High Rise Building

Air Pressure, Infiltration & Stack Effect

Theory and Impact on Indoor Environment

2012 Spring Seminar, June 14, 2012

By:
Mehdi Jalayerian, PE, LEED AP BD+C
Executive Vice President
Environmental Systems Design, Inc.

2012-ESD, Inc.

Learning Objectives
Basic Theory of Air Flow Around and In High Rise Building
Wind
Stack-Effect

Vertical Compartmentation

Elevators
Stairs
Impact on Energy
Impact on Pressure

Smoke Management
Pressurization (Stairs/Space)
Smoke Control Considerations

Example Building Air Movement/Pressure Analysis

16 Story Hotel
Mixed-use Tall Building

Summary Guidelines
2012-ESD, Inc.

Air Flow in High Rise Buildings

Forced ventilation
Building supply/exhaust air systems
Fully controlled and distributed

Natural ventilation
Pressure from wind and/or stack effect
Strategically placed intentional openings

Infiltration

Uncontrolled air leakage

Unintentional openings in building envelope
Air leakage through floor/wall openings
Driven by wind force, temperature difference (buoyancy), and/or
system/appliance induced

Space Pressurization
Normal mode pressurization
Fire mode pressurization (fire floor and stairs) for smoke
management
2012-ESD, Inc.

Basic Theory
Air movement into/out of a building is
caused by wind pressure and stack
effect pressure
Wind pressure causes air to infiltrates
into the building, or ex-filtrate out of
the building
Stack effect (air buoyancy) pressure
causes air to rise or drop

WIND VELOCITY
PROFILE

EXFILTRATION

Cold Weather
Air infiltrates into the lower half of the
building, rises to upper floors due to
stack effect and exfiltrates in the
upper half of the building.
STACK EFFECT

Hot Weather
Air infiltrates into the upper half of the
building, drops to lower floors due to
stack effect and exfiltrates in the
lower half of the building.

NUTRAL PLANE

INFILTRATION

AVERAGE SURROUNDING ROOF HEIGHT

OR 10M ABOVE GRADE
2012-ESD, Inc.

Basic Theory Air Flow Around Building

2012-ESD, Inc.

Basic Theory - Wind Pressure

Wind creates a distribution of static pressure on the building
envelope, which is dependent on wind direction and
location on building envelope.
Pw = C Cp v2/2
Pw
C
Cp

+0.33 in WG

= wind pressure difference, inches of water

= unit conversion, 0.0129
= surface pressure coefficient, dimensionless
= air density, lbm/ft3 (about 0.075)
= wind speed, mph

Note: Wind Pressure at top of 60 Story:

Upwind
= +1.32 in. of Water
Sides
= +0.61 in. of Water
Downwind = -0.61 in. of Water

Wind

X
15 mph
2X
2012-ESD, Inc.

Basic Theory - Stack Effect Pressure

Air density varies with temperature. In cold weather, low
density air infiltrated into a building rises and creates stack
effect pressure.
Ps = C2 i g (h-hNPL)(Ti -To)/To
Ps
C2 i g
h
NPL
T
i&o

= pressure difference, inches of water

= density and gravity constant, 0.01444
= height of observation, ft
= building neutral pressure level
= absolute temperature, oR
= inside & outside

+0.95 in WG

Note: Stack Pressure is approximately 1 in. of water

for a 60-story building and -10oF outside T

2012-ESD, Inc.

Basic Theory Overall Pressure

Natural air movement in a building is due to pressure difference
caused by wind and temperature difference between indoor and
outdoor air (stack effect).

P = (Po - Pi )+ Pw + Ps

P = pressure difference
Po = outside static pressure
Pi = interior static pressure
Pw= pressure difference due to wind
(depends on orientation)
Ps = pressure difference due to stack effect

Overall

Adjusted Neutral
Stack Effect
Wind

2012-ESD, Inc.

Basic Theory Air Flow Through Opening

Dynamic air flow through an opening is proportional to square
root of the pressure difference across the flow path.
Q = C x Cf x A x (2P/)
Q
C
Cf
A
P

= Air flow, CFM

= Unit Conversion, 776
= Flow Coefficient, typically = 0.6-0.7
= Opening Area, ft2
= pressure difference, inches of water
= air density, lbm/ft3 (about 0.075 at standard conditions)

Operation of building appliances and mechanical ventilation

systems impact natural air movement. The impact is included
with outside/inside pressure difference
2012-ESD, Inc.

Basic Theory - Air Flow Network

Flow equations are

developed between nodes
(pressure & mass balance)

AMBIENT NODES

Q = C x A x (2P)/

SPACE NODES

System of equations are

solved for each calculation
time period
Software:
NIST CONTAM
LBNL COMIS
e-Quest

STAIR NODES

ELEVATOR NODES
STAIR/ELEVATOR
INTERCONNECTION

SPACE NODES
INTERCONNECTION

2012-ESD, Inc.

Example High Rise Building Air Infiltration

Assumptions
60-Story Office
200 feet x 100 feet floor plate
Average leakage curtain wall
Weather-stripped exterior exist
doors
Revolving doors + swing exit
doors at main lobby
Standard door on typical floor stair
Average leakage elevator doors
Exterior condition at -10oF
Interior condition at 73oF
Wind direction from south (longer
wall)
Wind speed 15 mph (33 feet
above grade)

LOBBY

TENANT

TENANT

GROUND FLOOR

TENANT

TYPICAL FLOOR
2012-ESD, Inc.

Building Air Infiltration Effect of Elevators

60-Story Office Building
Effect of Elevator Zones

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33

~74% reduction

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9
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5

Three Zones
Elevators
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Floor

Two Zones
Elevators

Single Zone
Elevators

3
1
-15000

-10000

-5000

ELEVATORS

5000

Infiltration, scfm
Single Zone

Two Zones

Three Zones

10000

#1
#2
STAIRS

15000

6,357 KW
100%

LR
HR
ELEVATORS

#1
#2
STAIRS

Total Infiltration Heat Load

2,903 KW
45.7%

LR
MR HR
ELEVATORS

#1
#2
STAIRS

1,652 KW
25.9%
2012-ESD, Inc.

Elevator Shaft Air Flow

60 Story Office Building
Elevator Shaft Air Flow (Winter)

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5

Three Zones
Elevators
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Floor

Two Zones
Elevators

Single Zone
Elevators

3
1
-15000

-10000

-5000

ELEVATORS

5000

10000

#1
#2
STAIRS

LR
HR
ELEVATORS

#1
#2
STAIRS

LR
MR HR
ELEVATORS

#1
#2
STAIRS

15000

Air Flow, CFM

Single Zone

Two Zones

Three Zones

2012-ESD, Inc.

Building Air Infiltration Effect of Stairs

60-Story Office Building
Effect of Stair Zones (Three Elevator Zones)

Single Zones
Stairs

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35

~45% reduction

Floor

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9
7
5
3

LR
MR HR
ELEVATORS

1
-6000

-4000

-2000

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2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

Infiltration, scfm
Three Zones Elevators/Single Zone Stairs

Three Zones Elevators/Three Zones Stairs

14000

Three Zones
Stairs

#1
#2
STAIRS

LR
MR HR
ELEVATORS

#1
#2
STAIRS

Total Infiltration Heat Load

1,652 KW
909 KW
100%
55%
2012-ESD, Inc.

60 Story Building Space Pressure

2012-ESD, Inc.

Down

Up

Alternate A
Up
Down

Up

2'-6"

AIR LOCK

2'-6"

TENANT

2'-6"

2'-6"
Alternate B

2'-6"

2'-6"

Down

Up
Down

Air Separation

Typical Stair Air Separation/Lock

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LR
MR HR
ELEVATORS

#1
#2
STAIRS

TYPICAL FLOOR
2012-ESD, Inc.

60 Story Building Infiltration Load (Energy)

2012-ESD, Inc.

High Rise Building - Smoke Management

System Objectives
Reduce occupant death and
injuries

Delay smoke accumulation

Reduce smoke migration
Provide safe escape route
Provide safe refuge area

Reduce property loss

Purge smoke
Manage fire impact

System Approach
Design/operate system to
prevent smoke entering the
unaffected areas
Integrate Smoke Control with
Fire Protection System
Allow for operational flexibility
Use HVAC system for smoke
control to improve system
reliability
Utilize compartmentation
Pressurization

Horizontal
Vertical
Stairs
Lobbies

2012-ESD, Inc.

Pressurization Normal Mode of Operation

Floor Pressurization
Main building lobby is pressurized
Each floor is provided with required
supply and exhaust
Each zone of building is pressurized
by maintaining differential air flow
between supply/exhaust to minimize
infiltration
Stair pressurization systems are off

LOBBY

TENANT

TENANT

GROUND FLOOR

100% SUPPLY and 80-90% EXHAUST

TYPICAL FLOOR
2012-ESD, Inc.

Pressurization Normal Mode of Operation

Three Zones
Central AHU

60-Story Office Building Infiltration

Effect of AHU Pressurization (Normal Mode)
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1

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35

Building Infiltration Load

Reduces by 70%
(1652 kW reduced to 506 kW)

Floor

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3
1
-10000

-5000

5000
Infiltration, scfm
AHU - OFF

AHU - ON

10000

15000

Three Zones Elevator

Single Zone Stairs
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1
LR
MR HR
ELEVATORS

#1
#2
STAIRS

2012-ESD, Inc.

Pressurization Fire Mode of Operation

Floor Pressurization
Main building lobby is pressurized
Fire Floor is provided with full
exhaust
Floors above and below fire floor is
provided with full supply air
All other floors operate normal mode
Stairs not pressurized

LOBBY

TENANT

TENANT

GROUND FLOOR

100% SUPPLY and NO EXHAUST

ABOVE OR BELOW FIRE FLOOR

NO SUPPLY and 100% EXHAUST

FIRE FLOOR
2012-ESD, Inc.

Pressurization Fire Mode of Operation

No Stair Pressurization Provided

Exhaust on Fire Floor &

Supply Above/Below

60-Story Office Building Infiltration

Smoke Condition (Level 28) - Fire Mode Pressurization

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Floor

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31

Positive Press. (Supply)

Negative Press. (Exhaust)

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1

-20000

-15000

-10000

-5000

Infiltration, scfm
AHU - ON

AHU - ON - Smoke Mode

5000

10000

15000

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Single Zone Stairs

Non-pressurized
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LR
MR HR
ELEVATORS

#1
#2
STAIRS

2012-ESD, Inc.

Pressurization Fire Mode/Stair Impact

Floor and Stair Pressurization

Main building lobby is pressurized
Fire Floor is provided with full
exhaust
Floors above and below fire floor is
provided with full supply air
All other floors operate normal mode
Stairs are pressurized

LOBBY

TENANT

TENANT

STAIRS
PRESSURIZED

GROUND FLOOR

100% SUPPLY and NO EXHAUST

STAIRS PRESSURIZED

ABOVE OR BELOW FIRE FLOOR

NO SUPPLY and 100% EXHAUST

STAIRS PRESSURIZED

FIRE FLOOR
2012-ESD, Inc.

Pressurization Fire Mode/Stair Impact

Stairs Are Pressurized

Open Exit Doors

Open Exit Door

Exhaust on Fire Floor &

Supply Above/Below
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Single Zone Stairs

Pressurized doors open
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LR
MR HR
ELEVATORS

#1
#2
STAIRS

2012-ESD, Inc.

Elevator Shaft Air Flow Fire Mode

Floor

60 Story Office Building - Elevator Shaft Air Flow (Winter)

Smoke Condition on Level 28 (Building and Stairs Pressurized)
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-4000

Exhaust on Fire Floor & Supply Above/Below

Doors open on fire, above/below and ground floors

Open Exit Doors

-2000

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

Air Flow, CFM

Open Exit Door

Three Zones

Three Zones - FireMode/Pressurized

2012-ESD, Inc.

Stair Air Flow Fire Mode

Floor

60 Story Ofice Building

Effect of Stair Compartment on Pressurized Stair Air Flow - Smoke Condition (Level 28)
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-15000

Exhaust on Fire Floor & Supply Above/Below

Doors open on fire, above/below and ground floors

Open Exit Doors

-12500

-10000

-7500

-5000

-2500

2500

5000

7500

Air Flow, CFM

Open Exit Door

Single Compartment Stair

Three Compartment Stair

2012-ESD, Inc.

Stair Pressure Fire Mode

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-0.10

MAXIMUM STAIR PRESSURE TO MAINTAIN DOOR FORCE

Floor

60 Story Ofice Building

Effect of Stair Compartment on Stair Pressure - Smoke Condition (Level 28)

Open Exit Doors

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

Exhaust on Fire Floor

Supply Above/Below
Doors open on fire floor, floors
above/below fire floor and
ground floors
0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

Pressure, in WG

Open Exit Door

Single Compartment Stair

Three Compartment Stair

2012-ESD, Inc.

Smoke Control Considerations

Building envelope design

Compartmentation
Building occupancy types
Zones

Elevator shafts
design/construction

Stair shafts
design/construction

Air leakage paths (smoke

movement)
Local design temperatures
Local wind velocities:
Site
Envelope (wind tunnel test)

HVAC system:
System zoning
Components design
System Activation/Controls

Fire protection, detection

and alarm system
Integration/coordination

Firefighters Access:
To site
To manual/remote control of
system

Exiting plan
Refuge areas
Exit duration

Security and access control

(door status/control)
2012-ESD, Inc.

16 Story Hotel Example Space Pressure

2012-ESD, Inc.

Tall Building Example Infiltration Air Flow

2012-ESD, Inc.

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Lobby
LL-1
LL-2
LL-3
LL-4
LL-5

Amenities - 2

Amenities - 1

Hotel

Amenities Frieght

Hotel Frieght

Buildin Frieght

Residential Frieght

Residential - High Zone

Residential Low Zone

Residential Parking Shuttle

Public Parking Shuttle

Hotel Shuttle

Tall Building Example Space Pressure

2012-ESD, Inc.

Tall Building Example Space Pressure

2012-ESD, Inc.

Summary

High rise building infiltration can be significantly reduced by vertical

compartmentation of building shafts (elevators, stairs, HVAC risers)

Vertical compartmentation of building shafts creates more uniform pressure and

air flow characteristics

High rise buildings HVAC system will perform more effectively and more
efficiently through a managed plan for stack effect

Smoke control system configuration and performance must be carefully analyzed

for various fire conditions and plan designs

Integrated design process between architecture, structure and MEP assures an

optimized building natural air flow

High rise buildings natural air flow, air pressures characteristics and stack effect
must be reviewed early in the design stage

Minimum of two air barriers (walls, doors & vestibules) shall separate the internal
building shafts (elevator, stairs) from the outside environment on each floor

main lobby, sky lobbies and loading dock levels may require additional layer of separation)
2012-ESD, Inc.

Thank you!

2012-ESD, Inc.