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16

Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

facturing

processes

must still be defined

measured by empirical test

and

for each material.

of manufacturing process. Neither iron nor aluminum

in the pure state has many applications in manufacturing because their strengths are low, but their
alloys, particularly iron alloys, are the most commouly used of all metals. Both of these materials can be
strengthened over their weakest forms by factors of
almost ten by suitable alloying and treatment, with

alloys

of iron

being approximately five times

as

strong as those of aluminum on a volume basis.

IRON

ALUMINUM

Figure

3-1

Atomic structure
CLASSES OF PROPERTIES

The application to which a material is put deterof its properties are most important.
Chemical Properties. The chemical properties
(reaction with other materials) are of interest for all
material mainly because of the almost universal need
for resistance to conosion. Although aluminum is
chemically more active than iron, in most atmospheres the corrosion byproducts of aluminum form a
denser coating, which acts as a shield to further corrosion, than do the corrosion byproducts of iron.
While the atomic and crystalline structure of all
metals gives them high electrical and thermal conductivity compared to nonmetals, individual metals still
differ considerably. Aluminum is among the best
electrical conductors, while iron, although much
more conductive than nonmetals, is a poor conductor
compared to aluminum. On the other hand, the
magnetic properties of iron make it much more desirable for some electrical uses than aluminum.
Physical Properties. Physical properties for each
material are constants associated with the atomic
structure. These properbies include density (weight
per unit volume), crystalline type, atomic spacing,
specific heat, cohesive strength (theoretical), and
melting point. Iron has a much higher melting point
and density than aluminum. Iron is allotropic, meaning it can exist in several different crystalline structures as opposed to aluminum, which always exists in
single crystalline pattern. This difference makes possible, for iron-based alloys, methods of property control by heat treatment that are not possible for aluminum. Some aluminum-based alloys may be heat
treated for propertf control, but the reaction is entire'
ly different.
Mechanical Properties. Of most interest to manufacturing are the mechanical properties of hardness,
strength, and others that are of prime importance in
design considerationg for determining sizes and shapes
necessary for carrying loads. These qualities will also
determine the work loads for any deformation type
mines which

Processing Properties. As pointed out at the

beginning of the chapter, the properties that have
been discussed are actually dependent on the atomic
structure of a material, but in practice these properties must be separately measured. In a simi,lar way,

different properties that are related

to

hardness,

strength, ductility, and other physical and mechanical

properties and that are frequently of even greater
importance to manufacturing must in practice be
defined by separate tests. These include tests for
castability, weldability, machinability, and bending
that describe the ability of the material to be processed in definite ways. Tests of this type may be
developed at any time there is need for determining
the ability of the material to meet critical needs of
processing, and they are usually performed under
conditions very similar to those under which the
process is performed.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PROPERTIES TO DESIGN

A designer is necessarily interested in properties
because he must know material strengths before he
can calculate sizes and shapes required to carry loads,
chemical properties to meet corrosive conditions, and
other properties to satisfy other functional requirements. Knowledge of processing properties is likely to
be of more importance to manufacturing personnel
than to the designer, although even he must be able
to choose material that can be manufactured in a
reasonably economical manner. Many manufacturing
problems arise from choice of materials based only
on f unctional requirements without considering
which is the most suitable for lhe processing required.
Similar results can occur when inspectability has not
been given proper consideration in design.
Material Choice a Compromise. Most products
can be manufactured from a number of different possible materials that will satisfy the functional requirements. However, some are more desirable from the
product standpoint than others, and one particular
material may have the best possible combination of
properties. Likewise, all materials can be manufactured by some means, although costs of manufacturing u'ill vary, and there will likely be one single
material from which a usable product could be manufactured at lowest cost. Seldom can a material be
chosen that has optimunr properties for both the

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Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

have been developed to the same magnitude and in

the same way but opposite in direction and combined
with compressive stress instead of tensile stress. Shear
stress exists alone only in a bar subjected to pure
torsion, that is, a bar being twisted with no tension,
compression, or bending present. Shear stresses ate
important to our manufacturing processes because
these are the forces that cause material to shift in
plastic flow and permit shape changing by deforma-

tion processes.
Bending. Bending loads create a combination of
stresses. The concave side of a bent body will be in
compression and the convex side in tension with
transverse shear occurring along the axis between
them. The maximum unit stress will be in the outer
fibers of the bent body and is represented by the
formula 56 = Mc/I where. M equals bending moment,
c equals distance from neutral axis, and .f equals
moment of inertia of the bodY.
Effects of Stresses. The principal point to be
made in this discussion of forces and stresses is that
structural designs must be of suitable size and shape
and must be made of material with proper strength
values to withstand the loads imposed upon them'
When a structural member (almost any object) is
physically loaded by weight, by pressure from
mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic sources, by
thermal expansion or contraction, or by other means'
intemal stresses are set up in the member. The size,
direction, and kind of stresses are dependent upon
the loading system. The magnitude of the unit
stresses will be dependent not only upon the applied
force but also upon the area of material resisting the
stresses. As loads ate increased, unit stresses will
increase to the point where, in some direction, one or
more reach critical values in relation to the material'
Failure by plastic flow or by fracture can then be
expected, depending upon which critical values are
reached first. In nearly all cases of fracture failure,
the separation of material is preceded by at least a
small amount of plastic flow. In those cases in which
plastic flow occurs to a Iarge degree, fracture failure
will finally result.

with a product, a process' or both. Direct testing is usually time-consuming, and, for the results to
ha-ve statistical significance, often requires compilation of data from many test samples. The procedure
is necessary, however, for those cases in which simpler methods are not available and in which sufficient
historical information has not been accumulated to
permit corelation between the attribute about which
information is desired and some other measurable
cerned

factor.

Indirect Testing. Indirect testing involves the use

of such a correlation, such that accurate knowledge
of the relationship between the two factors must
exist. The ability of grinding wheels to resist the
centrifugal forces imposed in use is directly tested by
rotating them at higher speeds than those of actual
use. Such a test indicates that the wheel strength is
sufficient for normal use with some safety margin. An
indirect test that is sometimes used for the same
purpose can be performed by rapping a suspended
wheel to cause mechanical vibrations in the sonic
range. A clear tone indicates no cracks. A danger of
indirect testing is that the conclusions depend on the
assumption that the correlation between the measured factor and the critical factor exists under all
conditions. The rapping test for grinding wheels does
not give any real indication of strength, unless knowledge of the wheel's history permits the assumption
that with no cracks it has sufficient strength for use.
Destructive Testing. A large number of direct
tests are destructive. These also are dangerous because
the assumption must be made that those materials
not tested are like the ones for which test information has been obtained. A portion of weld bead may
be examined for quality by sectioning it to look for
voids, inclusions, penetration, bond, and metallurgical
structure by visual examination. By this cperation,
this portion of the bead has been destroyed; regardless of the quality that was found, the only knowledge acquired about the remaining portion of the
weld comes from an assumption that it is similar to
that examined because it was made under the same
conditions.

TESTING

Testing of material is essential to gain practical

knowledge of how materials react under various situations. The ultimate goal of any test is to enable the
making of decisions that provide the best economic
results. In practice, two general methods of testing
are used.

Direct Testing. The only test that supplies absolute information about a workpiece or a material is a
test of the particular property of interest conducted
on that part itself. In this method of direct testing, an
attempt is made to use the materials under the exact
conditions of practical use' and the test may be con-

Nondestructive Testing. In addition to the nondestructive feature, these tests almost entirely are indirect tests that require first, correlation with the de'
fects that are being sought, and second, expert evaluation or interpretation of the evidence that is gathered'
Nondestructive tests may be for faults and discontinunities located on either the surface or internally and
may be performed before, during, and after the
manufacturing process.
These testJJre performed by (1) exposing the product material to some kind of probing medium (radia'
tion energy, sonic energ:y, magnetic and electrical

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qll^{ mq lsa+ uorsual prEpuels e JoJ suorsuaurrp aql

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osr

clr
pa

au

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aE
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20

Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

mations in the elastic range, nd as long as the load at

B is not exceeded, the material will resume its original
position and shape after removal of the load. B is the
elastic limit for this particular material, and loads
above that limit will cause permanent deformation
(plastic flow) that cannot be recovered by removal of
the load. At the load represented by the point at C,
plastic flow is occurring at such a rate that stresses are
being relieved faster than they are formed, and strain
increases with no additional, or even with a reduction
of, stress. The unit stress at C is known as the yield
point.

o
o

closer and closer together until there is no detectable

difference.
Yield Point and Yield Strength. Many materials
do not have a well-defined or reproducible yield
point. Plotting of tensile stress-strain values produces
a curve of the type shown in Figure 3-7. For these
materials, an artificial value similar to the yield point,
called yield strength, may be calculated' The yield
strength is defined as the amount of stress required to
produce a predetermined amount of permanent
strain. A commonly used strain or deformation is
0.002 inch per inch, or 0.27o offset, which must be
necessarily indicated with the yield strength value.
The yield strength is the stress value indicated by the
intersection point between the stress-strain cuwe and
the offset line drawn parallel to the straight portion
of the curve.
Modulus of Elasticity. In the stress range below
the elastic limit, the ratio of unit stress to unit deformation, or the slope of the curve, is referred to as the

Ui
(n
uJ

F
F

z
!
+

il
UNIT DEFORMATION

Figure 3-6
Stress-strain diagram

Plastic flow occurring at normal temperature is

called cold working, regardless of the kind of loading
system under which it is accomplished. As plastic
flow takes place, the crystals and atoms of the material rearrange internally to take stronger positions
resisting further change. The material becomes
stronger and harder and is said to be work hardened'
At the point D in Figure 3-6, the curve suddenly turns

upward, indicating that the material has become

stronger because of work hardening and that higher
loads are required to continue deformation. Tlhe
deformation rate, however, increases until at point E
the ultimate strength is indicated.
Ultimate and Breaking Strengths. The ultimate
tensile strength of a material is defined as being the
highest strength in pounds per square inch, based on
the original cross-sectional area. By this definition,
ductile materials that elongate appreciably and neck
down with considerable reduction of cross-sectional
area, rupture at a load lower than that passed through
previous to fracture. The breaking strength, or rupture strength, for this material is shown at F, considerably below the ultimate strength. This is typical of
ductile materials, but as materials become less ductile,
the ultimate strength and the breaking strength get

o
o

rtt)

tx$

tr

Td:

i1
.r|
I!

&J

UNIT DEFORMATION

m{

Figure 3-7

Yield strength

modulus

of elasl,icity, or Youug's modulus, and

T1

is

represented by E. E, therefore, equals s divided by 6.

F'ollowing are listed the values of Z' for some of the
more common structural materials:
TABLE 3.1
Aluminum alloys
Copper alloys

Grav

iron

' ' '10 million psi (6'9 X 10' Pa)

..... .14 to 19 million psi
.. .12to'l 9 milliott Psi

Steel and high-strength irons .28 to 30 million psi

.approx 50 million psi
Cemented carbides

The gross values of the modulus of elasticity are

important to the design of members when deflection

8r1

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'CA

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22

Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

TRANSVERSE RUPTURE TESTING

Limitations of Tensile Tests fot Btittle Materials'
In a number of cases a substitute for the standard
tensile test is necessary. With some materials that are
difficult to shape or very brittle in nature, it is impractical to produce a specimen for tension testing.

This condition occurs particularly with ceramics.

With most materials that are very brittle in character,
even though a tensile specimen might be produced,
the results from the standard tensile test would have
only limited significance. It is almost impossible to
insure in the tension test that the applied load will be
precisely centered in the specimen and will be exactly
parallel to the axis of the specimen. If this is not the
case, bending moments are introduced in the specimen. With a ductile material, small amounts of plastic
flow take place in the specimen, particularly where
the load is applied; the specimen aligns itself properly
with the load; and the stresses are uniform across the
tested area. With a brittle material in which this alignment cannot take place, the bending moments result
in higher stresses on one side of the specimen than on
the other. The specimen fails when the highest stress
reaches some critical value, but the observed stress at
this time, based on the assumption of uniformity, is
somewhat lower. As a consequence, the results from
testing a number of similar brittle specimens exhibit
wide variations and are not representative of the true
strength of the material.
The Tlansverse Rupture Test. The transverse rupture test, while it gives less complete information
than the tension test, is a fast and simple test, making
use of more easily prepared specimens, and is espe6ially well suited to brittle materials. In many instances
the specimen can be an actual workpiece. The test is
particularly well suited for those materials that are to
be used in beam applications. It is really the only
meaningful type of strength test for reinforced con-

parison cannot be made with ultimate tensile strength

values taken from a tension test, nor can the values of
modulus of rupture be used as design tensile strength
values. The values are useful for comparing materials,
and they are useful in design when the material is to
be used as a beam.

Figure 3-9
Transverse ruPture test

SHEAR TESTING
In the section dealing with material failure, it was
pointed out that when a bar is subjected to a tension
load as in the tension test, the value of shear stress
existing in the bar at failure can be calculated from
the load and the dimensions of the bar (Figure 3'10).

crete.

The test consists of loading a simple beam as illustrated in Figure 3-9. While some standards have been
set for particular materials, there are no univeral
standards for specimen sizes and shapes as there are
for the tension test.
The modulus of rupture, or beam strength, is calculated by the formula

^=
sr

gPL
2bd,,

Limitations of Ttansverse Rupture Testing. While

this formula is the formula that is used to calculate
the maximum actual stress in the outer fibers in a
beam, it is based on the assumption that stress remains proportional to strain. This is not the case for
most materials when highly loaded, with the result
that the calculated "stress" is higher than the actual
stress in the outer fibres at rupture, and direct com-

Figure 3-10
Heads of a torsion testing machine. Torsion
is the simplest way of obtaining pure shear
stress. Results are useful for evaluating
cold-working properties of metals

I
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J(
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24

Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

out, and stressing at this level could be

continued indefinitely without failure. Endurance
limits correlate fairly closely with tensile strength and
for most materials are from about one-third to onehalf the stress required to break a tensile specimen.
Fatigue Strength. For some materials the curve
does not flatten even after several hundred million
cycles. When the endurance limit cannot be determined, or it is impractical to carry on a test long
enough for this determination, it is common practice
to use another value, fatigue strength, to evaluate the
ability of a material to resist fatigue failure. Fatigue
strength is the stress that can be applied for some
arbitrary number of cycles without failure. The number of cycles for which a fatigue strength is valid must
always be specified because the operating stress
chosen may be at a level where the S-N curve still
slopes, and indefinite cyclic operation could cause

has flattened

fatigue failure.
CREEP TESTING

The term creep is used to describe the continuous

deformation of a material under constant load,
producing unit stresses below those of the elastic
limit. At normal temperature, the effect of creep is

very small and can be neglected. As operating temperatures increase, however, this deformation by slow
plastic flow becomes very important in the design and
use of material. Recognition of this phenomenon is
most important for the higher strength materials that
are to be used at elevated temperatures.
Creep tests are conducted by applying a constant
load to a material specimen held at the desired temperatule and measured periodically for deformation
over a long period of time. The results may be plotted
on a graph of elongation against time, as in Figure
3-13, with an indication of the maintained temperature and stress level under which the test was conducted. Most creep tests are carried on for periods of
at least 1,000 hours, so this is a time-consuming test.
The creep strength of a material is the stress required
to produce some predetermined creep rate (the slope
of the straight portion of a curve) for a prolonged
period of time. Commonly, the stress required to
produce a creep rate of 1% in 10,000 hours is used as
creep strength. Sfress rupture strength is defined as
the stress required to produce failure at prescribed
values of time and temperature.
NOTCHED BAR TESTING
Materials are often used in situations in which
dynamic loads are suddenly applied to produce shock
that increases the effective load far above that which
would be expected from gradual application of the
same load or a similar static load. Tests designed to
check the ability of a material to withstand this kind
of loading are energy absorption tests that seldom can

r----CONSTANT

____J
LOAD

i
I

9
F
(,

zo
J

lrJ

'e
TIME

Figure 3-13
Creep test

be used to give information that can be

used

directly in design, but primarily provide data for comparison of different materials. While such tests are
frequently called impact tests, the energy required to
cause failure does not differ greatly from that required if the load were applied slowly. Tlue impact
failure, in which the energy-absorbing capacity of a
material is greatly reduced, occurs only at much higher speeds.

Charpy Test. The most commonly conducted

tests are bending impact tests, using one of two kinds
of notched speciments (Figure 3'14). The Charpy
specimen is supported at both ends by a standard

Figure 3-14

lmpact specimens

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26

Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

number 1 as the softest. the standard Mohs scale is

follows:

as

6... Orthoclase (Feldspar)

1... Talc
7... Quartz
2 ... Gypsum
8... Topaz
3... Calcite
9... Corundum
4... Fluorite
10... Diamond
5... Apatite
If a material can be noticeably scratched by the
mineral topaz (number 8) but cannot be scratched by
quartz (number 7), it would have a hardness value
between 7 and 8 on the Mohs scale. The Mohs scale
of hardness has little value for hardness testing of
metals but is still widely used in the field of mineralogy.
File Test. Another abrasion or scratch method of
measuring hardness that does have some practical use
in metal working is the file test. Standard test files
can be used to gage quickly the approximate hardness
of a material and, although not very accurate, can be
used in many shop situations with satisfactory results.
Experience and comparison with standard test
blocks will permit a fair degree of accuracy to be
attained.
Brinell Test. In 1900 Johan August Brinell, a
Swedish engineer, introduced a new universal system
for hardness measurement. The method involves
impressing, with a definite load, a hardened steel ball
into the material to be tested and calculating a Brinell
hardness number from the impression size (Figure
3-15). A wide range of hardnesses can be tested by
varying the size of the ball and the loads imposed, but
in the hardness range most frequently tested, a ball
10 millimeters in diameter is impressed into the material under a load of 3,000 kilogtams for 10 seconds
to check steel and under a load of 500 kilograms for
30 seconds to check nonferrous materials. The

numerical value of the Brinell hardness number is

obtained by dividing the load in kilograms by the area
of the spherical impression in millimeters. In practice,
the average diameter of the impression is usually read
with a measuring microscope and the Brinell hardness
number determined directly from a table.
Advantage and Limitation of Brinell Tests. The
Brinell hardness method has the advantage, as compared to most other measuring methods, of determining a hardness value over a relatively large area, thus
reducing the inconsistencies caused by flaws, imperfections, and nonhomogeneity in the material, likely
to be introduced with small area measurement that
includes only a few metallic grains. With plain carbon
and low alloy steels, the relation between tensile
strength and Brinell hardness is so consistent in the
medium hardness range that the tensile strength of
the steel can be closely approximated by multiplying
the Brinell hardness number (BHN) by 500. The
principal disadvantages of the Brinell method are that
the machine to supply the load for impressing the ball
into the material is often cumbersome and cannot
always produce the impression where desired. The
ball cannot be impressed in very thin materials and,
of course, cannot be used to examine extremely small
samples, and the impression is of such size that it may
harm the appearance or use of finished surfaces.
Rockwell Test. Because of its convenience and
the fact that only small marks are left in the work
tested, one of the most frequently used tests is the
Rockwell hardness test (Figure 3-16). This also is an
impression test, but the hardness number is determined by a differential depth measurement that can
be read directly on a dial indicator of the machine
used to impose the load (Figure 3-17 shows the
Rockwell hardness tester.) To obtain a Rockwell

ok

BHN=p/+(D-

JDT:E

Figure 3-15
Brinell hardness measurement

Figure 3-16
Rockwell hardness measurement

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28

Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

Vickers Test. T}';'e Vickers hardness tester operates

on the same principle as the Brinell instrument but

makes use of a diamond penetrator shaped as a foursided pyramid. The impression made by the penetrator is accurately measured by swinging a microscope into position without moving the test piece in
the machine. As in the Brinell method, the Vickers
hardness number is the ratio of the force imposed on
the indentor to the area of the pyramidal impression.
In the lower range of hardness, under Brinell 300,
Vickers and Brinell hardness numbers are almost iden-

tical, but above this range they separate as hardness

increases, primarily because of distortion of the steel
ball used for Brinell testing when it is forced against
the harder materials.

Microhardness. It is frequently important, particularly in research or development work, to test the

hardness of material that is very thin or very small in
area. A number of special machines have been developed for determining "microhardness." One of the
more commonly used pieces of equipment of this
type is the Tukon microhardness tester. Normally,
the machine is fitted with an elongated diamondshaped penetrator. Microscopic measurement of the
impression provides information that can be converted to Knoop numbers. Knoop hardness measurement often cannot be compared directly with Brinell
or Vickers hardness measurement because the elongated impression is rather strongly affected by the
directional properties of the material being tested.
The use of a symmetrical, square-based, pyramidshaped indentor will provide hardness data comparable with that of the other systems.
It should be self-evident that the lighter the indentor loads and the smaller the impressions made,
the greater the care that must be used to perform a
hardness test, and the better must be the quality of
surface on which it is made. In Brinell testing, small
surface imperfections tend to be averaged out because
of the large area covered, but in microhardness
checks, in which the impression may be only a few
thousandths of an inch long, small scratches and surface imperfections may contribute large elrors. Microhardness testing is usually performed on a highly
polished surface, and in many cases, to obtain reproducibility, it is necessary to etch the surface to reveal
the constituent structure in order to locate the im-

pression properly.

FACTOR OF SAFETY
No property, structural or otherwise, whether calculated from theoretical considerations or determined
by test procedures, can be safely used at or very close
to its ultimate (maximum) value. Tests are neither
consistent enough nor accurate enough, particularly
as they are not conducted under exact use conditions,
to permit strong confidence to be placed in their re-

sults. Also, because

of the complexity of

stress-

analysis problems, it is almost essential that simplifying assumptions be made during design to prevent
design costs and time from becoming prohibitive. A
factor of safety is therefore used to prevent working
too close to maximum values. The factor of safety is
the ratio between the maximum value and the working value and is determined by competent judgment,
taking into consideration all conditions of use. Factors of safety vary from as low as one to as high as
five or more. They may be applied to any quality but

are most
strengths.

commonly used

in

connection with

As an example of its use, if the ultimate tensile

strength of a certain gtade of steel is 80,000 pounds
per square inch and its elastic limit, 60,000 pounds
per square inch, an allowable stress, or working stress,
of 20,000 pounds per square inch would provide a
safety factor of four, based on the ultimate strength,
or of three, based on the elastic limit.
The closer the factor of safety approaches one, the
more the danger that an unforeseen fault or condition
of use may cause failure. On the other hand, the
larger the factor of safety, the greater the volume and
weight of material needed, with a corresponding
increase in cost and in space-need problems. Factors
of safety in the range of two to four are most common, but a satisfactory value depends upon a great
number of conditions, some of which are described in
the following paragraphs.
Allowances must be made for unexpected loads or
conditions. This is particularly true if the human element is large in the use of the equipment, since the
human mind is most unpredictable. It is common to
include a factor of at least two in the factor of safety
when a design is based on static tensile strength values
but subjected in use to varying loads. This corresponds approximately to the ratio of static tensile
strength to endurance limit.
Allowances must be made for environmental and
time factors. Strengths of most materials are greatly
reduced by corrosion and other chemical effects.
Other materials lose strength or become brittle with
age. The consistency of test data should influence the
factor of safety choice. Test information should be of
large enough volume to be statistically significant.
Larger safety factors a-re necessary with materials
varying widely in quality than with those that are
quite uniform.
Whether or not the use of a material may affect
human life has a large influence on the factor of safety. In the designing of hoists, cranes, and other lifting
equipment, factors of safety of five or more are commonly used because failure could mean injury or loss
of life. The same consideration applies, of course, to
aircraft design. Here, however, space and weight are
very important, and large factors of safety could easi-

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