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UNIT-1
MODERN PHYSICS
Introduction to blackbody radiation spectrum:
A body which absorbs all radiation that is incident on it is called a perfect blackbody. When radiation
allowed to fall on such a body, it is neither reflected nor transmitted. Such a black body after absorbing the
incident radiation gets heated and starts emitting radiation of all possible wavelengths. In practice, perfect
blackbody does not exist and we can have objects that are only close to a blackbody. A blackbody, on heating,
can emit all radiations it has absorbed and is called blackbody radiation. Figure shows the energy distribution
curves in which energy density E (energy emitted by the blackbody per unit area of the surface) is plotted as a
function of wavelength at different temperatures of the blackbody.
The important points that can be noted down from these curves are
1. All curves shows a peak suggesting that the emitted intensity is maximum at a particular wavelength.
2. An increase in temperature results in an increase in the energy emitted.
3 .As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to lower wavelength.
i.e., m
T
Or m T = b,
where b is called the Wiens constant and is equal to 2.910-3 mK.
3. Wiens law
Using laws of thermodynamics and classical concepts, Wien developed an expression for energy density
Notes Compiled by: Dr. Santhosh D Shenoy, M.Sc., Ph.D.
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as,
() =
4. Rayleigh-Jeans law
Rayleigh derived an expression for the energy density of radiation based on classical theory which is
given by,
() =
As per the Rayleigh-Jeans law, the radiant energy increases with decreasing wavelength and a
blackbody must radiate all the energy at very short wavelength. But in actual practice, it doesnt happen so. The
failure of Rayleigh-Jeans law to explain the aspect of very little emission of radiation beyond the violet region
towards the lower wavelength side of the spectrum is referred as ultraviolet catastrophe.
Both Wiens law and Rayleigh-Jeans law indicates failure of classical theory in explaining blackbody radiation.
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() =
----------------- (1)
is very large
This law agrees well with the experimental observation of blackbody radiation and is valid for all wavelengths.
1. For shorter wavelengths:
i.e., when is small,
Or i.e.,
>>1 hence ( )
i.e., () =
hc
Since
=+
=+
hc
kT
or =
hc
kT
i.e., () =
Photoelectric effect:
Notes Compiled by: Dr. Santhosh D Shenoy, M.Sc., Ph.D.
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Emission of electrons from a metal surface when light of suitable energy falls on it is called
photoelectric effect. The experimental setup for observing photoelectric effect consists of a pair of metal plate
electrodes in an evacuated discharge tube connected to a voltage source as shown:
When light of suitable energy is incident on the cathode, electrons are emitted and a current flows across the
discharge tube. Some special features of photoelectric emission are:
1. It is an instantaneous process-there is no time interval between the incidence of light and the emission of
photoelectrons.
2. There is a minimum frequency for the incident light called threshold frequency, below which no photoelectric
emission occurs. This depends upon the nature of the material of the emitter surface. The energy
corresponding to the threshold frequency, called the work function is the minimum energy required to release
an electron from the emitter surface.
3. For a given frequency of the incident light, photocurrent is directly proportional to the intensity of the
incident light.
4. The photoelectron emission can be stopped by applying a reverse voltage to the phototube. ie., by making the
emitter electrode positive and the collector negative. The negative collector potential required to stop the
photoelectron emission is called the stopping potential.
Einsteins Theory:
Photoelectric effect can be explained on the basis of quantum theory of light. When the energy equal to
work function of the metal is incident on the metal surface, the incident photon liberates electrons from their
bound state. When the incident photon carries energy in excess of the work function, the extra energy appears as
the kinetic energy of the emitted electron. When the intensity of light increases, the number of photoelectrons
emitted increases but their kinetic energy remain unaltered. When a photon of frequency is incident on a
metal surface of work function , then,
h = + ( mv2)max
1
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1
( mv2)max = h - = h(-0)
2
Compton Effect:
When X-rays are scattered by a solid medium, in addition to the scattered X-rays of same frequency,
there exist some scattered X-rays of a slightly lower frequency (higher wavelength). Compton observed this
phenomenon and is called Compton Effect.
Compton Effect can be explained on the basis of the quantum theory and laws of conservation of energy and
momentum. Consider an x-ray photon of energy h incident on an electron at rest.
After the interaction, the X-ray photon gets scattered at an angle with its energy changed to h and
the electron which was initially at rest recoils at an angle . It can be shown that the increase in wavelength is
given by
h
=
(1- cos )
m0 C
When = 90 , =
0
m0 C
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Combining (1) and (2),
hc
= mc
Thus,
Or
i.e.,
mv 2
2
m2 v 2
2m
p2
2m
= eV
= eV
=eV =E
where v is the velocity of the electron, m its mass and p the momentum.
Now the momentum may be expressed as,
p = 2mE = 2meV
Hence the de-Broglie wavelength =
2mE
2meV
To test de-Broglie hypothesis, Heisenberg and Schrdinger formulated theories whereas G.P.Thomson,
Davisson and Germer conducted experiments.
Davisson-Germer experiment:
The electron diffraction experimental setup used by Davisson and Germer to verify de-Broglies
hypothesis is as shown:
The filament F is heated to produce electrons via thermionic emission. These electrons are passed
through a narrow aperture forming a fine beam of accelerated electrons. The electron beam was then made to
incident on a single crystalline sample of Nickel. The electrons scattered at different angles were counted using
a detector. The experiment was repeated by recording the scattered electron intensities at various positions of
the detector.
Notes Compiled by: Dr. Santhosh D Shenoy, M.Sc., Ph.D.
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A sharp maximum occurred in electron density at an angle () of 500 with the incident beam for an
accelerating potential of 54 V. The angle of incidence corresponding to this is 250 and from figure, glancing
angle (angle of diffraction) is 650. From X-ray diffraction experiment, spacing of the planes responsible for
diffraction was found to be 0.091 nm.
Assuming first order diffraction, Braggs law can be written as,
= 2d sin = 20.09110-9sin65 = 0.165 nm.
By de-Broglie relation,
(. . )
= 0.167nm
Thus Davisson and Germer experiment directly verifies the de-Broglie hypothesis.
Phase velocity:
General expression for a wave is Y = A cos (t-kx)
where Y = Displacement at any instant t, A = Amplitude of vibration, = 2 is the angular frequency and
2
k = is the wave vector or wave number.
Phase velocity or wave velocity of a wave is the velocity of the wave when phase is constant.
i.e., t-kx = constant
or, kx = t + constant
t
or, x = + constant
k
Group velocity:
The de-Broglie waves are represented by a wave packet and hence we have group velocity associated
with them. Group velocity is the velocity with which the wave packet travels.
Consider two waves having same amplitude but having slightly different frequency and wave number
represented by the equations
Y1 = A cos (t-kx)
Y2 = A cos [(+ ) t (k+ k) x]
The resultant displacement due to the superposition of the above two waves is,
Y = Y1 + Y2
= A cos (t-kx) + A cos [(+ ) t (k+ k)x]
Notes Compiled by: Dr. Santhosh D Shenoy, M.Sc., Ph.D.
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A+ B
A B
Since, cos A + cos B = 2cos (
) cos (
),
2
2
2k + k
2 +
k
)t(
) x} cos {(
)t (
) x}
Y = 2A cos {(
2
2
2
2
As the difference in frequency of the two waves is very small, we can assume,
2+ 2 and 2k+k 2k
k
Y = 2Acos {(
)t (
) x} cos (t-kx)
2
2
The velocity of the resultant wave (group velocity) is given by the speed with which a reference point, say the
maximum amplitude point, moves. Taking the amplitude of the resultant wave as constant, we have,
k
2Acos {(
)t (
) x} = constant
2
2
k
or, (
)t (
) x = constant
2
2
or, x =
+ constant
Group velocity vg =
vg =
Phase velocity, vp =
= vp k ----- (1)
Group velocity, vg =
vg =
= vp
dvp k
dk
dk
+k
dk
2
= vp+ ( )
= vp+ ( )
= vp+ ( )
But
= vp+ ( )
1
d( )
d
1
2
(From eq (1))
dvp
dk
dvp
d( )
dvp
1
d()
dvp d
1
d() d
dvp d
d d(1)
1 dvp
E
h
------ (1)
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(2E)
We know the angular frequency of the wave = 2 or =
2
d = ( ) dE ------(2)
h
Further, k =
dk = ( ) dp
h
2p
since =
------(3)
Substituting the value of d and dk from equations (2) and (3) in the expression for group velocity,
d dE
vg = = ------ (4)
dk
dp
If a particle of mass m is moving with a velocity vparticle, its energy is given by,
1
E = mv2particle =
-------(5)
2
2
Substituting this in equation (4),
vg =
=
dE
dp
p
d2
dp
m
mVparticle
= vparticle
Hence vg = vparticle
vp =
=
=
=
=
(2E)
h
2p
h
mc2
2p
since =
(2E)
h
(Since E = mc2)
mvparticle
c2
vparticle
vphase vparticle = c2
But vg = vparticle
vphase vg = c2
dk
1
d = 2d and dk = 2 d( )
Thus vg =
d
dk
2d
1
2 d( )
1
d
Or, d( ) =
vg
d
1
d( )
vparticleg
-------- (1)
[since vg = vparticle]
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de-Broglie related E = h to above expression
1
Then, h = mv2 + V
2
Assuming V as a constant potential and differentiating the above equation,
h d = m vparticle dv
mv
or, d = ( particle ) dv
h
Substituting this in equation (1),
1
m dv
d( ) =
h
Integrating,
1
mv
=
+ constant
i.e.,
+ constant
or, =
+ constant
**************
2mVe
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Vem
2Vem
2mVe
2) Davisson and Germer were the first to demonstrate:
i) The straight line propagation of light
ii) The diffraction of photons
iii) The effective mass of electron
iv) None of these
3) Electrons behaves as waves because they can be:
i) Deflected by an electric field
ii) Diffracted by a crystal
iii) Deflected by magnetic field
iv) They ionize a gas
4) In Davisson-Germer experiment, the hump is most prominent when the electron is accelerated by
i) 34 volts
ii) 54 volts
iii) 60 volts
iv) 80 volts
(04 Marks)
b) Define phase velocity and group velocity. Show that group velocity is same as particle velocity. (08 Marks)
c) Derive de-Broglie wavelength using Group velocity. (04 Marks)
d) Compare the energy of a photon with that of a neutron when both are associated with wavelength of 1 .
Given that mass of neutron is 1.678 10 -27 kg. (04 Marks)
June-July 2009
1) a) 1) An electron and a proton are accelerated through same potential. The ratio of de-Broglie wavelength
Notes Compiled by: Dr. Santhosh D Shenoy, M.Sc., Ph.D.
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e/p is
i) 1
ii)
me
iii)
mp
mp
mp
iv)
me
me
May/June 2010
1 a) 1) In a blackbody radiation spectrum, the Wiens distribution law is applicable only for
i) Longer wavelength
ii) Shorter wavelength
iii) Entire wavelength iv) None of these
2) The de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron of mass m and accelerated by a potential V is
h
2mVe
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Vem
2Vem
2mVe
3) Electrons behaves as a wave because they can be
i) Diffracted by a crystal
ii) Deflected by magnetic field
iii) Deflected by electric field
iv) Ionise a gas
4) If the group velocity of de-Broglie wave is 4108 m/sec, its phase velocity is
i) 12108 m/sec
ii) 2.25108 m/sec
iii) 5.33108 m/sec iv) 1.33108 m/sec (04 Marks)
b) Explain duality of matter waves.
(04 Marks)
c) Define phase velocity and group velocity. Show that group velocity is equal to particle velocity. (08 Marks)
d) Calculate the momentum of the particle and de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron with a
kinetic energy of 1.5 keV. (04 Marks)
January 2011
Notes Compiled by: Dr. Santhosh D Shenoy, M.Sc., Ph.D.
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1 a) 1) Green light incident on a surface releases photoelectrons from the surface. If now blue light is incident
on the same surface, the velocity of electrons
i) increases
ii) decreases
iii) remains same
iv) becomes zero
2) Rayleigh-Jeans theory of radiations agree with experimental results for
i) all wavelengths
ii) shorter wavelengths only
iii) longer wavelengths only
iv) middle order wavelengths only
3) The de-Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated to a potential difference of 100 volts is
i) 1.2
ii) 10
iii) 100
iv) 12
4) The wave nature associated with electrons in motion was verified by
i) photoelectric effect
ii) Compton effect
iii) diffraction by crystals iv) Raman effect (04Marks)
b) State and explain de-Broglies hypothesis.
(04 Marks)
c) Define phase velocity and group velocity. Obtain the relation between group velocity and particle velocity.
Obtain the expression for de-Broglie wavelength using group velocity. (08 Marks)
d) Find the kinetic energy and group velocity of an electron with de-Broglie wavelength of 0.2 nm. (04 marks)
*************