Es BB

Practical No .
1
Aim : Study of the Embedded system Hardware Components
Description :
1.
An embedded system is a combination of 3 things:
1.
Hardware
2.
Software
3.
Mechanical Components
And it is supposed to do one specific task only.
The hardware could be a part of Input, output or both usually and includes
buttons, display, LEDs, sensors, actuators and other electronic circuitry.
4.
Example : Washing Machine

A washing machine from an embedded systems point of view has:
1.
Hardware: Buttons, Display & buzzer, electronic circuitry.
2.
Software: It has a chip on the circuit that holds the software which
drives controls & monitors the various operations possible.
3.
Mechanical Components: the internals of a washing machine which actually

wash the clothes control the input and output of water, the chassis
itself.
4.
Example 2: Air Conditioner

An Air Conditioner from an embedded systems point of view has:
1.
Hardware: Remote, Display & buzzer, Infrared Sensors, electronic circuitry.
2.
Software: It has a chip on the circuit that holds the software which drives
controls & monitors the various operations possible. The software monitors the
external temperature through the sensors and then releases the coolant or
suppresses it.
3.
Mechanical Components: the internals of an air conditioner the motor, the

chassis, the outlet, etc
Embedded Systems Journal
UDIT, MScIT Part II 2014-15
Page No : _____
In this practical we review some hardware components that are used in embedded
systems.
Page No : _____
1. Microcontroller/Microprocessors
1.
A microprocessor is a silicon chip representing a central processing unit.
2.
A microprocessor is a dependent unit and it requires the combination of other hardware

like memory, timer unit, and interrupt controller, etc. for proper functioning. Ex. 8085
microprocessor
3.
A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM,
special and general purpose register arrays,on chip ROM/FLASH memory for program
storage , timer and interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports.
4.
Microcontrollers are designed for either general purpose application requirement or

domain specific application requirement. Ex. 8051 microcontroller
5.
The Intel 8051 microcontroller is one of the most popular general purpose
microcontrollers in use today. The success of the Intel 8051 spawned a number of clones
(also called derivatives) which are collectively referred to as the MCS-51 family of
microcontrollers, which includes chips from vendors such as Atmel, Philips, Infineon,
and Texas Instruments.
6. 8051 Variants
1.
The 8051 has the widest range of variants of any embedded controller in the market.
2.
The smallest device is the Atmel 89c1051, a 20 pin flash variant with 2 timers, UART,
20mA.
3.
The fastest parts are from Dallas, with performance close to 10 MIPS.
4.
The most powerful chip is the Siemens 80C517A, with 32-bit ALU, 2 UARTs, 2K RAM,
PLCC84 package, 816 bit PWMs and other features.
ROM [ bytes]
4K
RAM [bytes]
128
Timers

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1.
2.
Intel 8051 I/O pins
32
Serial port
Interrupt sources
Basic features of 8051
The 8051 is the original member of the MCS-51 family, and is the core for all MCS-51 devices.
The features of the 8051 core are1.
8-bit CPU optimized for control applications
2.
Sixteen bit program counter (PC) and data pointer (DPTR).
3.
Eight bit program status word (PSW).
4.
Eight bit stack pointer (SP).
5.
Extensive Boolean processing (single-bit logic) capabilities
6.
64K program memory address space
7.
64K data memory address space
8.
4K bytes of on-chip program memory
9.
128 bytes of on-chip data RAM

1.
Four register banks, each containing eight registers.
2.
Sixteen bytes, of bit addressable memory locations.
3.
Eighty bytes of general-purpose data memory.
10.
32 bidirectional and individually addressable I/O lines(4 groups of eight)
11.
Two 16 bit timers/counters
12.
Full duplex 8-bit serial data transmitter/receiver (UART)
13.
Control registers: TCON, TMOD, SCON, PCON, IP and IE among SFRs
14.
Thirty two I/O pins arranged as four 8-bit ports P0, P1,P2 and P3 addressed as PX.0PX.7.
15.
Two external and three internal interrupt sources.

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16.
6- source/5-vector interrupt structure with two priority levels
17.
On-chip clock oscillator clock circuits
A. Logic diagram of 8051 micro controller
B. Pin out diagram of 8051 micro

controller

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Figure : Block diagram of 8051 micro

controller

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Figure : Internal RAM Memory

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Figure : Special Function Registers

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1.
Resistors: (Color code and types)

1.
2.
3.
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements

electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and,
at the same time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits
resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active
elements, terminate transmission lines among other uses.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuitsand
are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components
can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of
magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance will fall within a manufacturing
tolerance.
Resistor Color Codes

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4. Capacitors:
1. A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical
conductors (plates) separated by adielectric (i.e. insulator).
2. When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is
attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing
positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative charge Q to collect on the
other plate.
3. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output
of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies.
In electric power transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.
4.
Inductors:
1.
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical

component which resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a
conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. When a current flows through
it, energy is stored temporarily in a magnetic field in the coil.
When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field
induces a voltage in the conductor, according to Faradays law of electromagnetic
induction, which opposes the change in current that created it.
2.

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3.
LEDs/Displays
1.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a basic pn-junction

diode, which emits light when activated.[7] When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads,
electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the
form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.
2.
An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used
to shape its radiation pattern.
1.
Alphanumeric displays are available in seven-segment, starburst and dot-matrix format. Sevensegment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display
all letters. Dot-matrix displays typically use 5x7 pixels per character
A 7 segment LED Display
A dot matrix display
A 16 x 2 lcd display

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2.
1.
Diodes
2.
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric

conductance; it has low (ideally zero) resistance to current in one direction, and high
(ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type
today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a pn junction connected to
two electrical terminals.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite
direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version
of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to
convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from
radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are forms of rectifiers.
3.
Transistors
1.
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power.
It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to
an external circuit.
A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current
through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher
than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.
2.
3.

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4.
Sensors
1.
2.
3.
5.
A sensor is a device that detects events or changes in quantities and provides a

corresponding output, generally as an electrical or optical signal; for example, a
thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage.
A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the input
quantity being measured changes.
The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between output signal and measured
property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the
sensitivity is a constant with the unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear because the ratio is
constant at all points of measurement.
Actuators
1.
An actuator is a type of motor that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or

system.
2.
It is operated by a source of energy, typically electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure,

or pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy into motion. An actuator is the mechanism
by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control system can be simple (a
fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control
system), a human, or any other input.

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6.
Crystal oscillator
1.
2.
3.
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical

resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal
with a very precise frequency.
The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so
oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal oscillators, but other
piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits.
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a
regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.
7.
Operational Amplifiers:
8.
An operational
amplifier (op-amp)
is
a DC-coupled high-gain
electronic
voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output.
In this configuration, an op-amp produces an output potential (relative to circuit ground)
that is typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the potential difference
between its input terminals.
9.

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10.
ADC, DAC
1.
An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is a device that converts a continuous physical

quantity (usually voltage) to a digital number that represents the quantity's amplitude.
An ADC is defined by its bandwidth and its signal to noise. The actual bandwidth of an
ADC is characterized primarily by its sampling rate, and to a lesser extent by how it
handles errors such as aliasing. The dynamic range of an ADC is influenced by many
factors, including the resolution, linearity and accuracy and jitter . The dynamic range of
an ADC is often summarized in terms of its effective number of bits (ENOB), the number
of bits of each measure it returns that are on average not noise.
2.
3.
In electronics, a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) is a function that converts digital

data into an analog signal. DACs are commonly used in music players to convert digital
data streams into analog audio signals. They are also used in televisions and mobile
phones to convert digital video data into analog video signals which connect to the screen
drivers to display monochrome or color images. These two applications use DACs at
opposite ends of the speed/resolution trade-off. The audio DAC is a low speed high
resolution type while the video DAC is a high speed low to medium resolution type.
Conclusion: The practical of the study of the Embedded System hardware components
is successfully completed.

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PRACTICAL NO: 2
Aim: Write a program to blink an LED.

Description:
The Practical will be performed in 3 steps:
1.
1.
Design the circuit in a simulator
2.
Write the code using and IDE and generate the hex file.
3.
Give the hex file as input to the Designed circuit and execute.
The circuit consists of 8 leds connected to Port 1 of the AT89C51

microcontroller.
2.
The algorithm is as follows:
1.
Set Port 1 = FF;
2.
Delay();
3.
Set Port 1 = 00;
4.
Delay();
5.
Repeat step 1
1.
During execution the LEDs are supposed to blink on and off
// all leds ON
// wait for some time
// all leds OFF
// wait for some time
alternatively

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COMPONENTS
CRYSTAL
LED-BIBY
RESISTOR
CAPACITOR
MICROCONTROLLER
Frequency : 11.059 MHz

R1- 10K,
R2 R8 100R
C1, C2- 33pf,
C3 1uf
AT89C51- FREQUENCY 11.059MHz
Design:

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Code:
#include <reg51.h>
void delay();
void main()
{
P1=0;
while(1)
{
P1 = 0x00;
delay();
P1 = 0xFF;
delay();
}
}
void delay()
{
unsigned int i,j,k;
for(i=0; i < 6; i++ )
{
for(j=0;j<250;j++)
{
for(k=0;k<250;k++);
}
}
}

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STEPS FOR WRITING THE CODE AND GENERATING HEX FILE:

1.
Go to Keil uVision4 and create a new project

( Create a new folder for this practical and save project by a name Blinking led prac2)

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2.
Select Atmel and then AT89C51 and click OK
3.
Create a new file by pressing Ctrl + N, type the code and save it with a name
blinkingled.c
Right click on the Source Group 1 and select Add Files to Group Source Group 1.

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Select the file that has been created. blinking led.c
4.
Go the Project ->Options for Target Target 1. In the Target tab, change the
Xtal(mhz): 11.059
Click the Output tab on top and Select the create HEX file option

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EXECUTING THE PROJECT :

1.
In the design page, right click on the micro controller and select Edit properties. In
the Edit Component window under the program file option, browse and add the hex file
of the code. blinking led.hex
2.
Run the design.

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OUTPUT
Conclusion: The practical for blinking led is successfully completed.

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PRACTICAL NO : 3
Aim : WAP to serial data interface
Description:
3.
In this practical we simulate serial data transfer from Microcontroller

to external peripheral through serial port.
4.
For the output to be displayed we have setup another serial port and
established a virtual connection between these two virtual serial ports
using a third party software Virtual Serial Port driver. This enables to
send the data from our micro controller via serial port and receive
the same in the simulated environment to view the output
MAX232
1.
It is an IC, first that converts signals from an RS-232 serial port to

signals suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits. The
MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver and typically converts the RX, TX,
CTS and RTS signals.
2.
The drivers provide RS-232 voltage level outputs (approx. 7.5 V)

from a single + 5 V supply via on-chip charge pumps and external
capacitors. This makes it useful for implementing RS-232 in devices
that otherwise do not need any voltages outside the 0 V to + 5 V
range, as power supply design does not need to be made more
complicated just for driving the RS-232 in this case.

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3.
The receivers reduce RS-232 inputs (which may be as high as

25 V), to standard 5 V TTL levels. These receivers have a typical
threshold of 1.3 V, and a typical hysteresis of 0.5 V.
Virtual Serial Port Driver

4.
creates virtual serial ports and connects them in pairs via virtual null
modem cable. Applications on both ends of the pair will be able to
exchange data in such a way, that everything written to the first port
will appear in the second one and backwards.
5.
All virtual serial ports work and behave exactly like real ones,
emulating all their settings. We can create as many virtual port pairs
as you want, so there will be no serial ports shortage and no
additional hardware crowding your desk.

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COMPONENTS:
1.
MICROCONTROLLER - AT89C51: 11.059MHz
2.
CAPACITORS
3.
1.
C1:33PF
2.
C2:33PF
3.
C3:1UF
4.
C4:10UF
5.
C5:10UF
6.
C6:10UF
7.
C7:10UF
8.
C8:10UF
9.
C9:10UF
COMPIM1, COMPIM2
1.
Physical baud rate:9600
2.
Virtual baud rate:9600
4.
CRYSTAL:11.059MhZ
5.
MAX232
6.
RESISTORS: R1 10K
7.
VIRTUAL TERMINAL - Baud rate:9600

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DESIGN:
TRANSMITTER
RECEIVER

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CODE:
#include<REG51.H>
#include<stdio.h>
void serial_init(void);
void main(void)
{
serial_init();
while(1)
{
printf("hello world!! \n\r");
}
}
void serial_init(void)
{
SCON=0x50;
TMOD=0x20;
TH1=0xFD;
TR1=1;
TI=1;
}
Diagram for Virtual Serial Port Driver Configuration

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OUTPUT:
Conclusion: The practical for serial data transfer is successfully completed.

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Practical No 4
Aim : WAP for the keypad and LCD interface
Description:
In this practical we interface a 4 x 4 keypad and and LCD panel to a
microcontroller.
The keys pressed on the keypad have to be displayed on the LCD panel.
We have created a 4x4 keypad using push buttons, also we could use a 4x4 keypad
that is available under the components library.
We will use a 16 x 2 LCD panel for display purpose which is LM016L
The LCD can be used in 2 modes 8 bit mode and 4 bit mode.
Before using the LCD for display purpose, LCD has to be initialized. The LCD is
initialized in the following sequence.
1.
Send command 0x30 - Using 8-bit interface
2.
Delay 20ms
3.
Send command 0x30 - 8-bit interface
4.
Delay 20ms
5.
Send command 0x30 - 8-bit interface
6.
Delay 20ms
7.
Send Function set - see Table 4 for more information
8.
Display Clear command
9.
Set entry mode command
The first 3 commands are usually not required but are recommended when you
are using 4-bit interface

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Following is a detailed description of the Pin Configuration, Commands, Memory

and Entry mode of LCD to be used

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Pin Configuration:
Pin
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Function
Name
Ground (0V)
Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V 5.3V)
Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor
Selects command register when low; and data register when high
0 = Instruction input , 1 = Data input
Low to write to the register; High to read from the register
0 = Write to LCD Module, 1 = Read from LCD module
Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given
Vss
VDD
VEE
Register
Select(RS)
Read/write (RW)
8-bit data pins
Backlight VCC (5V)

Backlight Ground (0V)
Enable (E)
DB0
DB1
DB2
DB3
DB4
DB5
DB6
DB7
Led+
Led
LCD Memory
LCD display contains three memory blocks:
1.
DDRAM Display Data RAM;
2.
CGRAM Character Generator RAM; and
3.
CGROM Character Generator ROM.
DDRAM Memory
1.
DDRAM memory is used for storing characters to be displayed. The size of this memory
is capable of storing 80 characters. Some memory locations are directly connected to the
characters on display.

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2.
3.
4.
Everything works quite simply: it is enough to configure the display to increment

addresses automatically (shift right) and set the starting address for the message to be
displayed (for example 00 hex).
If the cursor is on, it appears at the currently addressed location. In other words, when a
character appears at the cursor position, it will automatically move to the next addressed
location.
This is a sort of RAM memory so that data can be written to and read from it, but its
content is irretrievably lost when the power goes off.
LCD Basic Commands

All data transferred to an LCD through the outputs D0-D7 will be interpreted as a command or a
data, which depends on the RS pin logic state:
1.
RS = 1 - Bits D0 - D7 are addresses of the characters to be displayed. LCD processor
addresses one character from the character map and displays it. The DDRAM address
specifies location on which the character is to be displayed. This address is defined prior
to transferring character or the address of the previously transferred character is
automatically incremented.
2.
RS = 0 - Bits D0 - D7 are commands for setting the display mode.
Here is a list of commands recognized by the LCD:
COMMAND
RS
RW
D7
D6
D5
D4
D3
D2
D1
D0
EXECUTION
TIME
Clear display
1.64mS
Cursor home
1.64mS
Entry mode set
I/D
40uS
Display on/off control
40uS
Cursor/Display Shift
D/C
R/L
40uS
Function set
DL
40uS
Set CGRAM address
Set DDRAM address
DDRAM address
40uS
Read "BUSY" flag

(BF)
BF
DDRAM address
Write to CGRAM or
DDRAM
D7
D6
D5
D4
D3
D2
D1
D0
40uS
Read from CGRAM

or DDRAM
D7
D6
D5
D4
D3
D2
D1
D0
40uS
CGRAM address
40uS

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I/D
1 = Increment (by 1)
0 = Decrement (by 1)
S
1 = Display shift on
R/L
1 = Shift right
0 = Shift left
DL
1 = 8-bit interface
0 = Display shift off
0 = 4-bit interface
D
1 = Display on
0 = Display off
N
1 = Display in two lines
0 = Display in one line
U
1 = Cursor on
0 = Cursor off
F
1 = Character format 5x10 dots
0 = Character format 5x7 dots
B
1 = Cursor blink on
0 = Cursor blink off
D/C
1 = Display shift
0 = Cursor shift
THE BUSY FLAG: Compared to the microcontroller, the LCD is an extremely slow
component. For this reason, it is necessary to provide a signal which would, upon command
execution, indicate that the display is ready for the next piece of data. That signal, called the busy
flag, can be read from the line D7. The display is ready to receive new data when the voltage on
this line is 0V (BF=0).
LCD
Entry
mode
Two
bits
decide
the
entry
mode
for
LCD,
these
bits
are:
a)
I/D
Increment/Decrement
bit
b)
S
Display
shift.
With these two bits we get four combinations of entry mode which are 0x04,0x05,0x06,0x07
(see table 3 in LCD Command section). So we get different results with these different entry
modes. Normally entry mode 0x06 is used which is No shift and auto incremement. I
recommend you to try all the possible entry modes and see the results, I am sure you will be
surprised.
COMPONENTS:
1. AT89C51:11.059MHz
2. BUTTON
3. CAPACITOR
1. C1:33pf
2. C2:33pf
3. C3:1uf
4. CRYSTAL:11.059MHz
5. LED-BLUE
6. LM016L

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DESIGN

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CODE:
#include<reg51.h>
void cct_init(void);
void delay(int);
void lcdinit(void);
void writecmd(int);
void writedata(char);
void Return(void);
char READ_SWITCHES(void);
char get_key(void);
sbit RowA = P1^0;
sbit RowB = P1^1;
sbit RowC = P1^2;
sbit RowD = P1^3;
sbit C1
sbit C2
sbit C3
sbit C4
= P1^4;
= P1^5;
= P1^6;
= P1^7;
//RowA
//RowB
//RowC
//RowD
//Column1
//Column2
//Column3
//Column4
sbit E = P3^6; //E pin for LCD

sbit RS = P3^7; //RS pin for LCD
int main(void)
{
char key;
cct_init();
lcdinit();
// key char for keeping record of pressed key

// Make input and output pins as required
// Initilize LCD
while(1)
{
key = get_key();
writecmd(0x01);
writedata(key);
}
// Get pressed key

// Clear screen
// Echo the key pressed to LCD
}
void cct_init(void)
{
P0 = 0x00;
P1 = 0xf0;
P2 = 0x00;
P3 = 0x00;
}
//not used
//used for generating outputs and taking inputs from Keypad
//used as data port for LCD
//used for RS and E

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void delay(int a)
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<a;i++); //null statement
}
void writedata(char t)
{
RS = 1;
P2 = t;
E = 1;
delay(150);
E = 0;
delay(150);
}
// This is data mode

//Data transfer
// => E = 1
// => E = 0
void writecmd(int z)
{
RS = 0;
// This is command mode
P2 = z;
//Data transfer
E = 1;
// => E = 1
delay(150);
E = 0;
// => E = 0
delay(150);
}
void lcdinit(void)
{
delay(15000);
writecmd(0x30);
delay(4500);
writecmd(0x30);
delay(300);
writecmd(0x30);
delay(650);
writecmd(0x38);
writecmd(0x0c);
writecmd(0x01);
writecmd(0x06);
//function set
//display on,cursor off,blink off
//clear display
//entry mode, set increment
}
void Return(void) //Return to 0 location on LCD
{
writecmd(0x02);

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delay(1500);
}
char READ_SWITCHES(void)
{
RowA = 0; RowB = 1; RowC = 1; RowD = 1;
//Test Row A
if (C1 == 0) { delay(10000); while (C1==0); return '7'; }

if (C4 == 0) { delay(10000); while (C4==0); return ''; }
//Test Row B

if (C4 == 0) { delay(10000); while (C4==0); return 'X'; }
//Test Row C

if (C3 == 0) { delay(10000); while (C3==0); return 'I3; }
if (C4 == 0) { delay(10000); while (C4==0); return '-'; }
//Test Row D
if (C1 == 0) { delay(10000); while (C1==0); return 'E'; }

if (C3 == 0) { delay(10000); while (C3==0); return '='; }
if (C4 == 0) { delay(10000); while (C4==0); return '+'; }
return 'n';
// Means no key has been pressed
}
char get_key(void)
//get key from user
{
char key = 'n';
//assume no key pressed
while(key=='n')
//wait untill a key is pressed
key = READ_SWITCHES(); //scan the keys again and again
return key;
//when key pressed then return its value
}

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Output:
Conclusion: The practical for LCD & Keypad interfacing is successfully completed.

_____
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PRACTICAL NO : 5
Aim : WAP to implement ADC0808 with 8051 microcontroller
Description:

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In this practical we aim to study analog to digital conversion. IN the

simulated environment we use a variable resistor to indicate the analog
input of a sensor. The variable resistor is interfaced to ADC0808 chip which
is interfaced to the microcontroller.
The output is displayed on a LCD panel.
ADC0808 is an 8 bit analog to digital converter with eight input analog

channels, i.e., it can take eight different analog inputs. The input which is to
be converted to digital form can be selected by using three address lines.
The voltage reference can be set using the Vref+ and Vref- pins. The step
size is decided based on set reference value. Step size is the change in analog
input to cause a unit change in the output of ADC. The default step size is
19.53mV
corresponding
to
5V
reference
voltage. ADC0808 needs
an
external clock to operate unlike ADC0804 which has an internal clock. The
ADC needs some specific control signals for its operations like start
conversion and bring data to output pins. When the conversion is complete
the EOC pins goes low to indicate the end of conversion and data ready to
be picked up.

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Components:
1. ADC0808
2. AT89C51:11.059MHz
3. CAP
1.
C1:33pf
2.
C2:33pf
3.
C3:1uf
4. CAP-ELEC
5. CRYSTAL
6. LM016L
7. POT-HG
8. RES

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Figure: Pin Description of ADC0808

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DESIGN

_____
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Code:

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Output:
Conclusion: The practical for ADC0808 interfacing is successfully completed.

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PRACTICAL NO : 6
Aim : Write a program to interface stepper motor
Description:
Stepper motor is one of the commonly used motors for precise angular movement.
The advantage of using a stepper motor is that the angular position of the motor
shaft can be controlled without any feedback mechanism. Stepper motors are
widely used in industrial and commercial applications. They are also commonly
used as in drive systems of autonomous robots.
The microcontroller is programmed to rotate the stepper in Full Step modes.
For a bipolar stepper motor, in the full step mode both the phases are energized
simultaneously. The coils A, B, C, D are energized in the following order:
Step
1
Coil A
H
Coil B
L
Coil C
L
Coil D
H

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2
3
4
H
L
L
H
H
L
L
H
H
L
L
H
The Operating voltage of a stepper motor is in the range of 5V to 24V hence

ULN2003, a stepper motor driver IC which is available of the shelf is used to
interface the stepper motor to the Microcontroller.

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COMPONENTS :
1.
ULN2003A
2.
Stepper Motor 3 pins
3.
AT89C51 Frequency -11.059 MHz
4.
C1 & C2 33pF
5.
C3 1uF
6.
Crystal 11.059 MHz
7.
R1 10k
Design :

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Code :
#include<reg51.h>
#include<stdio.h>
void delay(int);
void main()
{
while(1)
{
P2=0x09;
delay(500);
P2=0x0C;
delay(500);
P2=0x06;
delay(500);
P2=0x03;
delay(500);
}
}
void delay(int k)
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<k;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<100;j++)

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{
}
}
}

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Output:
Conclusion: The practical for stepper motor interfacing is successfully completed.

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PRACTICAL NO 7
Aim : Write a program to simulate traffic signals
Description:
Traffic Lights are signaling devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian

crossings and other locations to control competing flows of traffic
For this practical we will use LED of red, green, yellow and blue color and are
going to implement the code logic according to the following diagram.
The above diagram illustrates the traffic flow layout of the four way road
The traffic flow can be classified in to four phases in the above diagram and we
have considered the North as starting point of this traffic flow. And in the above
scheme vehicles are allowed to make a free right turn so we need to consider only
two directions straight and left. So the green signal was classified into two types
one for G for permitting vehicle to proceed forward and GL for permitting vehicles
to left.
PHASE I1.
Initially Vehicle from A needs to travel to F and from E to B roads.
2.
So in the first Phase forward green signal in A and E permits vehicles to

pass through while East and west roads are stopped by red signal.
PHASE IIEmbedded Systems Journal

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1.
Phase II permits the vehicle to pass from G to D and from C to H roads.
2.
Traffic flow from rest of the two roads North and south was stopped by
means of Red signal.
PHASE III1.
Phase three permits traffic flow in the left directions from A to D and from
E to H.
2.
Traffic flow in East and west are stopped by means of red signal.
PHASE IV1.
Phase four permits traffic flow from C to F and from G to B.
2.
Traffic flow in the North and south are stopped by means of red signal.
3.
The cycle repeats again from Phase I to Phase IV and thus the traffic is
regulated.

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COMPONENT :
4.
AT89C51 11.059 MHz
5.
C1 & C2 33pF
6.
C3 1uF
7.
Crystal 11.059 MHz
8.
R1 10k
9.
R2 R17 100
10.
LED 10mA
11.
Traffic Lights
DESIGN :

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Code :
#include <REG51.H>
void delay();
void count1();
sbit NR = P0^0;
sbit NY = P0^1;
sbit NG = P0^2;
sbit NL = P0^3;
sbit SR = P0^4;
sbit SY = P0^5;
sbit SG = P0^6;
sbit SL = P0^7;
sbit ER = P1^0;
sbit EY = P1^1;
sbit EG = P1^2;
sbit EL = P1^3;
sbit WRR = P1^4;

sbit WY = P1^5;
sbit WG = P1^6;
sbit WL = P1^7;

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void main(void)
{
while(1){
/*
NR = 1;
//allow north to south AND WEST
NY = 1;
NG = 0;
NL = 1;
SR = 1;
//allow south to north AND EAST
SY = 1;
SG = 0;
SL = 1;
ER = 0;
//BLOCK EAST TO WEST
EY = 1;
EG = 1;
EL = 1;
WRR = 0;
//BLOCK WEST TO EAST
WY = 1;

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WG = 1;
WL = 1;
count1();
NR = 0;
NY = 1;
NG = 1;
NL = 1;
SR = 0;
SY = 1;
SG = 1;
SL = 1;
ER = 1;
EY = 1;
EG = 0;
EL = 1;
WRR = 1;
//BLOCK WEST TO EAST
WY = 1;
WG = 0;
WL = 1;
count1();

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NG=0;
SG=0;
ER=0;
WRR=0;
count1();
EY=0;
WY=0;
ER=1;
WRR=1;
count1();
EY=1;
WY=1;
NG=1;
SG=1;
NR=0;
SR=0;
ER=1;
WRR=1;
EG=0;
WG=0; */
//1ST 7SEC, NORTH TO SOUTH AND SOUTH TO NORTH REST BLOCKED

NR = 1;
NY = 1;

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NG = 0;
NL = 1;
SR = 1;
SY = 1;
SG = 0;
SL = 1;
ER = 0;
EY = 1;
EG = 1;
EL = 1;
WRR = 0;
//BLOACK WEST TO EAST
WY = 1;
WG = 1;
WL = 1;
count1();
//2ND 7SEC, NORTH TO SOUTH AND yELLOW FOR EAST TO WEST N WEST TO EAST
NR = 1;
NY = 1;
NG = 0;
NL = 1;

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SR = 1;
SY = 1;
SG = 0;
SL = 1;
ER = 1;
//BLOCK EAST TO WEST, yellow on
EY = 0;
EG = 1;
EL = 1;
WRR = 1;
//BLOACK WEST TO EAST, yellow on
WY = 0;
WG = 1;
WL = 1;
count1();
//3RD 7 SEC, EAST TO WEST AND WEST TO EAST REST BLOCKED

NR = 0;
NY = 1;
NG = 1;
NL = 1;
SR = 0;

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SY = 1;
SG = 1;
SL = 1;
ER = 1;
//BLOCK EAST TO WEST, yellow on
EY = 1;
EG = 0;
EL = 1;
WRR = 1;
//BLOACK WEST TO EAST, yello on
WY = 1;
WG = 0;
WL = 1;
count1();
//4TH 7 SEC, SOUTH TO WEST AND NORTH TO EAST REST ALL BLOCKED
NR = 0;
NY = 1;
NG = 1;
NL = 0;
SR = 0;
SY = 1;

_____
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SG = 1;
SL = 0;
ER = 0;
EY = 1;
EG = 1;
EL = 1;
WRR = 0;
WY = 1;
WG = 1;
WL = 1;
count1();
//5TH 7 SEC, EAST TO SOUTH AND WEST TO NORTH REST ALL BLOCKED
NR = 1;
NY = 0;
NG = 1;
NL = 1;
SR = 1;
SY = 0;
SG = 1;
SL = 1;

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ER = 1;
EY = 1;
EG = 1;
EL = 0;
WRR = 1;
//BLOACK WEST TO EAST
WY = 1;
WG = 1;
WL = 0;
count1();
}
}
void count1()
{
unsigned int i,j;
for(j=0;j<=2;)
{
for(i=0;i<=3;)
{
i++;
delay();
}
j++;

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delay();
}
}
void delay(void)
{
unsigned int s,k;
for(s=0;s<=230;s++)
{
for(k=0;k<238;k++);
}
}
OUTPUT:

_____
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Conclusion: The practical for implementing traffic signal is successfully completed.

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PRACTICAL NO 8
Aim: WAP to implement elevator control.
Description:
This practical is based on the concept of elevator control. Here the elevator
is simulated for a Ground + 3 Floors structures.
A button is made available on every floor to call the lift.
An LED is used to indicate the availability of the lift. RED indicates. BUSY
and GREEN Indicates available.
A 7 segment display is used to indicate the current position of the lift. The
seven segment LED is used in the Common Cathode configuration.
The following table displays the how decimal values 0-9 are displayed on
the 7 segment display

_____
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_____
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DESIGN:

_____
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Code:
#include<reg51.h>
void delayd();
char key;
// key char for keeping record of pressed key
//2. PUSH BUTTON SWITCHES TO CALL LIFT

sbit TF = P1^0;
sbit SF = P1^1;
sbit FF = P1^2;
sbit GF = P1^3;
sbit led = P1^4;
char READ_SWITCHES(void);
char get_key(void);
void main()
{
P2 = 0x3f;
P1 = 0x00;
while(1)
{
key = get_key();
// Get pressed key
P1 = 0x00;
led=0;

_____
Page No :
}
}
char get_key(void)
//get key from user
{
char key = 'n';
//assume no key pressed
while(key=='n')
//wait untill a key is pressed
key = READ_SWITCHES(); //scan the keys again and again
return key;
//when key pressed then return its value
char READ_SWITCHES(void)
{
//ground floor
if (GF == 1)
{
led=1;
// third to ground
if(GF==1 && key=='T')
{
delayd();
P2 = 0x5b;

_____
Page No :
delayd();
P2 = 0x06;
delayd();
P2 = 0x3f;
}
// second to ground
if(GF==1 && key=='S')
{
delayd();
P2 = 0x06;
delayd();
P2 = 0x3f;
}
// first to ground
if(GF==1 && key=='F')
{
delayd();
P2 = 0x3f;
}
return 'G';
}
//first floor
if (FF == 1)
{

_____
Page No :
led=1;
//third floor to first floor
if(FF==1 && key=='T')
{
delayd();
P2 = 0x5b;
delayd();
P2 = 0x06;
}
//second floor to first floor
if(FF==1 && key=='S')
{
delayd();
P2 = 0x06;
}
//ground floor to first floor
if(FF==1 && key=='G')
{
delayd();
P2 = 0x06;
}
delayd();
return 'F';
}
//second floor

_____
Page No :
if (SF == 1)
{
led=1;
//third floor to second floor
if(SF==1 && key=='T')
{
delayd();
P2 = 0x5b;
}
//first floor to second floor
if(SF==1 && key=='F')
{
delayd();
P2 = 0x5b;
}
//ground floor to second floor
if(FF==1 && key=='G')
{
delayd();
P2 = 0x06;
delayd();
P2 = 0x5b;
}
delayd();
return 'S';

_____
Page No :
}
//third floor
if (TF == 1)
{
led=1;
if(TF==1 && key='G')
//ground floor to third floor
{
delayd();
P2 = 0x06;
delayd();
P2 = 0x5b;
delayd();
P2 = 0x4f;
}
if(TF==1 && key='F')
//first floor to third floor
{
delayd();
P2 = 0x5b;
delayd();
P2 = 0x4f;
}
if(TF==1 && key='S')
//second floor to third floor
{
delayd();

_____
Page No :
P2 = 0x4f;
}
delayd();
return 'T';
}
}
void delayd ( )
{
unsigned int s,k,i;
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(s=0;s<=230;s++)
{
for(k=0;k<238;k++);
}
}
}

_____
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Output:

_____
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Conclusion: The practical to implement elevator control is successfully completed.

_____
Page No :

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Practical No .

An embedded system is a combination of 3 things:

Example : Washing Machine

Hardware: Buttons, Display & buzzer, electronic circuitry.

Mechanical Components: the internals of a washing machine which actually

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Embedded Systems Journal

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A microprocessor is a dependent unit and it requires the combination of other hardware

Microcontrollers are designed for either general purpose application requirement or

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Intel 8051 I/O pins

Basic features of 8051

8-bit CPU optimized for control applications

Sixteen bit program counter (PC) and data pointer (DPTR).

Eight bit program status word (PSW).

Eight bit stack pointer (SP).

Extensive Boolean processing (single-bit logic) capabilities

64K program memory address space

64K data memory address space

4K bytes of on-chip program memory

128 bytes of on-chip data RAM

Four register banks, each containing eight registers.

Sixteen bytes, of bit addressable memory locations.

Eighty bytes of general-purpose data memory.

32 bidirectional and individually addressable I/O lines(4 groups of eight)

Two 16 bit timers/counters

Full duplex 8-bit serial data transmitter/receiver (UART)

Control registers: TCON, TMOD, SCON, PCON, IP and IE among SFRs

Two external and three internal interrupt sources.

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6- source/5-vector interrupt structure with two priority levels

On-chip clock oscillator clock circuits

A. Logic diagram of 8051 micro controller

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Figure : Special Function Registers

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Resistors: (Color code and types)

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements

Resistor Color Codes

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A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a basic pn-junction

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