Journal

8, No. 4, 1980, pp. 292-306.

of Dentistry,

Printed

in Great Britain

A review of the properties of some denture

base polymers*
G. D. Stafford, TD, MSc, LDS, PhD
J. F. Bates, BDS, MSC, DDS
R. Huggett, FBIST, CGIA
R. W. Handley
Department of Restora rive Dentistry, Dental School, Cardiff

INTRODUCTION
Acrylic denture base materials have been widely available in the United Kingdom for about
40 years. The loss of rubber supplies to the United Kingdom in 1942 completed the change
over to acrylic resins which had really begun in 1935 with the introduction of Kallodent, in
its injection moulded form, by Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. The production of acrylic
resin for dentistry is the now familiar dough moulding technique which was introduced by
Kulzer shortly after Kallodent. This basic material and technique has remained as the
denture base material of choice since that time, although various polymers have been developed for use in dentistry to overcome the strength deficiencies of polymethylmethacrylate
(PMMA). Polymers such as the polyamides, epoxy resin, polystyrene, vinyl-acrylic, rubber
graft polymers and polycarbonate have been used. Modification of PMMA and the addition
of fillers has also been attempted. Over the past few years acrylic resin polymers have also
been modified so that they could be used in a more versatile fashion and a review of the
properties of these pour-type denture base resins has been published (Bates et al., 1977).
The total amount of money spent on repairs to acrylic dentures in the National Health
Service of England and Wales between 1948 and 1978 is reliably estimated at a figure of
g27.9 million at a cost of JZ28.1 million (not allowing for variations in monetary value)
(Dental Estimates Board, 1979) and so the strength of these resins is still a cause for concern.
Further recent efforts have been made to improve these deficiencies by developing different
polymers based upon dental PMMA, with the addition of rubbers. This produces a resin
that consists of a matrix of PMMA within which is dispersed an interpenetrating
network of
rubber and PMMA. This leads to a situation where a developing crack accelerates in the
PMMA, but decelerates whilst crossing the rubber phase, thus increasing the fracture resistance. It is therefore useful to review some of the physical and mechanical properties of a
range of these higher strength polymers and compare them with other acrylic denture
base resins.

MATERIALS
Five heat-cured denture base resins that are produced by the manufacturers as higher strength
resins were examined and compared with a standard heat-cured resin, an autopolymerized
resin, a rapid polymerizing heat-cured resin and a pour-type resin. The materials tested are
____-.
* Based upon a lecture given at the Annual General Meeting of the British Society for the Study of
Prosthetic

Dentistry

in Manchester,

1978.

Stafford

et al.: Properties

of denture

Table 1. Materials examined

in this study

Manufacturer

Material
Hircoe
Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon HI
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure

293

base polymers

Coe Laboratories

Inc., Chicago, USA

Kerr, Michigan, USA

Caulk Co., Delaware, USA
Amalgamated Dental Trade Distribution
Virina, Ottawa, Canada
Amalgamated Dental Trade Distribution
Dental Fillings Ltd, London, UK
Amalgamated Dental Trade Distribution
Coe Laboratories Inc., Chicago, USA

Ltd. London,

UK

Ltd. London,

UK

Ltd. London,

UK

shown in Table I. All heat-cured materials were processed for 14 h at 70 OC except Acron
Rapid which was cured for 20 minutes at 100 C.
Trevalon HI, Lucitone 199 and Hircoe are micro-dispersed rubber phase polymers,
probably formed in a similar way to that described in US Patent No 3 427 214. In this
patent the methylmethacrylate
and the butadiene styrene are described as being copolymerized in an emulsion with a second coating of methylmethacrylate
being added to
cover the bead. These polymer beads are then mixed with monomer in the usual way.
Impact appears to be a butadiene methacrylate co-polymer without the secondary coating
of methylmethacrylate
as the rubber particles can be seen to lie on the surface of the beads
(Fig. 1) and the doughing characteristics are thus poor and the handling of the material is
extremely difficult.
Vinalene is similar to Luxene 44, which is a mixture and co-polymer of vinyl chloride,
vinyl acetate and methylmethacrylate.
Trevalon is a normal heat-cured denture base resin.
The powder component is PMMA (> 97 per cent), the monomer of methylmethacrylate
contains a crosslinking agent, - 6 per cent ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA). Acron
Rapid is a homopolymer
of polymethylmethacrylate.
It has a small bead size and the
monomer contains a small proportion of an accelerator and a crosslinking agent.
De Treys Self Cure is an example of the chemically activated resins and is similar to
standard heat-cured materials, but contains a tertiary amine in the monomer. This is similar
to the Pour-n-Cure resin which is used in an almost fluid state.
Many of the monomers contain crosslinking agents and, in the case of the autopolymerizing materials, a tertiary amine. All monomers have an inhibitor, such as hydroquinone,
to prevent unwanted polymerization.
The powders all contain an initiator, such as benzoyl
peroxide, together with the necessary colouring agents.
MATERIALS
AND METHODS
The materials were examined in two stages. First, the physical and chemical nature of the
polymer and monomer of the purchased pack were examined and, secondly, the measurement of the mechanical and physical properties of the cured resins were studied.
Physical properties of the polymer
Particle

size

Polymer powders were analysed for particle size. The size of the largest particles was obtained
initially by sieving in order that an aperture tube of the most suitable size could be selected

294

Journal of Dentistry,

Fig. 1. SEM photomicrograph

of beads of
showing rubber on the surface (X 140).

Vol. ~/NO.

Impact

for a Coulter Counter Analyser Model B (Coulter Electronics Ltd, Harpenden, Hertfordshire).
The counter measured the number and size of the particles suspended in an electrolyte
containing (by volume) 5 per cent sodium chloride, 25 per cent glycerol and 70 per cent
distilled water. A sample of approximately 1 O-20 mg was placed on a clean watch glass and
any characterization
fibres removed from the polymer using a small needle. A small amount
of physiological saline was then added to the sample, together with a detergent, Noneidat
P42. The sample was then added to 200 ml of the electrolyte in a clean beaker, which was
placed in a small ultrasonic bath to ensure complete dispersion of the sample. The Coulter
counter determined the number and the size of the suspended particles. These results were
then analysed by computer to calculate the percentage weight distribution of the sample
and are shown in Table II.
Molecular weight of the polymer
The molecular weights of the polymer powders were determined by gel permeation chromatography (Rubber and Plastics Research Association, Shawbury) using tetrahydrofuran
as a
solvent for the GPC system and was calibrated with known molecular weight samples cf
polystyrene.
Knowledge of the intrinsic viscosity-molecular
weight relationship of polystyrene and polymethylmethacrylate
in tetrahydrofuran
enabled this calibration to be used
for polymethylmethacrylate
dental polymer. The molecular weight distribution
obtained
from GPC analysis allows for the derivation of a variety of averages. In the present study the
number and weight average molecular weights are given and are shown in Table III.
Crosslinking agents in the monomer
The monomers

have been analysed by gas liquid chromatography

glycol dimethacrylate.
Mechanical

for the presence of ethylene

properties of the cured resins

included the transverse bend test and others that have
been found useful in understanding
the behaviour of these resins (Bates et al., 1977). All
specimens were fully saturated before testing, by immersion in water at 37 C until a
constant weight was obtained.

The tests selected for this assessment

<21

633
1.80
9.17
10.68
4.56
3.88
11.41
28.92
5.84

Material

Hircoe
Impact
Lucitone
Treval on H I
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure

Table II. Results of Coulter

5.91
0.76
8.68
10.25
1 O-07
8.23
29.29
17.25
10.36

8.39

1.44
11.92
14.39
9.37
5.47
21.69
36.36
6-73

36-44

22-35
854
2.02
IO.57
12.62
20.91
19.87
23.68
10.63
18.00

45-56

analysis (weight percentages)

11.47
6.13
13.99
14.16
24.52
28.82
10.36
4.52
26.00
11.89
11.55
11.97
15.77
18.62
22.01
3.18
2.32
26.25

Size of particles
57- 70
71-89

(~1

12.86
7.96
8.36
0.22
.
1.76

24.56
20.44
14.88

90-l
12

24.94
9.91
2.13
1.33
0.92

1.38
1.68

141-177

24.91
28.56
8.91
7.14
1.73
1.12
0.17

113-140

0.93
1.32

2.36

178-224

82.27
116.22
73.68
62.70
62.41
65.17
40.61
30.39
59.94

Mean

36.47
38.51
63.4
35.6
29.49
28.56
16.89
16.85
25.32

s. d.

44.33
33.14
58.9
56.78
47.15
43.82
41.61
55.46
42.24

c. of v.
(%I

296

Journal of Dentistry,

Tab/e /I/.

Molecular

weight distribution
Mn X lo5

Materiel
Hircoe
Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon HI
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure
Mn, Number
weight.

Tab/e IV.

Transverse

Vol. ~/NO. 4

Mw

2.079

Mw/Mn

105

7.692
5.754
7.497
8.060
8-952
21.76
24.79
8.806
5.297

1 @I5
1.857
2.151
1.363
4.128
5.263
2.358
I.671
average molecular

3.70
3.12
4.04
3.75
6.57
5.27
4.71
3.73
3.70

weight; Mw, weight average molecular

bend test results h = 10)

Averege
deflection
ar 15N

Average
deflection
at35N

Material

tmml

(mm)

Hircoe
Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon HI
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Trey s SC
Pour-n-Cure

1.50
1.30
1.35
1.27
1.25
1.27
1.25
1.26
1.35

3.75
3.30
3.35
3.30
3.17
3.30
2.95
3.23
3.53

Average
deflection
at50N
(mm)

5.35
5.45
5.32
5.03
5.32
4.70
-

Average
deflec don
at break

Average
force
at break

(mm)

INI

8.05
7.40
8.60
8.98
7.26
8.98
9.15
10.09
7.56

47-o
52.7
55.0
56.0
56.6
56.0
61.5
48-0
48.3

Tab/e V. Deflection
of the materials compared
the limits imposed by the IS0 specification

with

Deforma don
Ma rerial

15-35
N
(mm)

15-50

lmml

Hircoe

2.25

Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon HI
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure

2.00
2.00
2.05
l-90
2.05
1.70
1.95
2.20

4-05
4.10
4.25
3.80
4.05
3.45
-

Test limits

1 .O min to
2.5 max

2.0 min to
5.0 max

Elastic
modulus
W/m)
2000
2269
2220
2345
2386
2354
2442
2398
2246

Stafford

et al.: Properties

of denture

297

base polymers

Table VI. Results of Hounsfield

Impact

impact test fn = 10)

energy

c. of v.

Material

(Nm X lU+)

I%)

Hircoe
Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon HI
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure

542
1231
1063
811
578
455
513
452
464

9.3
5.1
8.1
12.8
10.2
16.4
12.3
15.7
21.1

Tab/e VII.

Cycles to fracture

in fatigue tests (n = 5)
c. of v.

Material

Cycles X 10

Hircoe
Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon Hi
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure

Tab/e VIII.

739
1444
763
603
677
954

(%I
73
38
43
52
55
54
36
42
52

Results of hardness test at 15 set

Material

Indentation
(mm X 104)

Hircoe
Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon HI
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure

297
363
296
280
295
282
273
293
305

(n =

10)

c. of v.

1%)
1.1
1.8
1.7
0.7
2.0
0.9
1.1
1.4
0.7

Transverse bend test

These specimens were produced and tested by the technique described by Stafford and
Handley (1975) and conforms to International
Standards Organization (ISO) Specification
1567 (1978). The results are shown in Tables IV and V.
lmpac t test
These specimens were tested on the Plastics Impact Machine H20 (Monsanto Ltd, Swindon,
Wiltshire) and the details of this test are given in the manufacturers
technical publication
number 201-28-l 3(E)M-E-I (11/74) and the results are shown in Table VI.

298

Journal

Table IX.

Vol. ~/NO. 4

Results of compressive creep tests (n = IO)

Indentation
at 5 set
(mm x IO4

Material
Hircoe
Impact
Lucitone
Trevalon
Vinalene

of Dentistry,

199
HI

Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure

lnden ta tion
at 18Osec

Percentage
of creep

bmn x IO4 1

285.4
279.9
283.0
268.6
281.6

f
r
+
+
f

6-5
1.5
2.9
2.1
4.4

326.4
319.5
324.6
308.8
322.2

f
f
+
+
+

6.5
2-5
5.1
3.2
4.6

14.4
14.2
14.7
15.0
14.4

270.6
256-o
278.4
271.5

k
f
+
*

2.3
4.5
4.2
2.7

312.6
294.2
327.4
317.2

f
f
+
+

3.7
3.8
7.4
3.5

15.5
14.9
17.6
16.8

Table X. Abrasion

resistance in water at 37 C (n = 10)

Wear

Material
Hircoe
Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon HI
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure

(mm X 1O-3
618
594
588
546
499
595
530
552
611

c. of v.

Is,)
6.3
16.4
14.2
15.1
12.5
10.2
20.4
12.1
12.9

Fatigue tests
These were carried out upon a machine

that would enable transverse bend type specimens

to be tested. The equipment had been designed specifically for denture base materials
(Stafford et al., 1980). Flat specimens 50 X 10 X 2-S f. 0.03 mm were tested in three-point
loading in water with a bending deflection of 0.5 mm. The specimens were notched to a
depth of O-5 mm. The results are shown in Table VZZ.
Hardness and creep tests

Specimens were made and tested by the techniques described by Stafford and Huggett
(1974, 1978). The hardness test utilized a Wallace Hardness Tester Model H6B/SA/C (Wallace
& Co. Ltd, Croydon), fitted with an automatic servo-assisted loading mechanism. This
equipment was also used on the same specimens to measure the creep of the materials in
compression. These results are shown in Tables VZZZand IX.
Abrasion resistance

Abrasion tests were completed using the specimen preparation and testing procedure described by Harrison and Huggett (1974). The specimens were abraded against 600 grit silicon
carbide paper for 1 h using a contact pressure of O-26 MN/m2 in water at 37 C. These
results are shown in Table X.

Stafford

et al.: Properties

of denture

299

base polymers

Fig. 2. Diagram showing the dimensions of the SEN

specimen used in fracture toughness testing. P, load;
R, radius; W, thickness; B, width; dimensions in mm.

Table XI.

Fracture

toughness results (n = 10)

Fracture
MN/m

Material
Hircoe
Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon HI
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure

Table XII.

Percen rage
water
uptake

Diffusion
coefficients
(70+ cm* set- )*

2.16
1.99
2.51
2.54
1.80
2.29
2-36
2.36
2.01

4.50
3.65
2.45
1.28
I.77
I.10
1.55
1.62
1.20

Test limits should not exceed

* In accordance
t In accordance

c. of II.
I%)
4.4
5.0
4.0
4.4
7.1
3.9
8.5
7.2
5.3

tests (n = 5)

??

H ircoe
Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon HI
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure

Fracture

1.58
1.77-6.00
1.99
2.12
2.45
2.29
2.96
1.82
1.53

Results of water absorption

Material

toughness
3 fz

Sorption
(mg/cm

1t

Solubility
(mg/cm

0.55
0.50
0.56
0.57
0.54
0.58
0.62
0.60
0.50

0.22
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.01

0.80

0.04

1t

with Braden (1964).

with BSI Test 2487.

toughness

tests were completed in water at 37 C with single edge notched (SEN) specimens,
using the method described by Stafford, Causton and Huggett (1980). The specimen dimensions are shown in Fig. 2 and the results in Table XI.
These

300

Journal of Dentistry,

Fig. 3 . Diagram to show the dimensions

used I irI the test for dimensional accuracy.
Tab ble XIII.

ts of

t ests on dimensional

of the die

Shrinkage at 1 mth
after process
saturated dimension (%I

(X- Yl + IX-Z)

Y-Z

Material

Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon HI
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cure

accuracy

Shrinkage at 24 h
after process
dimension (%)

Y-Z

Vol. ~/NO.

0.22
0.32
0.12
0.15
0.33
0.43

0.97
0.04
0.48

0.34
0.15
0.14
0.18
0.21
0.55
0.33

0.17
0.17

+0.13*
+0.02*
0.04
0.10
0.24
0.14
0.90
+0.22*
0.38

IX-

Yl + (X-Z)
2
0.13
0.13
0.08
0.15
o-15
0.30
0.28
0.06
0.08

* Expansion.

Physical properties of the cured resins

Water

up

take and solubility

Specimens were prepared, as described by Stafford and Huggett (1973) and on these specimens water uptake was measured and the diffusion coefficients calculated using the methods
of Braden (1964). The results are shown in Table XI. Further specimens were made for
sorption and solubility in accordance with the procedure laid down in British Standards
Institution Specification Test No. 2487.
Dimensional accuracy
The dimensional accuracy

of the materials was measured using the method of Goodkind and

Schultz (1970). The specimens were processed on stone casts prepared from a silicone mould

Stafford

et al.: Properties

of denture

301

base polymers

(Sylgard 186, Dow Corning Co. Medland, Michigan, USA) of the master die. The casts and
specimen plates were measured with a Nikon Measurescope (Nippon Kogaku, Chuo-ku,
Tokyo, Japan) at a magnification of X lO.Measurements
are made across the three dimenbeing
sions shown in Fig. 3 and the results are shown in Table XIZI. The measurements
X-Y, Y--Z and Z-X. As the die is symmetrical, it was anticipated that there would be no
significant difference between the two anteroposterior
measurements X-Y and X-Z. The
results confirmed this and, consequently,
the mean of these two readings is tabulated as the
dimension

{X-Y)+(X-Z)_

Measurements

of the posterior

dimension

are tabulated

as the

2
Y-Z reading.
Residual monomer
The residual monomer of the polymerized resin was determined 24 h after processing. The
material was polymerized according to the manufacturers
instructions. The samples were
prepared by milling using a Glen Creston milling machine (Glen Creston Miller Type DFH48,
Stanmore, England) and 2 g of polymer was refluxed in 8 g methanol (O-5 per cent internal
standard of ethyl acetate) for 6 h. The residual monomer extracted was then estimated
(Douglas and Bates, 1978).

DISCUSSION
The sizes of the polymer particles varied rather more than might have been expected. It was
thought that the manufacturers
would wish to make the particle size as small as possible in
order to aid wetting of the beads. This leads to a smoother mix and greater solution of the
particles thus reducing doughing time. It can be seen that De Treys SC has this property and,
to a slightly lesser extent, Acron Rapid. Pour-n-Cure, Trevalon and Trevalon HI have similar
means and distributions.
Lucitone and Hircoe have marginally larger particles. Impact is
much coarser than the others with 56 per cent of its particles larger than 112 pm. The
Impact beads have rubber particles attached to them (Fig. I) and these may also contribute
to the difficulty in the mixing of this material. These bead forms are to be contrasted to
those shown in Fig. 4, which are characteristic of standard polymers.
The molecular weight of the polymer powder might also vary the rapidity of solution of
the polymer particles in the monomer affecting the slurry viscosity. The ratio Mw/Mn is an
index of poly-dispersivity.
If Mw/Mn = unity, then all the chains have the same length and
weight. This is an ideal situation which is not possible in practice. Up to 5 would be regarded
as a narrow distribution and between 5 and 20 a medium distribution. Only small differences
are demonstrated between the materials examined.
There are certain problems in interpretation
of the molecular weight results. In the
determinations
the assumption has been made that the polymer powders tested have been
PMMA homopolymers.
The molecular weight figures therefore are only correct for those
polymers that are PMMA homopolymers
and reasonably correct for those that are largely
PMMA. Separate calibration for all copolymers is necessary and for this purpose it is necessary to analyse each polymer to determine the constituents.
Acron Rapid and Trevalon have much higher kw values than the other materials. This
factor will contribute to less imbibition of the monomer into the powder component, thereby
reducing the gel effect and facilitating bimolecular chain termination.
As a consequence

302

Journal

Fig. 4. SEM
(X 140).

photomicrograph

Fig. 5. Photograph
of polymer
etched specimen (X 40).

of

beads

of Dentistry,

Vol. ~/NO.

of polymer

beads in a prepared

curing methods involving the application of rapid heat may be used without the development
of a high exothermic temperature.
Etching of prepared polymer surfaces and photography shows that some of the larger
beads undergo solution at their surfaces and the beads can appear flattened (Fig. 5). It can
be shown that fracture usually cleaves the beads of the material (Fig 6) although in weaker
polymers the fracture will progress through the matrix and pass around the bead (Fig 7).
This has also been shown by Kusy and Turner (1974). This emphasizes the requirement that
there should be a good bond between matrix and bead in these two phased structures in
order to obtain the best strength characteristics. This may be a problem in rapid doughing
materials, like the self-cure resins, which probably explains the use of smaller bead sizes by
the manufacturers of these resins.
Mechanical properties of the various types of resins differ only slightly. The modulus of
elasticity is not significantly different in any one group of materials, although in the rubber
graft polymers the deflection (Table v) in accordance with the IS0 proposed standard
appears to be slightly greater than with the Vinalene material or the autopolymerized
resins.
Hircoe, De Treys SC and Pour-n-Cure, however, fractured before the 50 N load could be
applied. The crosslinking agents added to the monomers may have affected the mechanical

Stafford

et al.: Properties

of denture

base polymers

303

Fig. 6. Photograph of etched specimen of a polymer

showing a fracture cleaving the beads (X 40).

Fig. 7. Photograph
showing a fracture

of etched specimen of a polymer

passing around the beads (X40).

properties, but Jagger and Huggett (1975) were unable to demonstrate that these co-polymers
had, in the concentrations
used in denture base materials, any great effect upon mechanical
properties. Of these resins, only Impact was not crosslinked, but generally the resins had
about 10 per cent of EGDMA added. It must be assumed that they are added to improve
the craze resistance of the materials and also to perhaps improve the stiffness of the resins.
This would be of value in the autopolymerizing
resins where the higher residual monomer
will act as a plasticizer and thus give greater flexibility. Generally, the heat polymerized
materials, processed at 70 C, have values of residual monomer below 1.5 per cent, whilst
the autopolymerized
materials have values as high as 4 per cent. Variations exist because of
differences in amounts of benzoyl peroxide etc. which will affect the rate of polymerization
and the exotherm developed. This is the likely reason that Hircoe has a residual monomer,
after processing, of 2.1 per cent, whilst Trevalon HI has a value of 0.67 per cent although
both these materials were processed at the same temperature. The higher the temperature of
processing of a given material the lower the amount of residual monomer and this lower
value will be generally found when the processing cycle includes temperatures of 100 C.
The objective of the higher impact resins is self evident in that they absorb greater
amonnts of energy at a higher strain rate before fracture than the standard resins. The

304

Journal of Dentistry, Vol. ~/NO. 4

Table XIV.

Cost of denture base resins

Lab. pack
Material

Hircoe

20
1
120

Impact
Lucitone 199
Trevalon HI
Vinalene
Trevalon
Acron Rapid
De Treys SC
Pour-n-Cbre

units

3000
440
3000
4500
3000
454

cost

Price per
denture

lfl

if)

27.00
3.50
147.84
140.00
17.00
23-76
28.80
44.11
12.50

1.35
3.50
1.23
o-93
0.77
O-16
0.13
0.29
0.55

Hounsfield impact test gives a useful comparison of the resins (Table VZ) and demonstrates
that Impact is outstanding. Lucitone 199 and Trevalon HI give high impact test results but
Hircoe is less satisfactory than the other rubber-filled polymers, and it was, like Vinalene,
little better than standard heat or autopolymerized
resins. In conjunction
with the low
modulus and strength characteristics, Hircoe has little to offer over resins like Acron Rapid
which has better bend strength properties in these tests. Fatigue tests show Acron Rapid as
a more satisfactory material than Hircoe, Lucitone 199 or Trevalon HI. These results have,
because of the nature of the test, a wide scatter. Results should be interpreted with caution
although marked differences with resins such as Impact and De Treys Self Cure are likely to
be of clinical significance.
Hardness and creep values (Table VZZZand Zx) are all very similar with Impact showing
the greatest indentation at 15 seconds, i.e. the softest material, which probably indicates a
greater concentration
of rubber being present. As also might be expected, the two autopolymerized resins have the highest creep values which again may reflect the residual monomer
concentrations
and is not in any way related to the molecular weight. The same differences
in hardness were also reflected in the abrasion resistance where there were no differences of
any clinical significance (Table x).
Fracture toughness should be an ideal method of examining the higher strength resins,
but the analysis depends on a number of assumptions concerning the crack length when
using the SEN technique and, further, as the theory is related to homogeneous brittle
materials, the extension of the work to rubber graft polymers is problematical. The results
(Table XZ) show the high impact resins to be no better than Vinalene or Trevalon with
Acron Rapid giving the best results and the self-cure resins the worst.
Vinalene demonstrates the lowest water uptake and a low diffusion coefficient, whilst the
high impact materials have similar water uptakes to other resins, but higher diffusion COeffcients which could be explained by the butadiene content (Table XZZ).All the materials
were within the specification limits.
All the materials shrink on curing, with Acron Rapid exhibiting the largest amount, due
no doubt to the high temperature cure and thermal change on cooling. These results are in
good agreement with those of other workers (Winkler, 1967; Goodkind and Schultz, 1970;
Gee et al., 1979); Statistical analysis showed that significant differences existed between
many of the materials tested in all dimensions at both the 24-h and l-month saturated
period. Acron Rapid displayed significantly more shrinkage (P< O-001) than all of the other

305

Stafford et al.: Properties of denture base polymers

materials across the dimension Y-Z at both the 24-h and l-month stage. All the materials
then expanded during the storage in water for one month and, in the case of Hircoe, Impact
and De Treys Self Cure, the water uptake was sufficient to cause an expansion greater than
the initial contraction and thus a final slight expansion occurred. The increase in the Y-X
dimension after one month in water does not appear to be correlated with water uptake.
These changes are, however, small and, in terms of the total shrinkage, may not have any
clinical significance.
In order to overcome the national high expenditure on repairs, it would be necessary for
each denture to be made in a better material. Since gl-4 million was spent on repairs in 1978
and 1.1 million dentures constructed, it follows that the material cost could be increased by
about $1 for each denture if this reduced the number of fractures significantly and would,
therefore, be cost effective.
Unfortunately,
the only resin which gave consistently good results in these tests was
Impact, which is too expensive (Table XII) for this to be adopted even if the material were
acceptable in other ways. Most technicians find the material difficult to manipulate. However, the material tested in this work has since been replaced by the manufacturer as Impact
76, a material with improved working properties. However, the other materials, such as
Lucitone 199 and Trevalon HI, do show some improvement
over conventional
materials
except for fatigue properties and could be used, but it would be essential to ascertain from a
clinical trial that the use of these materials did significantly reduce the incidence of fracture
in a normal National Health Service practice.

Acknowledgements
We are indebted to the Rubber and plastics Research Association at Shawbury for their
help in carrying out the molecular weight determinations
and to Dr A. Harrison for completing the abrasion tests.

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