Tornadoes

http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0875633.html

Facts and figures about twisters

by Ann Marie Imbornoni

Related Links

U.S. Tornadoes:
1840 to present

Deadliest U.S.
Tornadoes

Tornado Facts &

Figures

Tornado Safety (Ask

the Editors)

Fujita Tornado
Intensity Scale

Tornado Index

Average number of
tornadoes per year
(19502010): 1,253
Top 5 states with
highest incidence of

tornadoes:Texas,
Oklahoma, Kansas,
Florida, Nebraska
States with lowest
incidence of
tornadoes):Alaska,
Rhode Island,
Hawaii, Vermont,
Oregon
Most tornadoes in one
day: 316 (April 2011)
Most tornadoes in one
month: 543 (May
2003)
Most tornado deaths
in one year: 550
(2011)
Fewest tornado
deaths in one year: 15
(1986)
Source: Storm Prediction
Center at the National Weather
Service

Although tornadoes can happen at any time of year, they are especially
common during the spring and early summer. May and June are the peak
months in terms of numbers of tornadoes, but April appears to be the
deadliest month. Two of the all-time worst tornado disasters occurred in April.
On April 3-4, 1974, 148 twisters struck 13 states, causing more than 300

deaths, and on April 27, 2011, 137 reported tornadoes swept through the
south, killing nearly 300 people in six states. Most of the fatalities occurred in
Alabama. May holds the record for experiencing the most tornadoes. In May
2003, there were 543 recorded tornadoes. On average, 60 people die each
year as a result of tornadoes, mostly from flying and falling debris.

What Is a Tornado?
A tornado is a dark funnel-shaped cloud made up of violently rotating winds
that can reach speeds of up to 300 m.p.h. The diameter of a tornado can vary
between a few feet and a mile, and its track can extend from less than a mile
to several hundred miles. Tornadoes generally travel in a northeast direction
(depending on the prevailing winds) at speeds ranging from 20-60 m.p.h.

What Causes a Tornado?

Tornadoes are most often spawned by giant thunderstorms known as
"supercells." These powerful, highly organized storms form when warm, moist
air along the ground rushes upward, meeting cooler, drier air. As the rising
warm air cools, the moisture it carries condenses, forming a massive
thundercloud, sometimes growing to as much as 50,000 ft. in height. Variable
winds at different levels of the atmosphere feed the updraft and cause the
formation of the tornado's characteristic funnel shape.

Where Do Tornadoes Occur?

Did you know?

April is the
deadliest month
for tornadoes

more]

The conditions that lead to the formation of tornadoes are most

often met in the central and southern U.S., where warm, humid
air from the Gulf of Mexico collides with cool, dry air from the
Rockies and Canada. This area, dubbed "tornado alley,"
extends roughly from the Rocky Mountains to the Appalachians,
and from Iowa and Nebraska to the Gulf of Mexico. Tornadoes
can also occur elsewhere, though, including all U.S. states,
Europe, Asia, and Australia.

What Kind of Destruction Do Tornadoes Cause?

The Fujita scale classifies tornadoes according to the damage they cause.
Almost half of all tornadoes fall into the F1 or "moderate damage" category.
These tornadoes reach speeds of 73-112 m.p.h. and can overturn
automobiles and mobile homes, rip off the roofs of houses, and uproot trees.
Only about 1 percent of tornadoes are classified as F5, causing "incredible
damage." With wind speeds in excess of 261 m.p.h., these tornadoes are
capable of lifting houses off their foundations and hurling them considerable
distances.

Tsunamis
Source: The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

A tsunami (pronounced soo-nahm-ee) is a series of huge waves that happen

after an undersea disturbance, such as anearthquake or volcano
eruption. Tsunami is from the Japanese word for harbor wave.

The waves travel in all directions from the area of

disturbance, much like the ripples that happen after
throwing a rock. The waves may travel in the open
sea as fast as 450 miles per hour. As the big
waves approach shallow waters along the coast they
grow to a great height and smash into the shore.
They can be as high as 100 feet. They can cause a lot of destruction on the
shore. They are sometimes mistakenly called tidal waves, but tsunami have
nothing to do with the tides.

Hawaii is the state at greatest risk for a tsunami. They get about one a
year, with a damaging tsunami happening about every seven years. Alaska is
also at high risk. California, Oregon and Washington experience a damaging
tsunami about every 18 years.
Did You Know?

On Dec. 26, 2004, a 9.0 magnitude earthquakethe largest earthquake in 40

yearsoccurred off the west coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The
earthquake triggered a tsunami in the Indian Ocean, the deadliest in world
history. More than 226,000 died and twelve countries felt the devastation.
Hardest hit were Indonesia (particularly the province of Aceh), Sri Lanka,
India, Thailand, and the Maldives. Millions were left homeless by the disaster.
Natural Hazards | Thunderstorms http://www.n-d-a.org/thunderstorm.php
What are Thunderstorms?
A Thunderstorm, or Electrical Storm, is a weather formation where lightning and thunder are
produced by a cumulonimbus cloud. During a thunderstorm you can also get heavy rain, wind and
hail.

What Causes Thunderstorms?

Thunderstorms are caused when moist, warm air rises from the Earth's surface. This moist, warm air
cools as it rises and condenses to form clouds. If there is a lot of warm air rising, it can reach up to
12 miles (19 kilometers) high. Cool air moving downwards (known as a 'Downdraught') and warm air
moving upwards (known as an 'Updraught') create the energy and electricity which produce the
thunderstorms lightning and thunder. The average thunderstorm lasts for 30 minutes but can last for
hours and be as large as 10km wide.

Where Can Thunderstorms Occur?

Thunderstorms can happen anywhere where the right conditions are present. They are most likely to
form during late spring and summer and typically happen between late afternoon and evening.
If you see lightning you can tell how far away the Thunderstorm is from you by listening for thunder.
By counting the number of seconds between the lighting and the thunder you can work out how far
away the thunderstorm is.
Remember, thunder is simply sound caused by the lightning.

Lightning
Lighting is one of the most spectacular results of a thunderstorm. Inside the cloud of a
thunderstorm, a massive electrical charge forms. The positive charge is near the top of the cloud and
the negative charge is sent to the bottom. Once the charge has built up enough inside the cloud, a
lightning bolt is released from the cloud. This electrical discharge can jump from cloud to cloud as it
heads towards the ground. Lightning can travel at speeds of up to 45 kilometres per second
(100,000 miles per hour) and reach a temperature of 28,000 C (50,000 F).

Thunder
Lighting is one of the most spectacular results of a thunderstorm. Inside the cloud of a
thunderstorm, a massive electrical charge forms. The positive charge is near the top of the cloud and
the negative charge is sent to the bottom. Once the charge has built up enough inside the cloud, a
lightning bolt is released from the cloud. This electrical discharge can jump from cloud to cloud as it
heads towards the ground. Lightning can travel at speeds of up to 45 kilometres per second
(100,000 miles per hour) and reach a temperature of 28,000 C (50,000 F).

Natural Hazards | Avalanches

What Is An Avalanche?
The word avalanche is derived from the French word avalance meaning descent. An avalanche is a
mass of snow, often mixed with ice and debris which travels down mountain sides, destroying all in
its path.

What Causes Avalanches?

Avalanches occur due to any of the following triggers: overloading, temperature, slope angle, snow
pack conditions, and vibration. Overloading is an important trigger, the weight of the snow increases
until it overcomes cohesion to the snow pack underneath. Temperature has an effect on the cohesion
of snow; a rise in temperature weakens the bonds creating weakness, whilst a fall in temperature
increases the brittleness and tension of a slab. Slope angle is important as most avalanches occur on
slopes between 25 and 400C, although avalanches have been noted on slopes as gentle as 150C and
as steep as 60oC. Snow pack conditions is a significant factor as the layers below the upper snow
can not be seen and it is difficult to assess whether the slope is likely to fail. Vibration is a physical
trigger cause by thunder, a gun shot, by explosions or other loud noises such as shouting.
Earthquakes can start avalanches, as well as noise from heavy machinery.

Where Can Avalanches Occur?

Mountainous areas throughout arctic and temperate regions which have slope angles between 25oC
and 60oC are at risk. However, other conditions may affect the likelihood of an avalanche being
triggered as already mentioned. The avalanche problem is more severe in Europe than North
America due to the higher population densities in the Alp mountain range.

What Types of Avalanches Are There?

There are three main types of avalanche: Powder, Slab and Wet.
Powder avalanche
Often start from a single point and accumulates snow as it moves down the slope forming a snowball
effect. This type is most common following heavy snowfall of one inch per hour or more and often on
a smooth surface such as after rain or frost. Without the cohesion with the snow layer underneath
the snow is too heavy to settle. This type of avalanche can travel between 62 and 186 miles per
hour.
Slab avalanche
Most common type of winter avalanche due to the build up fresh snow. A slab is a compact snow
surface layer that can detach from a weaker snow layer underneath. The slab slips forward as a

whole block or breaks into pieces.

Wet avalanche
Often occurs after a warm spell or during the spring thaw. Snow becomes heavier as it begins to turn
into water. Occurs frequently and are generally small and generally easier to predict than the other
types.

History of Recent Avalanches

Cascade range, Washington (1910)
The Cascade Range, Washington is the worst avalanche disaster in the USA to date. Three snowbound trains were swept into a canyon which killed 118 people.
Montroc, France (1999)
This avalanche occurred when 300,000 cubic metres of snow slid down a 30 degree slope which
reached a speed of 60 miles an hour. Chalets were covered in 100,000 tons of snow, killing 12
people.
Alps (World war I)
During World War I approximately 50,000 soliders died due to avalanches at the Austrian-Italian
front in the Alps. It is thought the avalanches were caused by the artillery fire.

Natural Hazards | Earthquakes

What are Earthquakes?
An Earthquake is when the Earth's surface shakes or vibrates. This usually occurs near fault lines or
plate boundaries. Earthquakes can happen without warning and if they strike populated areas can
cause massive destruction.
An Earthquake is when the Earth's surface shakes or vibrates. This usually occurs near fault lines or
plate boundaries. Earthquakes can happen without warning and if they strike populated areas can
cause massive destruction.

What causes Earthquakes?

The Earth's surface is broken up into 'Tectonic Plates' which are constantly moving due to convection
currents beneath the plates. Tectonic Plates typically move only a few centimetres per year.
Earthquakes usually occur at fault lines, the major fault lines are at the plate boundaries where
stress and strain builds up between the adjacent plates resulting in a sudden movement of rock
which releases seismic energy causing an earthquake. The point of where the movement of rock
occurs is called the "focus" and directly above it on the earths surface is called the "epicentre".

Tectonic Plates
There are three Tectonic plates boundaries:
Convergent/Destructive Plate Boundary
A Convergent or Destructive Plate Boundary is when two plate boundaries meet and one plate moves
underneath the other.

Divergent/Constructive Plate Boundary

A Divergent or Constructive Plate Boundary is when two plates boundaries are moving away from
one another forming new crust.

Transform Plate Boundary

A Transform Plate Boundary is when two plates slide past one another.

List of Earth's Tectonic Plates

African Plate, Antarctic Plate, Australian Plate, Eurasian Plate, North American Plate, South American
Plate, Pacific Plate

Natural Hazards | Volcanoes

What Are Volcanoes?
A volcano is a landform created by magma from the earth's interior which penetrates through
weaknesses in the Earths surface. Most volcanoes are formed at plate boundaries. They are classed
in one of three categories of activity: active, dormant or extinct.

What Causes Volcanoes To Erupt?

Magma contains a mixture of silicates and dissolved gases. As magma rises closer to the Earths
surface the pressure decreases and the dissolved gases come out of solution to form bubbles. As the
bubbles expand the magma is pushed into the volcanic vent until it breaks through weaknesses in
the Earth's crust. The explosive potential of the volcano is dependant on the effervescence of the
gases and the viscosity of the magma. High gas effervescence and low viscosity cause the most
explosive eruptions.

Where Do Volcanoes Occur?

As previously mentioned volcanoes occur at weaknesses in the Earths surface, these are in one of
three tectonic settings: subduction volcanoes, rift volcanoes and hot spot volcanoes. Subduction
volcanoes occur where one tectonic plate is thrust and consumed by another. This type is the most
explosive and comprises approximately 80% of the worlds active volcanoes. Rift volcanoes occur
where tectonic plates diverge, often on the ocean floor. These are generally less explosive. Hot spot
volcanoes occur in the middle of plate boundaries where magma exits from weaknesses in the
earth's surface. The Hawaiian Islands are an example of hot spot volcanoes. The most active area of
volcanic activity occurs along the pacific plate boundary which is often referred to as the 'Pacific ring
of fire'.

What Hazards Are Related To Volcanic Eruptions?

There are about 500 active volcanoes thoughout the world. In an average year approximately 50 of
these erupt. Volcanic hazards create fewer disasters and deaths compared with earthquakes and
severe storms. Many of the deaths associated with volcanoes are indirect hazards such as famine
due to crop damage or from secondary hazards such as lahars. Volcanoes are composite hazards.
There are both primary and secondary hazards which can be caused by volcanic eruptions. The
primary hazards include pyroclastic flows, air-fall tephra, lava flows and volcanic gases. The
secondary hazards include ground deformation, lahars (mudflows), landslides and possibly tsunamis
in ocean floor volcanic eruptions.

History of Volcanic Eruptions

Mount Vesuvius, Italy (789 A.D)
Mount Vesuvius is classified as an extremely violent volcano, which has been best known for its
catastrophic plinian eruption in 79 AD. The eruption caused total devastation to the town of Pompeii
and Herculaneum, claiming around 3,360 lives as a result of pyroclastic flows, ash, tephra and
lahars.
Over the years victims of the eruption, have been discovered in a perfectly preserved state due to
the ash and mud, giving us an insight to the agony victims must have faced.
Since the 79 AD eruption Vesuvius has erupted a number of times, killing large numbers of people,
in which the last was in 1944 and is believed to be dormant at present, over due to an eruption any
time. Mudslides and lava flows from the eruption in 1631 killed over 3, 500 people and about 3,360
people died from ash fall and pyroclastic flows in the 79AD eruption.
Laki, Iceland (1783)
The eruption of Laki in 1783 is another example of volcanic activity which had global consequences.
The eruption in 1783 lasted for nearly a year and released 15 cubic kilometres of lava over just 8
months. The lava released huge amounts of sulphur dioxide and fluorine, which affected the climate
causing famine and weather anomalies in the Northern Hemisphere. As a result of drought, famine
and gas poisoning, 9350 people died in Iceland as well as thousands of livestock.

A similar eruption of Laki would have a huge consequence for the Northern Hemisphere today.
Tambora, Indonesia (1815)
Tambora, a stratovolcano, is located on the northern island Sumbawa, Indonesia. This well known
historical volcano erupted in 1815 with a massive VEI 7 (Volcanic Explosivity Index), causing total
devastation. It is known as the most explosive eruption recorded to date, killing over 80,000 people
as a result of pyroclastic flows, tsunamis, famine, disease and starvation.
An estimated 600km around the volcano plummeted into darkness for up to 2 days due to the
massive amounts of pumice and ash released into the atmosphere as a result of the eruption. The
vast amounts of sulphur released in the atmosphere caused devastation around the globe which led
to 1816 being known as the year without summer. Crops failed, famine struck various countries
around the world, temperatures dropped and strange weather phenomena occurred such as the
falling of brown snow and persistent dry fog.
Krakatoa, Indonesia (1883)
This submarine volcanic eruption was one of the violent eruptions in the last 3,000 years. The
eruption on the 27th August blow the whole northern and lower areas of volcano, creating an
explosion which was heard nearly 3,100 miles away. The discharge of volcanic ash was transported
in air currents and was diffused for years, the effects of this ash affected North and South America,
Europe, Asia, southern Africa and Australia. This was not the worst consequence of this eruption; the
disintegration of the volcano caused a tsunami which inundated coastal areas of the islands of Java
and Sumatra, killing 36,000 people.
Mount Pelee, Martinique (1902)
This Peleean eruption destroyed the town of St Pierre which left only two survivors out of a
population of approximately 30,000. Peleean eruptions are very explosive and are characterised by
pyroclastic flows.
Mount St Helens, Washington State, North America (1980)
Mount St Helens erupted on 18th May 1980 leaving 57 dead. The volcano erupted following 2
months of earthquakes, and a 100 metre bulge that grew 2 metres per day on the north east side of
the mountain. On the day of the eruption a lateral blast occurred causing the bulge to get displaced,
which in turn caused an avalanche.
A pyroclastic flow, caused by the eruption, travelled at up to 540 km/hour with temperatures up to
700 degrees Celsius, causing total destruction in its path before flowing into Spirit Lake. This in turn
caused lahars, adding to the destruction. The ash column rose 20 km into the atmosphere and
travelled 400 km away from the immediate area.
The total cost of the eruption was $39 million worth of damage to agriculture, $103 million to
property, $450 million to forests and $363 million for the clean up.
Unzen, Japan (1972)
Mount Unzen is located on the island of Kyushu, Japan and caused the worse known eruption the
country has ever witnessed. In 1972 the volcano killed an estimated 15,000 people when tsunamis
were generated following the collapse of domes caused by an earthquake. Devastating lava flows
were also blamed for the death toll.
The volcano also erupted violently in 1991 following months of continuous seismic activity. Despite
12,000 people being evacuated, the eruption claimed 43 lives of scientists and journalists. Since
then numerous pyroclastic flows and lahars have been generated, destroying over 2000 buildings.
Nevada del Ruiz, Columbia (November 13th 1985)
This eruption is one of the worst volcanic disasters in recent times. The volcanic eruption melted ice
and the snow cap of the Nevada del Ruiz volcano causing a torrent of water, mud, debris to travel

down all six major river valleys away from the volcano. The lahars increased in size as they travelled
down the river channels, eroding loose soil, rocks and vegetation. The lahars travelled 100
kilometres, killed approximately 25,00 people, injuried 5,000 and destroyed over 5,000 homes. The
worst town hit was Armero: three quarters of its 28,700 population died during the mud flows.
Lake Nyos, Cameroon (1986)
Lake Nyos is a volcanic crater lake located in northwest Cameroon. In 1986 the release of 1.6 million
tonnes of carbon dioxide from the lake spread as a dense cloud, 25 km away from the lake killing
1746 people and 8300 livestock in surrounding villages. 3460 people were also moved to temporary
shelters due to the severe risk of asphyxiation (suffocation) which was the cause of death. This
tragedy occurred at night when the villagers were asleep and therefore having no chance of survival.
The characteristics of the gas; being both odourless and colourless is what makes it so lethal since
the victims would have had no awareness of its presence.
The Lake is now degassed to release controlled amounts of carbon dioxide in order to prevent a
similar tragedy from occurring again.
Mount Pinatubo (1991)
This eruption was not only a disaster in terms of human loss but it had a major effect on the global
temperature and ozone depletion in the years following the eruption. Approximately 200 people died
because of the ash released during the eruption. During the time of the eruption Tropical Storm
Yunya was passing 47 miles northeast to Mount Pinatubo, causing high rainfall rates in the region.
The ash which was released from the volcano mixed with water vapour in the atomosphere to cause
a rainfall of tephra. This water saturated ash fall fell on to rooftops which subsequently collapsed due
to the excessive weight.
It is thought that had the tropical storm not been present the death toll would have been
significantly lower. The gas and ash cloud produced by the eruption reached high into the
atmosphere and travelled around the world within a year. During the years of 1992 and 1993 the
average temperature in the Northern hemisphere had dropped by approximately 0.6 0C, the entire
planets temperature dropped by 0.4 -0.50C.
The eruption also ejected between 15 and 30 million tons of sulphur dioxide gas.
In the atmosphere the sulphur dioxide gas mixes with oxygen and water to form sulphuric acid which
aids ozone depletion which caused the ozone hole over Antarctica to enlarge. It is thought this global
change in temperature and climate caused other natural disasters such as the 1993 Mississippi
floods.
Soufriere Hills, Monserrat Leeward Islands, Caribbean (1995 - Present)
After years of dormancy Soufriere Hills, a stratovolcano became active in 1995. The volcano has had
on going activity which has consisted of destructive pyroclastic flows and surges, debris flows,
lahars, dome collapse and tephra falls as well as seismic activity. The continuous activity led to the
evacuation of most of the islands population over the years, especially after the destruction of the
Islands capital Plymouth. Plymouth, along with various small villages were destroyed and buried
under thick layers of ash, debris and pyroclastic flows deposits, leaving them uninhabitable even
today.
1997 was when the most explosive eruption occurred, killing 19 people who were in the restricted
zones despite constant warnings and advice. The Islands airport was also destroyed by pyroclastic
flows and surges and had to be rebuilt at a different location.
Although some of the Islands population has once again returned, most of them have relocated on
neighbouring islands or abroad.
Today, the volcanos on going activity is closely monitored by scientists and warnings given when
necessary.

Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of Congo (2002)

Nyiragongo erupted on January 7th 2002, destroying 15% of the city of Goma. Nyiragongo is well
known for its large volumes of lava flows that cause devastation and destruction to anything in its
path. In 2002 the lava flows spilt the city of Goma into sections, killing 147 of which 50 died during a
petrol station explosion. The eruption also destroyed 14,000 homes, left 75% of the population
displaced and led to the evacuation of 400,000 people.
An eruption in 1977 also killed an estimated 2000 people and destroyed villages in its path.
The volcano is active today, however due to the activity being confined to the crater, no victims have
been claimed. When the next disaster will occur will only a matter of time.

Natural Hazards | Snow & Hail Storms

What Is A Snow Storm?
The term 'snow storm' encompasses all magnitude of snow fall but is often used to describe a
blizzard. A blizzard is a large snow storm with strong winds. Blizzards can be particularly dangerous
if heavy snowfall is followed by rapid melting by higher temperatures: this can cause extensive
flooding.

What Causes A Snow Storm?

Snow is formed from condensed water on the atmosphere. Water vapour in clouds condenses to
form droplets. Cold air then freezes the water to form ice crystals. As these ice crystals bind with
more water vapour they become heavier. Eventually, the ice crystal falls from the cloud, collecting
more water vapour as it falls. As the ice crystal descends, and the air temperature increases the ice
crystal can melt slightly. This melting can cause crystals to bind together to form larger flakes. Snow
will remain on the ground if the temperatures are cold enough to keep it from melting.

Where Do Snow Storms Occur?

Snow storms can form in areas with the perfect conditions for snow formation such as air
temperatures below freezing and a ground temperature of zero degrees centigrade. North America
and Canada experience around 10 blizzards a year, each affecting approximately 2.5 million people.

Where Are The Dangers of Snow Storms?

Large amounts of snow can affect transport routes, crops and people. The secondary risks of
snowstorms include vehicle accidents, hypothermia, infections from frost bite and possibly fires and
carbon monoxide poisoning due to the use of alternate heat sources.

History of Recent Snow Storms

1993 Superstorm, east coast of the US and Canada (1993)
In March 1993, an area of low pressure in the Gulf of Mexico moved northwards, intensifying rapidly
to form a severe snow storm. It affected 26 states and much of Canada. The cold air, heavy
precipitation and hurricane force winds caused widespread blizzards lead to over 300 deaths and a
loss of power to over 10 million people. The storm also caused thunderstorms and tornadoes in
Florida.
1996 Blizzard, north-east US and Canada (1996)
This storm caused record levels of snow in Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and New Jersey. The
blizzard moved across Canada into the north-eastern areas of the US, killing more than 154 people.
The blizzard was followed by usually warm weather with rain melting the snow cover, creating severe
flooding. The floods caused a further 200 fatalities.

Natural Hazards | Heat & Drought

What is a Drought?
The term drought is not easy to define. The easiest way to explain a drought is a period of
unexpected rainfall deficit which results in a shortage of water. Drought hazards develop slowly,
there are no clear beginning or end and can affect extensive areas. The impacts of drought vary
from lack of adequate drinking water, loss of vegetation, loss of farmland, loss of livestock and loss
of life due to famine or dehydration.

What Causes a Drought?

This is a complex issue which is difficult to define. Drought is not caused by low rainfall amounts but
the lack of 'expected' rainfall. People in different regions adapt to the different rainfall levels that
occur in that area. When these are reduced, this is when a drought hazard may be created. The
extent of drought is dependant on region type (semi-arid, temperate etc) as drought tends to be
longer in drier areas. The impact of droughts depends on climatic conditions at the time (high
pressure systems, El Nino) and the national wealth of the area involved. Developing countries tend
to be more affected by droughts as much of the income is from subsistence farming which is greatly
affected by a lack of water. Drought can also be affected by deforestation as vegetation help contain
water in an area, when the vegetation is removed the soil does not retain water as well.

Where Can Drought Occur?

Drought can develop practically anywhere in the world, unlike earthquakes or severe storms there
are no specific regions which are affected. Drought can extend over extensive areas causing
widespread destruction to crops and water levels.

History of Recent occurences of Drought

Sahel (1968-75)
The seven year drought struck Sahel in sub-Saharan Africa between 1968 and 1975. Between eighty
and ninety percent of the people in this area depend on subsistence farming to live. By 1970 nearly
3 million people had been displaced and were in need of food aid, by 1972, international was used to
feed over 50 million people. The drought resulted in the economic collapse of Mauritania, Senegal,
Mali, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia.
Ethiopia and Sudan (1984-85)
These droughts lead to widespread famine in Ethiopia and Sudan. An estimated 450,000 people died
during the famine which developed due to lack of water for irrigation.

Natural Hazards | Landslides

What Are Landslides?
A landslide is a downward movement of rock and soil debris that has become detached from the
underlying slope. The material can move by falling, toppling, sliding, spreading and flowing.

What Causes Landslides?

There are many possible causes of landslides these can either be geological, morphological or
human-induced. A few of these include saturation of slope material (rainfall), seismic activity
(earthquakes and volcanoes), undercutting of cliffs and banks by waves and rivers, removal of
vegetation, and modification of slopes.

Where Can Landslides Occur?

There are many landslide vulnerable areas with high-risk terrain. These include seismic sensitive
areas, mountainous areas with high relief, moderate relief areas with land degradation, areas of thick
loess and areas of high rainfall.

History of Recent Landslides

Nevados Huascaran, Andes (1962)
On January 10th 1962, a huge mass of rock and glaciated ice fell down Nevados Huascaran initiating
a debris flow. The flow travelled along the river valleys leading from the mountain. It destroyed the
town of Ranrahirca, killing 2,000 people. On May 31st 1970, an earthquake measuring 7.9 on the
Richter scale occurred 85 miles away from the mountain. The same area affected by the 1962
landslide gave way, burying the town of Yungay. 18,000 people were lost beneath 30 metres of rock.
Gansu Province, NW China (1920)

On December 16th 1920 an earthquake measuring 8.6 on the Richter scale started a landslide due to
the fine loess material in the area. The loess (wind deposited silt) is strong enough to form near
vertical slopes which are easily weakened during seismic activity. The landslide flowed down the
valleys, burying villages and killing approximately 180,000 people.
Monsoon landslides, Nepal (2002)
Extreme temperatures and annual monsoon season led to rapid rock weathering and heavy rainfall.
It is also thought that deforestation also played its part in the areas landslide vulnerability. Extremely
heavy monsoon rainfall lead to severe flooding in south-east Asia, this lead to landslides in Nepal,
killing 500 people. 92% of the population live in the hills or in the lowlands beneath the mountains.
El Salvador, Central America (2001)
A recent series of landslides occurred in El Salvador following an earthquake measuring 7.7 on the
Richter scale, killing 585 people. The landslide volume is estimated to be 250,000 cubic metres.

Sun fires off powerful solar flare,

triggering radio blackout
Miriam KramerSpace.com http://www.nbcnews.com/science/sun-fires-powerful-solarflare-triggering-radio-blackout-2D11623878

Nov. 19, 2013 at 2:19 PM ET

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NASA / Solar Dynamics Observatory

An X1-class flare erupts from the right side of the sun in this image captured by NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory
on Tuesday.

The sun unleashed a powerful solar flare early Tuesday, the latest in a series of intense
storms this month from Earth's closest star.
While the powerful solar flare was not aimed directly at Earth when it erupted, it did
trigger a radio blackout at 5:26 a.m. EST, officials with NOAA-led Space Weather
Prediction Center said. NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory caught sight of the solar
flare and captured a high-definition video of the solar eruption.

The solar flare ranked as an X1-class event, one of the strongest types of storms the
sun can have. It erupted from an active sunspot region called 1893, and space weather
experts suspect it may have produced a coronal mass ejection (CME) an explosion
of solar plasma freed during a flare. Usually material from a CME takes some time to
reach Earth if it is aimed toward the planet. [Major X-Class Solar Flares Unleashed by
the Sun (Photos)]
"This impulsive flare may have an associated CME, but early indications are it will not
have a significant impact on the geomagnetic field," SWPC center officials wrote in an
update Tuesday.

SDO / NASA

A powerful X-class solar flare erupts from the sun on Tuesday. It erupted from an active sunspot region called 1893,
and space weather experts suspect it may have produced a coronal mass ejection

X-class solar flares are the most powerful types ofsolar storms, and when directed at
Earth, the powerful outbursts can put satellites and astronauts in orbit at risk. At the
moment, the sun is currently going through the peak of its 11-year solar cycle named
Solar Cycle 24.
Earlier this month, an active sunspot produced the most powerful solar flare of 2013.
The X3.3 solar flare shot out from the sun on Nov. 5, but Earth was not in its direct path
and therefore the flare did not cause any major issues on the planet.

An X2 flare is two times as intense as an X1 flare, so an X3 is three times as intense as

an X1, according to NASA.
"Increased numbers of flares are quite common at the moment, since the sun's normal
11-year activity cycle is ramping up toward solar maximum conditions," NASA officials
said in an update about the Tuesday flare. "Humans have tracked this solar cycle
continuously since it was discovered in 1843, and it is normal for there to be many flares
a day during the sun's peak activity."

Global warming
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the current change in Earth's climate. For general discussion of how the climate can
change, see Climate change. For other uses, see Global warming (disambiguation).

Global mean land-ocean temperature change from 18802012, relative to the 19511980 mean. The black line is the annual
mean and the red line is the 5-year running mean. The green bars show uncertainty estimates. Source: NASA GISS. (click
for larger image)

The map shows the 10-year average (20002009) global mean temperature anomaly relative to the 19511980 mean. The
largest temperature increases are in the Arctic and the Antarctic Peninsula. Source: NASA Earth Observatory[1]

Fossil fuel related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions compared to five of the IPCC's "SRES" emissions scenarios. The dips are
related to global recessions. Image source: Skeptical Science.

Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since the late
19th century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century, Earth's mean surface
temperature has increased by about 0.8 C (1.4 F), with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since
1980.[2] Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are 95-100% certain that it is
primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities such as
the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.[3][4][5] These findings are recognized by the national science
academies of all major industrialized nations.[6][A]
Climate model projections were summarized in the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). They indicated that during the 21st century the
global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 2.9 C (2 to 5.2 F change) for their
lowest emissions scenario and 2.4 to 6.4 C (4.3 to 11.5 F change) for their highest.[7] The ranges of
these estimates arise from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations.[8]
[9]

Future climate change and associated impacts[10] will vary from region to region around the globe.
[11]
The effects of an increase in global temperature include a rise in sea levels and a change in the
amount and pattern of precipitation, as well as a probable expansion of subtropical deserts.[12] Warming is
expected to be strongest in the Arctic, with the continuing retreat of glaciers,permafrost and sea ice. Other
likely effects of the warming include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves,
droughts and heavy rainfall; ocean acidification; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature
regimes. Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and
the loss of habitat from inundation.[13][14]
Proposed policy responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its
effects, and possible futuregeoengineering. Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),[15] whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous
anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) climate change.[16] Parties to the UNFCCC have adopted a range of
policies designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions[17]:10[18][19][20]:9 and to assist in adaptation to global

warming.[17]:13[20]:10[21][22] Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required,
[23]
and that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 C (3.6 F) relative to the pre-industrial
level.[23][B] Reports published in 2011 by the United Nations Environment Programme[24] and
the International Energy Agency[25] suggest that efforts as of the early 21st century to reduce emissions
may be inadequate to meet the UNFCCC's 2 C target.