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Equations Page
This is a listing of all equations that we are using (updated as we go) from the text and class discussions. Feel free to print out a copy and update
Equation
velocities this way. This is particularly helpful and easy to use if you
know that it starts with zero velocity (just divide the final velocity in
half).
This is a simple re-write of the old distance-equals-rate-times-time
formula with average velocity defined as above.
This is a very important formula for later use. It can be used to
calculate an object's displacement using initial velocity, constant
acceleration, and time. This is often times used to calculate how far
an object moves vertically under the influence of gravity (agravity = g
= 9.81 m/s2).
Though a bit more complex looking, this equation is really an
excellent way to find final velocity knowing only initial velocity,
average acceleration, and displacement. Don't forget to take the
square-root to finish solving for vf.
This equation is the definition of a vector (in this case, the vector A)
through its vertical and horizontal components. Recall that x is
horizontal and y is vertical.
This equation relates the lengths of the vector and its components. It
is taken directly from the Pythagorean theorem relating the side
lengths of a right triangle.
The length of a vector's horizontal component can be found by
knowing the length of the vector and the angle it makes with the
positive-x axis (in this case, the Greek letter theta).
The length of a vector's vertical component can be found by knowing
the length of the vector and the angle it makes with the positive-x
axis (in this case, the Greek letter theta).
Because the components of a vector are perpendicular to each other,
and they form a right triangle with the vector as the hypotenuse, the
tangent of the vector's angle with the positive-x axis is equal to the
ratio of the vertical component length to the horizontal component
length. This is useful for calculating the angle that a vector is pointed
when only the components are known.
This is Newton's Second Law, written as a definition of the term
"force". Simply put, a force is what is required to cause a mass to
accelerate. Forces are measured in Newtons (N), which are defined
in terms of kilograms (kg) of mass and meters per second-squared
(m/s2) of acceleration.
This is simply a reworking of Newton's 2nd Law to state that the
"weight" of an object is really the force that gravity (see our old
friend g = -9.81 m/s2) pulls it down with. Since 'g' is already a
negative value, we don't have to mess around with putting a negative
to show direction (down is negative in our x-y reference frame).
Through experimentation, physicists came to learn that the frictional
force between two surfaces depends on two things: the type of
material that the surfaces are made of; and how strong a force it is
acting perpendicularly between them. These two factors are seen
here in this equation: the Greek letter 'mu' is the coefficient of friction
(always positive); and the normal force (normal literally means
perpendicular). Since both are positive, we must include a negative
to account for friction's oppositional nature (always goes against
motion).
Another way to interpret Newton's 2nd Law is to say that the net
(sum total) force on an object is what causes its acceleration. Hence,
there may be any number of forces acting on an object, but it is the
resultant of all of them that actually causes any acceleration.
Remember, however, that these are force vectors, not just numbers.
We must add them just as we would add vectors.
A simple if-then statement that holds true due to Newton's 2nd Law.
If the mass is not accelerated (meaning: sped up, slowed down, or
changed direction), then there must be no net force acting on it. This
is not to say that there is no force acting on it, just that the sum total
of all the forces acting on it is equal to zero -- all the forces "cancel
out".
Since force is a vector, I can simply focus on its components when I
wish. So, if I have a series of forces acting on a mass, the sum of
their x-components must be equal to the x-component of the net force
on the mass. And, by Newton's 2nd Law, this must be equal to the
mass times the x-component of the acceleration (since mass has no
direction, and acceleration is also a vector).
Similarly as above, if I have a series of forces acting on a mass, the
sum of their y-components must be equal to the y-component of the
net force on the mass. And, by Newton's 2nd Law, this must be
equal to the mass times the y-component of the acceleration (since
mass has no direction, and acceleration is also a vector).
If we calculate (or just know) the x- and y-components of the net
force acting on an object, it is a snap to find the total net force. As
with any vector, it is merely the sum of its components (added
together like a right triangle, of course). This equation becomes
ridiculously easy to use if either one of the components is zero.
The definition of momentum is simply mass times velocity. Take
note that an object can have different velocities measured from
different reference frames.
Newton's 2nd Law re-written as an expression of momentum
change. This is actually how Newton first thought of his law.
The Impulse-Momentum Theorem is just an algebraic manipulation
of Newton's 2nd Law. It allows us to think of momentum change as
"impulse" (force over some time), and apply the law in a much
simpler fashion.
In a closed, isolated system, the total momentum of all the objects
does not change. Since "closed" means nothing coming in or going
out, we can imagine all our applications talking about a fixed set of
objects. Since "isolated" means no interactions with anything outside
the system, we must imagine all our applications involve nothing but
those objects and forces that we consider. These are tough prices to
pay, but the result is an INCREDIBLY powerful tool -- total
momentum before an interaction is equal to total momentum
afterward.
In two dimensions, the law still holds -- we just pay attention to the
components of the total momentum. Here, a' refers to object a after
the collision.
This equation shows the relationship between arclength (s), radius (r),
and angle (theta - measured in radians). It is useful for finding the
distance around any circular path (or portion thereof) at a given radial
distance.
This equation shows the relationship between the period of a
pendulum and its length. It was first discovered by Galileo that the
arc of a pendulums swing and the mass at the end of a pendulum do
not factor noticeably into the amount of time each swing takes. Only
wave pattern and the wavelength (how far apart the waves are in
space). It is important to note that there is no dependence on the
amplitude of the wave for calculating the frequency. This equation is
derived from the simple, constant speed equation -- distance = rate x
time.
The energy carried by a wave is proportional to the square of the
amplitude of the wave (and has nothing to do with wave speed).
Therefore, if I were to double the amplitude of a wave (like doubling
the intensity of a sound) I am actually quadrupling the energy that it
carries.
This equation shows the relationship between three variables of a
string attached at two ends and the velocity of a transverse wave that
would travel between them. The variable F is the tension force in the
string; the variable m is the mass of the string; and the variable L is
the length of the string. Therefore, in order to make a wave travel
faster in a string (like a guitar string), I can do any one of three things
while keeping the others constant: increase the tension, decrease the
mass of the string, or increase the length of the string. The
denominator (m/L) is sometimes written as the Greek letter mu, and
referred to as the "linear density" of the string.
Sound waves (or any other form of three dimensional emanation) can
be ranked by their intensity -- an objective measure of the amount of
energy they carry. At some distance, r, from a point source of sound
with power output, P, the intensity can be calculated in Watts per
square-meter. This is a much more objective view of "loudness" than
is measured by the decibel scale, in which the frequencies of the
sound matter due to limitations on the human range of hearing (20 Hz
to 20 kHz).
The Doppler Effect can be detected whenever a wave source and
observer are in relative motion. If they are moving towards each
other, then the frequency is observed to be higher than what is
actually emitted, and vice versa. In this equation, the top sign (+ in
the numerator, - in the denominator) is used if the source (s) and
observer (-) are moving towards each other. Otherwise, the bottom
sign is used in either case. The entire factor in parentheses is actually
a unit-less quantity that acts as a multiplier for the emitted frequency,
f.
For either an open-ended resonator or a sting attached at both ends,
this equation allows you to calculate the frequency of a standing
wave with the integer, n, number of antinodes (or loops). You must
know the length of the tube or string, the number of antinodes, and
the velocity of the wave in the tube or along the string. If n = 1, the
resulting value will be the 1st resonating frequency (or fundamental
harmonic).
Incorporating the simple wave speed equation along with the
previous equation, this allows us to calculate the wavelength of any
resonating frequency knowing only the number of antinodes
(therefore, the harmonic number) and the length of the open tube or
string. With it, you could predict the fundamental frequency that
would be played by a string of any length (how frets are placed on a
guitar).
For either a closed-ended resonator (like blowing across the top of a
pop bottle), this equation allows you to calculate the frequency of a
standing wave with the integer, n, number of antinodes (or loops).
You must know the length of the tube, the number of antinodes, and
the velocity of the wave in the tube. If n = 1, the resulting value will
be the 1st resonating frequency (or fundamental harmonic).
Important to note that closed-resonators are able to achieve the same