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Analytical Geometry

Introduction

‘Geometry’ is the study of Points, Lines, Curves, Surfaces, etc and their
properties. In the 17th century AD, the methods of Algebra were applied in the
study of Geometry and thereby ‘Analytical Geometry’ emerged out. The
renowned French philosopher and Mathematician Rane Descartes (1596-1650)
showed how the methods of Algebra could be applied to the study of
Geometry.

Locus

The path traced by a point when it moves according to specified geometrical

conditions is called the Locus of the point.

Straight Lines

A straight line is the simplest geometrical curve. Every straight line is

associated with an equation.

• Slope-Intercept Form : y = mx + c

• Point –Slope Form : y-y1 = m(x – x1)


 
• Two Point Form : 

 
  



• Intercept Form : 
 , where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are x and y intercepts.

• Normal Form :   
   

• General Form : ax + by + c = 0

Length of the Perpendicular

• The length of the perpendicular from the point (x1, y1) to the line
 

 
ax+by+c=0 is  
 


• The length of the perpendicular from the Origin to the line ax+by+c=0 is

 
 


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Slope of an equation ax + by + c = 0

   
 

For ax + by + c = 0, Slope m =

Angle between two straight line

 
If  is the angle between the two straight lines, then     
 

Condition for Parallel and Perpendicular

• If the two straight lines are Parallel, then their slopes are equal. i.e.,
m1=m2

• If the two straight lines are Perpendicular, then the product of their
slopes is -1. i.e., m1 x m2= -1

Condition for Concurrent


 
The condition for three straight lines to be concurrent is 
    ,

 
if
 

  
 

  
 

  

Equation of the Straight line passing through the intersection of the two lines

•  

   

 !   represents a straight
line passing through the intersection of the straight lines  


   and  

  .

Pair of Straight Lines

• Combined equation of the pair of straight lines is

2 2
ax +2hxy+by +2gx+2fy+c=0, where a, b, c, f, g, h are constants.
2 2
• Pair of straight lines passing through the origin is ax +2hxy+by =0

• The Straight line is ( i ) Real and Distinct if h2 > ab

( ii ) Coincident if h2 = ab
( iii ) Imaginary if h2 < ab

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Slopes of pair of straight line

"
•

Sum of the slopes of pair of straight lines, m1+m2 =

• Product of the slopes of pair of straight lines, m1m2 =

Angle between the pair of Straight line

• Angle between the pair of straight lines passing through the origin is
" 

    

• If the straight lines are parallel, then h2 = ab

• If the straight lines are perpendicular, then

c    
  

Condition to represent a pair of straight line

• The condition for

general asecond degree equation
2 2
ax +2hxy+by +2gx+2fy+c= 0 represent a pair of straight lines is
abc+2fgh-af2-bg2-ch2 = 0.

Circle
Definition

A circle is the locus of a point which moves in such a way that its distance
from a fixed point is always constant. The fixed point is called the Centre of the
Circle and the constant distance is called the Radius of the circle.

• The equation of circle when the centre is (h, k) and radius ‘r’ is
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2

• If the centre is origin, equation of circle is x2+y2 = r2

• The equation of circle, if the end points of a diameter are given by

(x – x1) (x – x2) + (y – y1) ( y – y2) = 0

• The General equation of the circle is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 with

centre is (-g, -f) and radius is #  $ 

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Tangent to the Circle

• Equation of the tangent to a circle at a point (x1, y1) is

xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0

• Length of the tangent to the circle from a point (x1, y1) is

%&  ' 
  # 
 

• If PT2 = 0, then the point is on the Circle.

• If PT2 > 0, then the point is outside the Circle.

• If PT2 < 0, then the point is inside the Circle.

• Condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = a2

is c2 = a2 (1 + m2)

• Point of contact of the tangent y = mx + c to be a tangent to the circle

 
x2 + y2 = a2 is ( , *
 

• Equation of any tangent to a circle if of the form
  + √ 

• Two tangent can be drawn from a point to a circle is

m2(x2 – a2) – 2mxy +(y2 – a2) = 0.
This is a Quadratic equation in ‘m’. Thus ‘m’ has two values. But ‘m’ is
the slope of the tangent. Thus, two tangents can be drawn from a point
to a circle.

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Family of Circles

Concentric Circles

Two (or) more circles having the same centre are called Concentric Circle.

Circles Touching Internally or Externally

Two circles may touch each other either internally or externally. Let C1, C2 be
the centres of the circles and r1, r2 be their radii and P, the point of contact.

• Two circle touch externally, if C1C2 = r1 + r2

• Two circle touch internally, if C1C2 = r1 - r2

Orthogonal Circles

Two circles are said to be Orthogonal if the tangent at their point of

intersection are at right angles.

Condition for Orthogonal

• Condition for two circles to cut orthogonal is 2g1g2 + 2f1f2 = c1+c2

Conic
Definition

A conic is the locus of a point which moves in a plane, so that its distance
from a fixed point bears a constant ratio to its distance from a fixed straight
line. The fixed point is called focus, the fixed straight line is called directrix
and the constant ratio is called eccentricity, which is denoted by ‘e’.

Classification with respect to the General Equation of a Conic

The equation Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 represents either a (non-

degenerate) conic or a degenerate conic. If it is a conic, then it is

• a Parabola if B2- 4AC = 0

• an Ellipse if B2- 4AC < 0

• a Parabola if B2- 4AC > 0

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Parabola ( y2 = 4ax )
Definition

The locus of a point whose distance from a fixed point is equal to the distance
from a fixed line is called a Parabola. i.e., Parabola is a conic whose eccentricity
is 1.

Definitions

• The fixed point used to draw the parabola is called the Focus F. Here,
the focus is F(a,o).

• The fixed line used to draw a parabola is called the Directrix of the
parabola. Here, the equation of the directrix is x = - a

• The axis of the parabola is the axis of symmetry. The curve y2 = 4ax is
symmetrical about x-axis and hence x-axis or y = 0 is the axis of the
parabola y2 = 4ax. Note that the axis of the parabola passes through the
focus and perpendicular to the directrix.

• The point of intersection of the parabola and its axis is called its Vertex.
Here, the vertex is V(0,0).

• The Focal Distance is the distance between a point on the parabola and
its focus.

• A chord which passes through the focus of the parabola is called the
Focal Chord of the parabola

• Latus Rectum is a focal chord perpendicular to the axis of the parabola.

Here, the equation of the latus rectum is x = a.

• End points of Latus Rectum is L (a, 2a) and L/(a, -2a)

• Length of Latus Rectum = 4a. Length of Semi-Latus Rectum is 2a.

General form of the standard equation of a Parabola

The General form of the standard equation of the parabola is

•
$ -!  .  $ "! (open rightwards)

•
$ -!  $ .  $ "! ( open leftwards)

•  $ "!  .
$ -! (open upwards )

•  $ "!  $ .
$ -! (open downwads)

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Ellipse /


 0

Definition

The locus of a point in a plane whose distance from a fixed point bears a
constant ratio, less than one to its distance from a fixed line is called Ellipse.

Definitions

Focus : The fixed point is called focus, denoted as F(ae,0)

Directrix : The fixed line is called directrix l of the ellipse and its equation

is  


Major axis : The line segment AA/ is called the major axis and the length of the
major axis is 2a. The equation of the major axis is y = 0.

Minor axis : The line segment BB/ is called the minor axis and the length of the
minor axis is 2b. The equation of the minor axis is x = 0.

Centre : The point of intersection of the major axis and minor axis of the
ellipse is called the Centre of the Ellipse.

Vertices : The points of intersection of the ellipse and its major axis are called
its vertices.

Focal Distance : The focal distance with respect to any point P on the ellise is
the distance of P from the referred focus.

Focal Chord : A chord which passes through the focus of the ellipse is called
the focal chord of the ellipse.

Latus Rectum : It is the focal distance perpendicular to the major axis of the
Ellipse. The equation of the latus rectum are x = + ae, x = - ae.

Eccentricity :   ' $ 




End Points of Latus Rectum are 1 , + ! and other latus rectum are



1 $, +  !.



Length of the Latus Rectum are

Special Property : Thanks to the symmetry about the origin, it permits the

second Focus F2(-ae,0) and the second directrix x = -


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General forms of Standard Ellipses

The General forms of Standard Equation of Ellipses, if the centre C(h,k) is

 $ "!
$ -!




"!
-!


 
a>b

Focal Property of an Ellipse

The sum of the focal distances of any point on an ellipse is constant and is
equal to the length of the major axis.



Hyperbola / $

 0

Definition

The locus of a point in a plane whose distance from a fixed point bears a
constant ratio, greater than one to its distance from a fixed line is called
Hyperbola.

Definitions

Focus : The fixed point is called focus, denoted as F(ae,0)

Directrix : The fixed line is called directrix l of the hyperbola and its equation

is  


Transverse axis : The line segment AA/ joining the vertices is called the
transverse axis and the length of the transverse axis is 2a. The equation of the
transverse axis is y = 0.

Conjugate axis : The line segment joining the points B(0, b) and B/ (0, -b) is
called the conjugate axis and the length of the conjugate axis is 2b. The
equation of the conjugate axis is x = 0.

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Centre : The point of intersection of the transverse and conjugate axes of the
hyperbola is called the Centre of the Hyperbola.

Vertices : The points of intersection of the hyperbola and its transverse axis
are called its vertices.

Latus Rectum : It is the focal chord perpendicular to the transverse axis of the
Hyperbola. The equation of the latus rectum are x = + ae, x = - ae.

Eccentricity :   ' 




End Points of Latus Rectum are 1 , +  ! and other latus rectum are


1 $, +  !.



Length of the Latus Rectum are

The other form of the Hyperbola

If the transverse axis is along y-axis and the conjugate axis is along x-axis,

 
then the equation of the hyperbola is of the form  $   


For this type of hyperbola, we have the following points.

• Center is C(0,0)
• Vertices A(0, a) and A/(0, -a)
• Foci are F(0, ae) and F(0, -ae)
• Equation of transverse axis is x = 0
• Equation of conjugate axis is y = 0
• End points of conjugate axis is (b, 0) and (-b, 0)
• Equations of Latus rectum is
 +

• Equations of directrices is
 +




• End points of Latus rectum is /+

, 0 , /+ 
, $0

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Parametric form of Conics

Conic Parametric Parameter Range of Any point on

equations parameter the conic

Parabola x = at2 t $∞ 3 4 3 ∞ ‘t’ or

y = 2at (at2, 2at)

Ellipse x = a cos ,   3  3 26 77 or

y = b sin  (acos ,
 !


  $  ! t $∞ 3 4 3 ∞ ‘t’ or
 
  $  !
. 

.  , !

    
 

Hyperbola x = a sec ,   3  3 26 77 or

y = b tan  (a sec,
 !

Equation of Chord

Conic Equation of Chord joining (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)

.

$
   $  !
Parabola




   !

$
  $  $  !
Ellipse


 !

   !

$
   $  !
Hyperbola


 !

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Equation of Tangent and Normal

Conic Equation of Tangents at (x1, y1) Equation of Normal at (x1, y1)

Parabola

     ! 
 
 
 




  


Ellipse   $   $







  


Hyperbola $    





Equation of Chord and Tangent at Parametric Form

Conic Equation of Chord at Equation of Tangents at

Parametric Form Parametric Form

Parabola Chord joining the points  &  at ‘t’ is yt = x + at2

is

  !    

Ellipse Chord joining the points  &  at ‘’ is



is
   !
  !
      
 
 

 $  !
 


Hyperbola Chord joining the points  &  at ‘’ is



is
  $  !
  !
 $   $   
 
 

  !
 


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Results connected with Conics

Conic Condition that Point of Contact Equation of any

y=mx+c may tangent is of the form
be a tangent to
the conic

   
Parabola  ( , *
 
   

   
 $ 

  +  

: , ;
Ellipse
 

where    


    $
 $  $

  +   $

: , ;
Hyperbola
 

where     $


Asymptotes

Definition

An asymptote to a curve is the tangent to the curve such that the point of
contact is at infinity. In particular, the asymptote touches the curve at
∞ < $ ∞.

Results regarding Asymptotes

 
$   is


• The equations of the asymptotes to the hyperbola 



$   <  



• The combined equation of asymptotes is



/ $ 0 / 0   i.e.,  $   







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• The asymptotes pass through the centre C(0,0) of the hyperbola.

 
• The slopes of asymptotes are < $ .
 
i.e., the transverse axis and
conjugate axis bisect angles between the asymptotes.


• If  is the angle between the asymptotes then the slope of

$
  is

   .

Angle between the asymptotes is   $ / 0

• Angle between the asymptotes is    $  !


Rectangular Hyperbola ( xy = c2 where  

)

Definition

A hyperbola is said to be a rectangular hyperbola if its asymptotes are at right

angles.

Results

• Eccentricity of the Rectangular Hyperbola is   √ and

also b2 = a2(e2-1)
   
• The Vertices of the rectangular hyperbola are / , 0 and /$ ,$ 0
√ √ √ √
• The foci are (a, a) and (-a, -a)
• The equation of the transverse axis is y = x and the conjugate axis is
y = - x.
•
If the centre of the rectangular hyperbola is (h, k) then (x – h) ( y – k) = c2
• The parametric equation of the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is x = ct,


y=
• Equation of the tangent at (x1, y1) to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is
xy1+yx1 = 2c2
• Equation of the tangent at ‘t’ is x + yt2 = 2ct
• Equation of normal at (x1, y1) to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is
xx1- yy1 = x12- y12

• Equation of normal at ‘t’ is y - xt2 = $ ct3

• Two tangents and four normals can be drawn from a point to a
rectangular hyperbola.

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