it has long been established that two pairs of tones
with the same ratio-200 cycles to 400 cycles and 400 cycles to 800 cycles,
for example, both 2/1's-are accepted by the ear as identical musical
relationships.
This 2 to 1 relationship is a constant one. Musicians frequently wonder
rvhy they cannot add the ratio of one interval to another to get the correct
result, just as they add a "perfect fifth" and a "perfect fourth" to get an
"octave" at the piano. But the fact is that Nature does not offer one tone
and its doubling (200 to 400) as a given quality of relationship, and the
same quality of relationship in two tones which are not a ratio of doubling
(200 to 600, for example).4
sHindemith, CtuJt oJ Mudeal Conposition,1t78,
rwith cents,etplained at thc end ofthis chapter, it is possibleto add and subtract quantities
which represcntratios.

GENESISOF A MUSIC
The2tolrelationship,basedonthefactorof2'appliesonlytopromuch more to the calculation
gr*ri"" L'pi,.tt by 2/1's.^ihere is of course
But if the factor of 2 applies to the
of musical intervals than successive2/1's'
of 2 must apply to intervals
2/1. then certain decrements of the factor
starting
fro* u 2/1, or-increments of the factor of 2
;;.;;;;;;";u.J
each
since
simple'
v^ery
are
i; a;ust Intonation the comPutations
;;i.
The
2'
of
factor
ratio is itself a patticular measure of the
,*ff-nrr-U.i
interval
or 312 fit'si "perfect fifth")' for examPle' an
i"[*"i]oolzoo,
of the factor of 2' and the
,ru..o*e. than a 2/1, representsa certain measure
even smaller measure'
ZSotzOo, or 5/4-(just "major third'')' an
,"i
frequencies by some constantOb.riorrrly, then, if it is impossible to add
get a seriesof 2/1's'
fo, .*ample' which was suggestedabove-to
ZOO
in"u.t..,
f'equencies by constants togtt any seriesof
to
t;;ilil;..tbi.
^aa
is determined by
.t ri- than 2/1. Positively, if a sequenceof 2/1's
i.*Jt
narrower
intervals
sequenceof
ii. i"",- .f 2, by multiplication, then any
the factor of 2-by
i. a.t".-ined by their respectiveproPortions of
ir,""i/r
to be
Therefore, when any two ratios-two intervals-are
-,-ri,lii"u,io.t.
addei, muttiPlYtheir ratios'
-the intervals to
frc ttt"afi"g of small-number ratios, representing
more than simple multi*frl.tr it. ea, i, irost responsive,involves nothing
olicationanddivisionofimProPerfractions.onlywhentheexpedientof
complicated'
;i.,trod.,..d ao tt't computations hcome at all
H;ia.'i;
irrational
chosen
deliberately
*i.'" i.g"ti,ttt". are employed to produce.
of the factor of 2 (see page 101)'
oercentJees
*^;;;:i;.
pitch'
of d"e intJrvals, somewhat at random in
;i; ,.1*r,..
ratios being: 2400/1200'
rr".,ine a lo*et consiant of 1200 cycles, the five

/1200'In their lowesttermsthese

, 2000
iaoiiii zoo,iooo/1200,1500/1200
courd
rerationships
ili, +it, stq, s/:' tris sameseries.or
;:;;:;:;.:;i-,
cvcles;the
i".il *.rr b.'.o.t.id"..d *ith u" ttpptt t9"t!1nt 9l'^YI'^2400
240011920'
2400/1800'
i.",i* *."rt th.r' u. 24oolrzoo, i+oo 1tooo,
2/1'3/2'
termsare'.again:
reducedto thelowestpossible
+oO,
i-+oO7f
the relationshipbetween
-rti"h,
rtt,r. a musicalratio rePresents
+tii'it+, i/1.
applicableto
..r.i.r, ,id,r..d to its lowestterrnsit is in abstractquantity primacyits
form
this
in
in thetotal musicalscale,and
^ir,,l*..ioi,.h
of music-is themoremaniresources
il i;.ii;frJ;;nk in thesignificant
as will be shown in the next chapter'
fest,
ii,sin..,intheconceptoftheinterval2/|(the..octave',),thelower

number is exactlY
numbcr is lessthan
than a 2/1; and or
such as 3/2, rePrest
sequentlY,when an
halved or the lorve
16/5 is brought r'r'it
nithin a 211 by' t'
expressedin the les
A system of mu
cated in everl' othe
s,vmbols-ratiosin
211, and the symt
Nlusicians are acct
given "A" is still "-r
any given 9/8 is sti
cians will find this c
should be exPresse
But such a Proced
seven2/1's of the t
its own, and when
the number of tote
two or more 2/1's,
up and down from
2,i1," "Higher 211
It is common tr
built up*'ards (wi
and this Practicei:
is specificallYindic
ities,and is a matt
cation is synonym(
reversewill be ind

ItonochordProce

SupPosewe ha
a mark on the wc
rhat indicatesa th

THE LANGUAGE OF RATIOS

applies only to prore to the calculation
or of 2 applies to the
t apply to intervals
e factor of 2 starting
y simple, since each
he factor of 2. The
xample, an interval
3 factor of 2, and the
n smaller measure.
by some constantr get a seriesof 2/1's,
get any seriesof in1's is determined by
rf intervals narrower
rf the factor of 2-by
intervals-are to be
ng the intervals to
--than simple multi.en the expedient of
e at all complicated,
ly chosen inational
at random in pitch,
; being: 2400/ 1200,
r lowest terms these
'relationshipscould
ay, 2400 cycles; the
/1800, 2400/1920,
r re, again:2/1,3/2,
lationship between
antity applicable to
form its primacy-is the more manictave"), the lower

;!)

number is exactly half the upper number, any ratio in which the lower
number is lessthan half the upper, suchas 5/2, representsan interval wider
than a 217; and one in which the lou,er number exceedshalf the upper,
such as 3/2, representsan interval smaller,or narrower, than a 2/1. Consequently, when an interval is wider than a 2f 1, the upper number may be
halved or the lower number doubled to bring it within a 2/7. The ratio
16/5 is brought within a 2/1by rvriting it 8.,/5,and the ratio 5,/2 is brought
lithin a 2/1 by rvriting it 514. Nearly all ratios in this exposition are
cxpressedin the lessthan 2/l form.
A s)stemof music is determined for one 2/1; the systemis then duplicated in every other 2/1, aboveor below, that is cmploycd. Consequently,
svmbols-ratios in this exposition-are used to denote the degreesof one
2 1, and the symbols are repeated in every 2/1 of the musical gamut.
\lusicians are accustomedto this idea; the "octave" above or below a
given "A" is still "A." The situationhere is identical; a 2/1 aboveor below
any given 9/8 is still 9/8. Only the physicistswho are not practising musicians will find this objectionable, since,acoustically, a 2/1 below a given 9/8
should be expressed9/16, and,a 2fl above 9/8 should be expressed9/4.
But such a procedure would mean that every one of the approximately
seven 2/1's of the common musical gamut would have a set of symbols of
its own, and when forty-three degrees-ratios-in a single 2/1 are involved
the number of total symbols would be unwieldy. The relative positions of
tuo or more 2/1's, when tables or diagrams or examples involve ratios both
up and down from a given 1/1, are indicated in this expositionby "Lower
2,'1," "Higher 2/1," "Third 2/1," and."Fourth 2/1," etc.
It is common practice musically to consider ratios (intervals) as being
built upwards (with the larger numbers above) from a lower constant,
and this practice is followed throughout this book except when the reverse
is specifically indicated. Such ratio symbolism isjust one of several possibilities, and is a matter of arbitrary choice; the reverseform in practical application is synonymous, and in order that this fact may not be obscured the
reversewill be indicated from time to time.

MonochordProcedures
Supposewe have a metal string stretched acrosstwo bridges, and make
a mark on the wood beneath that divides the string in half, then a mark
rhat indicates a third ofthe string, and finally a mark that divides the third

80

GENESISOF A MUSIC

in half, or into sixths of the whole string, as shown in Diagram 1. Suppose

the whole string makes 100 cycles when in vibration; if a third bridge is
placed at the halfway mark, either half of the string would then give tones
of200 cycles,and ifthe bridge is placed at the one-third mark and only onethird of the string set in vibration the resulting tone would make 300 cycles.
Thus the relationship of the half to the whole is 200 to 100, or 2/1 ; and the

inq" lrom an urPcl

r r nc of t hc r elat ior
These verv cle
srr ncling of t he I I o
i. ar bit r ar ilv chos
: rlr r ar s t hc loucr ol
r - 1.i 2. 8, 5 t lt e r
.rlci 5 -l rcprcsents
3r cpr c
r , , 11) . 4
r nl( I val t o I I / , J
ir liccl int cr lal t o 1
r nr l an im plicd ir
Exprcsscd in I

l- nqt hs, t hcsc r at it

: ir lc t he over nur
r : Lrio- r vould agair
icnc. but dt t unuar
r r 1 1. Belor v is a

Drlcnlu 1.-Trre RuauoNsmp or Cvcr-rsro Pasrs or StnNc

relationship of the third part to the half is 300 to 200, or 3/2. Each of these
ratios representsboth a given tone and an interval between two tones.The
rario 3f2, via the agent 3, represents the higher tone of that relationship; at the same time it represeritsthe interval from 3 to 2, or 3/2. For lack
ofa better term this concept might be called "upward ratio thinking" from
a lower cotslant, the number 2, it 3/2 (200 cycles), representing the constant.
Now, without regard to cycles, let us think in terms of parts of a string
length, the ancient monochord proceduie. If one-half the string represents
three equal parts (each a sixth of the whole string) one-third of the string
representstwo equal parts. When sounded, one-third represents2 parts and
one-half represents3 parts, or the ratio 2/3. The ratio 2/3, via the agent 3,
representsthe lower tone, while at the same time it representsthe interval
from 2 to 3, or 2/1, exactly the same interval as 3/2- lr{e thus see that the
numbers of vibration are inversely proportional to the string lengths (see
page 99 for reservations regarding this generalization). And the mental
processof considering ratios as parts of a sounding body, rather than as vibrations, or cycles, as here presented, is essentially " downuard ratio think-

513

441
543

The scaleof fo
rhe upper scale as
asccndsonly if rea
rhe same lilcies i
r aiucs,thc lorver :

"Tttinking"in R

Upon further i
rts comPrementv
numbers its comp
In the ratio 3/
ar rhc upper limit
l:cnce the interva
:ntcrval from 3 tt
*ithin the 2,r1; t)

TIl E LANGUAGE OF RAT]OS

Diagram L Suppose
; if a third bridge is
rould then give tones
J mark and only oneruld make 300 cycles.
100,or 2/1 ; and the

nrs or Srnrr'to
rr 3/2. Each of these
lween two tones.The
ne of that relationto 2, or 3f2. For lack
ratio thinking" from
epresenting the cons of parts of a string
the string represents
)e-third of the string
:presents2 parts and
2f3, via the agent 3,
presentsthe interval
We thus see that the
e string lengths (see
rn). And the mental
ly, rather than as vitwnuard ratio think-

BI

ing" from an upperconstant, the number ? in 2f 3-representing the upper

tone of the relationship-being the constant.
These very elementary examples are essential to a thorough understandingof the Monophonic procedure,where the under number of a ratio
is arbitrarily chosen to represent 1/1, unity, or the Prime Unity, and is
aluar s the lower of thc t\,\'oratio tones,heard or implicd. In the ratios 5/4,
1. 3, 3i2, 8/5 the under numbers 4, 3, 2, and 5 representthe constant 1/1,
and 5/4 rcpresentsa singletone upuard from 1/1 (and,an implied interval
ro lil),4/3
representsa single tone uprvard from 1/1 (and an implied
inlcrval to 1/1),3/2 representsa singletone upward from 1/1 (and an implicd interval to 1/1), and 8/5 rcpresentsa single tone upward from 1/l
tand an implied interval to 1/l).
Expressedin the "dounuard thinking" manner, as parts of string
lcngths,thescratiosr.r'ouldbe 4/5,3/4,2i3, 5i8t and 4,3,2, and 5-this
time the over numbers and the higJhertones, heard or implicd, of each
ratio-would again reprcsent111. And each ratio rvould represcnta single
tone, but dounuardinstead of upward from 111, and an implied interval
to 1/1. Below is a schemaof theseexamples:

54
43

54

] 8 (highertonesof intervalsupwardfrom 1/l)

? 2:t tt' the PrirneUnitY
3 8 (lowertonesof intervalsdownwardfrom 1/1)

The scale of four tones is designed to be identical in the two processes;

rhe upper scale ascendsfrom 5 to 8 (from left to right); the lower scale
ascendsonly ifread in reverse,from 8 to 5 (right to left). To achieve exactly
the same pilchesin both scales, without regard to synonymous interval
values,the lower scaleu'ould be written: 5/8, 2/3,3/4, 4/5.

"Thinking" in Ratios
Upon further investigation of the nature of ratios we find that each has
its complement within the 2/1, and if the ratio is composed of small
numbers its complementary ratio is also composed of small numbers.
In the ratio 3/2, 2 represents1/1, the lower limit of the 2/1. The tone
at tlre upper limit of the 2/1 may be representedby 4 (a doubling of 2);
hcnce the interval from the 3 of 3/2 to this upper limit of the 2/1 is the
interval from 3 to 4, or 4/3, which is therefore the complement of 3/2
*itlrin the 2/1i the two intervals might be expressedthus: 2:3:4. In the

GENESIS OF A MUSIC
ratio 5/4,4 represents 1/l; the 2/1 above 4 is 8; the complement of 5/4,
therefore, is the interval from 5 to 8, or 8/5, and the two intervals might be
expressed,4:5:8. In the ratio 6/5, 5 represents1/1; the 2/l above 5 is 10,
and the complement of 6/5 is therefore the interval from 6 to 10, or 70/6,
or, in its lowest terms, 5/3; the two intervals might be shown in this form,
5:6:10.
To find the sum of two intervals multiply the two ratios. The sum of
which, reducedto its lowest
5/4 and 6/5, for example, 5/4x6/5:30/20,
terms, is 3/2 (a "major third" and a "minor third" make a "perfect fifth").
To find the interval between t\ /o tones invert the smaller or narrower
ratio and multiply. For example, to find the interval between 3/2 and 4/3
invert the smaller,4/3, and use it as a multiplier: 3/2X3/4:9/8,which
is therefore the interval representing the tonal distance between the 4 of 4/3
and the ! of 3/2. (The difference between a "perfect fourth" and a "perfect
.fifth" is a "major second.")
To find a given interval above a given tone is of course simply a matter
multiplying
the two ratios involved; to frnd the same interval distance
of
downward from the same tone, the procedure is inversion and multiplication. Forexample,a6f5 above3/2 is arrived at r}Lvs 3/2X6 /5:9/5; and
a 6/5 below 3/2 thrs: 3/2X5/6:5/4.

Were Do RatiosFall onthePiano?

It is inadvisable to think of these ratios in terms of piano keys except
with the most precisereservations.To do so without reservationsis a triple
abuse-of the ratios, of the piano, and of oneself.One can go crazy trying to
reconcile irreconcilables, but given an appreciation of the essentiality of
ratios in understanding musical resourcessome knowledge of the piano's
discrepanciesmay prove enlightening.
If in the teaching of simple arithme tic the number 1 was called Sun, 2
called Moon, 3 called Jupiter, and 4 called Venus, and if this procedure
were carried to the point where the teachersthemselvesno longer knew that
Sun:1, Moon:2, Jupiter:3, and Venus:4, and forced upon students
the euphemistic proposition that Moon*Moon:
Venus, becausethey had
learned it that way, we would have in simple arithmetic a fairly exact
parallel to the "Tonic-Supertonic-Mediant" or the "C-D-E" nomenclature in the teaching of the scienceof musical vibrations. And the idea that
\s no more awkMoon*Moon : Venus could accurately represent2*2:4

ward, to put it ch
vals "C-F*F-C :
In resorting tc
adopt the negative
would say that 16
tone flat in the "l
think of the piano
and the more fruit
tion and indispen
rtould say that "I
equal semitone.Il
the pursuit of the J
recommcnded. Ft
crepancieswith tl

Ellis' MeasureoJ

One more ste

presentedin prep;
principles,namel
ander J. Ellis in a
tionsoJ Tone.sTh
scmitone- 1200 tr
ablesthe theorist
magnitudesof the
sches.Thev gile
lish his nhercabo
number 1 to the fz
subscquentpages
l-'oundariesof thit
If "G" is the s
centsas shorvnin
rains400 cents.T
ccnts.The differe
Thcrefore "B" in
irc cxpressedas 5
l o n c.
sPages
446-451.

THE LANGUAGE OF RATIOS

complement of 5/4,
vo intervals might be
re 2/1 above 5 is 10,
om 6 to 10, or 70/6,
e shown in this form,
c ratios. The sum of
reduced to its lowest
Lkea "perfect fifth").
smaller or narrower
rctween 3f 2 and 4f 3
2X3 /4:9 /8, which
between the 4 of 4/3
:rth" and a "perfect
urse simply a matter
me interval distance
:ion and multiplica3/2X6 /5 :9 /5; and

of piano keys except

lservations is a triple
an go crazy trying to
rf the essentiality of
'ledge of the piano's
' 1 was called Sun, 2
nd if this procedure
no longer knew that
:rced upon students
us, becausethey had
metic a fairly exact
C-D-E" nomenclas. And the idea that
l:4 is no more awk-

*'ard, to put it charitably, than the idea that the ascendingmusical intervals "C-F *F-C : C-C" can accuratelyrepresent4/ 3 X3 / Z : 2/ 1,
In resorting to the piano two procedures are possible. First, one can
adopt the negative procedure of regarding ratios as altered piano tones.One
would say that 16/9, for example, is "F" one tu'enty-fifth of an equal semitone flat in the "key of G." On the other hand, it is quite as possibleto
think of the piano tonesas alteredratios.This is the constructiveapproach,
and the more fruitful one, since it predicates an understanding of the function and indispensabilityof ratios. In accordanceu'ith this procedureone
rlould say that "F" in the "key of G" is 1679 plus one t$'enty-fifth of an
equal semitone.If translation into conventionalvalues seemsdesirablein
the pursuit of the Monophonic theory, the secondis certainly the procedure
recommended. Follorting the explanation of cents a table of piano discrepancieswith the nearestsmall-numberratios will be given.

Ellis' Measure
of Cents
One mori step in the simple mechanicsof dealing with ratios must be
prcsentedin preparationfor the expositionof the Monophonic conceptsand
principles, namely, the measure of musical intervals established by AlexanderJ. Ellis in an appendix to his translationof Helmholtz's On theSensatiansoJ Tone.6This measureis the cent, the hundredth part of an equal
semitone-1200 to rhe 2/1. Cents provide a logarithmic device which enablesthe theorist to add and subtract numbersrepresentingthe respective
magnitudesof the variousratios, which he cannot do with the ratios themselves.They give the adventurerhis longitude and latitude and thus establish his u'hereaboutsin that vast. barely explored sea which lies from the
number 1 to the farawayshoresof the number 2. The ratioson previousand
subscquentpages,then, are the familiar or exotic islandsthat lie within the
boundariesof this little-knoransea.
If "G" is the starting point, the intcrvalsof the piano keyboardcontain
centsas shownin Diagram 2. The tempered"major third," "G to B," conrains400 cents.The true "major third," 57'4,containsonly a triflc over 386
cents.The diference, nearly 14 cents,is approximatelyone-seventhof 100.
Thcrefore "B" in the "key of G," which is 14 centssharPerthan 5/4. may
be cxpressedas 5/4 plus 14 cents,or approximatelyone-seventhof a semitone.
sPaces446-451.

B4

GENESIS OF A MUSIC

The tempered "minor third," "G to Bl," contains 300 cents,whereas

the true "minor third," 6/5, has nearly 316. The difference, a trifle less
than 16 cents,is approximatelyone-sixthof 100.Therefore"Bb" in the "key

Drncnalr 2.-Celrrs

oN THE PreNo KeysoaRD

of G," which is 16 cents flatter than 6/5, may be stated as 6/5 minus 16
cents, or approximately one-sixth of a semitone.
Below are translations of all so-called diatonic intervals to the nearest
small-number ratios, the discrepanciesbeing expressedin approximate plus
or minus number of cents:
INTERVAL

RATIO

"G"

1/1 (the unison)

"G to Ab"

16/15 minus 12 cents

9/8 minus 4 cents,ot
10/9 plus 18 cents

,,G to Bb',

INTERVAL

RATIO

"G to C*"

7/5 plus 17.5 cents, or

10/7 minus 17.5 cents
3/2 minus 2 cents
8/5 minus 14 cents
5/3 plus 16 cents,or
12/7 minus 33 cents
16/9 plus 4 cents,or
9/5 minus 18 cents
15/8 plus 12 cents

"G to Eb"

6/5 minus 16 cents,or

7/6 plus 33 cents
5/4 plus 14 cents
4/3 plus 2 cents

"G to F*"

This table represents,of course, the falsities that are found not only in
the "key of G" but in any "key" of Equal Temperament. If the "key of C"
is chosen,(!C to Dt"-the smallestinterval-is 16/15 minus 12 cents,etc.
For finding the number of cents in a given ratio Ellis provides a simple
arithmetical method-not adequate for investigation of a many-toned

scale-and alsome
placcs.For prescn
suflicient.All the l
lrc-.ides,
are givcn i
rable of Appendix
( nlv to that advcn
r oncl the ratios cxl
pl:rcelogarithms.c
r i Llclrnholtz'sOrr
lllis cxplainshis p

. nr Plc. and on Pat

r ' ir h t hc t ablc of
r nrrncnts br \ hicl
'
r : r usicalr c- sour ccs
For purpost-s o
i, , nat ion t he I oSar
: 1. i. r r or k or t ir . in
:( lP{ ramcnts. ]'ol
( : l. ll) lishing \ \ llcr c

THE LANGUAGE OF RATIOS

rs 300 cents,whereas
ifference, a trifle less
:fore"Bb" in the "key

OA R D

ted as 6/5 minus 16

:ervals to the nearest
Lin approximate plus
RATIO
/ ' ) p l u s I /.) ce nts, o t
l u , / mrnus I /.) cen ts
3 ,2 mi n u s2cents
87'5 minus 14 ccnts
513 plus 16 cents, or
12, 7 minus 33 cents
167'9 plus 4 cents, o/
9,/5 minus 18 cents
15 8 p l u s 12 cents

re found not only in

nt. If the "key of C"
minus 12 cents,etc.
lis providesa simple
:r of a many-toned

scale-and also methodsby logarithmsthat give resultsup to three decimal

placcs.For presentpurposescomputationsto a tenth of a ccnt are generally
sufficient.All the Monophonic ratios in this exposition,and manv others
besidcs,are givcn in centsto one dccimal point, either in the text or in the
table of Appendix I. Knowledgc as to computation of ccnts is important
only to that adventuroussoul rlho rvishesto organizea scaleor systcmbcvond the ratios expoundedin this volumc. For this purposca tablc of fiveplace logarithms,obtainableat almost an; bookstore,and the library loan
of Hclmholtz's On theSensations
oJ Zonrarc the esscntials.
On pagcs448-449
Ellis cxplainshis procedurefor obtaininq rcsultsto a tenth of a cent, by example, ancl on pages450-451 hc supplit'stablcs to be uscd in conjunction
uith the tablc of {ivc-placelogarithms. Ratios and ccnts are thc nvo ins(rumcntsbl rrhich thc investi!{atorexaurinesand organizcshis t}rcorctical
musical rcsourccs.
For purposcsof an immediatc papcr ccrnparisonof ratios in Just Intonation the logarithm is no bcttcr than rhe ratio, and is thereforeuscd in
this rvork onlf in computing ccnts and in examination of the numcrous
tempcraments.For exactitude uc havc thc ratio itsclf:lbr the purposeof
cstablishinguhcreabouts by-prina Jacit comparison\\'c havc cents,