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Material
(Formula & Short Notes)
Tension strain(et )
L Changeinlength
L
Initial length
D
2
P
( D D2 d 2 )
where, P = Standard load, D = Diameter of steel ball, and d = Diameter of the indent.
Elastic constants:
STRAIN ENERGY
Energy Methods:
(i) Formula to calculate the strain energy due to axial loads ( tension):
U = P / ( 2AE ) dx
limit 0 to L
Where, P = Applied tensile load, L = Length of the member , A = Area of the member, and
E = Youngs modulus.
(ii) Formula to calculate the strain energy due to bending:
U = M / ( 2EI ) dx
limit 0 to L
Where, M = Bending moment due to applied loads, E = Youngs modulus, and I = Moment of
inertia.
(iii) Formula to calculate the strain energy due to torsion:
U = T / ( 2GJ ) dx
limit 0 to L
limit 0 to L
V= Shear load
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
A = Area of cross section.
K = Constant depends upon shape of cross section.
(v) Formula to calculate the strain energy due to pure shear, if shear stress is given:
U = V / ( 2G )
Where,
= Shear Stress
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
V = Volume of the material.
(vi) Formula to calculate the strain energy , if the moment value is given:
U = M L / (2EI)
Where,
M = Bending moment
L = Length of the beam
E = Youngs modulus
I = Moment of inertia
(vii) Formula to calculate the strain energy , if the torsion moment value is given:
U = T L / ( 2GJ )
Where,
T = Applied Torsion
L = Length of the beam
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
J = Polar moment of inertia
(viii) Formula to calculate the strain energy, if the applied tension load is given:
U = PL / ( 2AE )
Where,
P = Applied tensile load.
L = Length of the member
A = Area of the member
E = Youngs modulus.
(ix) Castiglianos first theorem:
= U/ P
Where, = Deflection, U= Strain Energy stored, and P = Load
(x) Formula for deflection of a fixed beam with point load at centre:
= - wl3 / 192 EI
This defection is times the deflection of a simply supported beam.
(xi) Formula for deflection of a fixed beam with uniformly distributed load:
= - wl4 / 384 EI
This defection is 5 times the deflection of a simply supported beam.
(xii) Formula for deflection of a fixed beam with eccentric point load:
= - wa3b3 / 3 EI l3
Fixed end moments for a fixed beam with the given loading conditions:
Type of loading (A--B)
MAB
MBA
-wl / 8
wl / 8
-wab2/ l2
wab2/ l2
-wl2 / 12
wl2 / 12
-wa2 (4l-3a)/ 12 l2
-wl2 / 30
-wl2 / 30
-5 wl2/
M/4
96
-5 wl2/ 96
M/4
where,
P = axial load
Tn
63000
H T
Where H is power in Watts, T is torque in N-m, and
Tr
J
J is the area polar moment of inertia and for a solid (di=0) or hollow section,
32
(d o4 d i4 )
TL
GJ
EA
L
48 EI
L3
3EI
L3
Kt
GJ
L
Kt2
Kt1
K1
K2
F1
K1
F
K1 K 2
F2
K2
F
K1 K 2
T1
Kt 1
T
K t1 K t 2
T2
Kt 2
T
K t1 K t 2
F
2A
The clevis is also under tear-out shear stress as shown in the following figure (top view):
F
4A
In this formula A= (Ro-Ri) is approximately and conservatively the area of the dotted
cross-section. Ro and Ri are the outer and inner radii of the clevis hole. Note that there are
4 such areas.
Shear stresses in beams under bending forces:
F
VQ
IZb
Q A1 y1
A1
y1
y1
Shear stress:
T
2 At
TSL
4 A 2 Gt
Where S is the perimeter of the midline, L is the length of the beam, and G is shear modulus.
Stress in Thin-Walled Cylinders
The tangential or hoop stress is:
Pdi
2t
Pdi
4t
P P
Pi ri 2 Po ro2 ri 2 ro2 o 2 i
r
t
2
2
ro ri
The radial stress is:
P P
Pi ri 2 Po ro2 ri 2ro2 o 2 i
r
r
ro2 ri 2
When the ends are closed, the external pressure is often zero and the axial stress is:
Pi ri 2
a 2 2
ro ri
Stresses in rotating rings
ri2 ro2 1 3 2
3 2
2
t (
)(ri ro 2
r )
8
3
r
2
3 2 2 ri2ro2
r (
)(ri ro 2 r 2 )
8
r
2
where
E r (ro2 R2 )( R2 ri2 )
P
R 2R2 (ro2 ri2 )
Impact Forces
For the falling weight:
2hk
Fe 1 1
W
W
2h
Fe 1 1
W
st
IF h=0, the equivalent load is 2W. For a moving body with a velocity of V before impact, the
equivalent force is:
Fe V mk
Failure of columns under compressive load (Buckling)
The critical Euler load for a beam that is long enough is:
Pcr C
2 EI
L2
Slenderness ratio:
An alternate but common form of the Euler formula uses the slenderness ratio which is
defined as follows:
L
Slenderness Ratio where k
k
I
A
L
2 2 EC
k
Sy
If the slenderness ratio is less than the value in the RHS of the formula, then the better
predictor of failure is the Johnson formula:
2
SyL 1
Pcr AS y
2k CE
Determinate Beams
Equations of pure bending:
M E
=
=
I
R y
Where,
M: Bending Moment
[N*m]
: normal stress
[N/m2]
E: Modulus of elasticity
[N/m2]
R: Radius of Curvature
[m]
[m]
I: Moment of inertia
[m4]
d2y
EI
=M
dx2
Indeterminate Beams
Macaulays Method (Singularity functions):
n
+
1
n 1
x
a
> x
d
x
=<
<
x
a
>
>
a
n
+
1
If positive then the brackets (< >) can be replaced by parentheses. Otherwise the
brackets will be equal to ZERO.
n
<
x
a
>
=
0
n
<
x
a
>
=
(
x
a
)
0
<
x
<
a
x
>
a
,
E
P
l
E
A
l
Where, E = Young's modulus of elasticity
P = Applied load across a cross-sectional area
l = Change in length
l = Original length
Poissons Ratio:
Volumetric Strain:
eV
Changeinvolume V
Initial volume
V
Modulus of rigidity:
G
E
2(1 )
Bulk modulus:
E
9KG
or E
3(1 2 )
3K G
3K 2G
6K 2G
pd
pd
c
2t
2t
Longitudinal stress
pd
pd
l
4t
4t