Functional Syntax Overview

Term function refers to a role word may assume in a phrase, clause or sentence i.e. subject, predicate,
direct object, etc. Term form refers to word classes i.e. parts of speech, phrases and clauses and includes
categories such as nouns, noun phrases, verbs, adjective clauses, etc.
Constructions
-

Can be divided according to level (phrases, clauses, sentences) and according to type
(endocentric, exocentric).

Phrases
Phrase is a construction that functions in the structure of a clause. In phrase we have Head (obligatory
element) and optional elements.

Noun Phrase
an interesting film on TV (determiner + modifier + head + Q1)

Determiners:
-

Articles: a, an, the

Demonstrative adjectives: this, that, those, former, latter, such
Indefinite adjectives: all, some, several, any, no, much, many, (a) few, (a) little, enough, etc.
Numbers: two, three, etc.
Distrubitive adjectives: each, every, either, neither, both
Interrogative adjectives: which, what, whose
Possessive adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their
Possessive case: Johns, old ladys

When there are two determiners, the first one is called a predeterminer.
Predeterminer

Determiner

Head

all (of)

my

sisters2

none of

the

answers

each of

those

books

most of

our

water

Modifers:
-

Descriptive Adjectives
Nouns
Adjective Phrases

1 Qualifier is a prepositional phrase here.

2 All sisters all would be also quantifier. In whole this phrase we have quantifier + determiner + head. Also, in the example
the ten officers, ten is also called enumerator.

Noun Phrases

As for postmodifers, the examples show that they can be either prepositional phrases (on the shelf, from
London) or relative clauses (that I like to read).
Qualifier:
-

Prepositional Phrase
Clause

In addition to an adjective, noun can be modified by another noun (army officers). Apart from a single
noun, a head can also be a coordinate noun phrase (boys and girls).

Adjective Phrase
-

Determiner: the
Modifier: Adverbs (very, most)
Head: Adjective (interesting)
Qualifier: Adverb3 (enough, indeed)

Adverbial Phrase
-

Modifier: Adverb (pretty)

Head: Adverb (fast)
Qualifier: Adverb (indeed)

Prepositional Phrase
Prep + Noun in London
Prep + Pronun with me
Prep + NP in the morning
Prep + Cl of what was to happen

Verb Phrase
Vtr

IO

DO

AM

I gave him a book (yesterday).

Vintr

DO

I am reading a good book.

Vintr

AM

I walk every day.

Vtr

IO

DO

I have given him a book.

Vintr

DO

I am walking the dog.

Vc

Pred

I am (have been) in the park.

A complement is a syntactic function that can be fulfilled by a nominal element (a noun, noun phrase or
noun clause) or an adjectival element: (an adjective or adjective phrase). Complements occur after
particular verbs (intensive) such as be, seem, become, appear: Sofia is a teacher; Sam became a doctor;
3 Adverb functions here as an intensifier.

Carlos became very angry. Other verbs that are followed by complements are verbs of change, such as
make, paint, rub and verbs of perception such as think and consider. These verbs have objects (bold) as
well as complements (underlined): Mary made me successful; Sams training made him a doctor.
The complement cannot be made the subject of a passive sentence, though the indirect object can:
A tennis player was made me by mother.
A cup of coffee was made for me by my mother.

In English there are five general types of complementation: intransitive complementation,

monotransitive
complementation,
ditransitive
complementation,
complex-transitive
4
complementation , copular complementation.
Common copulative verbs are: appear, become, come, fall, feel, get, go, happen, keep, prove, remain,
run, seem, sit, sound, stand, stay, taste, turn (out) etc.
Some verbs are complete in themselves and require no complementation (She died last week.) (they are
used as intransitive verbs), others require single complementation (I hate hospitals.) or dual
complementation (She gave me her number.) and are used as transitive verbs.
Predicate (Pred) is everything but subject. Its always at least one VP.
The predicator (P) is the only place in the clause where form and function map onto each other one-toone (head in a VP). Although verb phrases usually function as predicators it is worth noting that some
parts of the verb take on noun or adjective-like functions at time: Her playing (was sublime). It normally
follows the subject: The lorry braked hard. When the predicator occurs in non-finite subordinate clauses
with no subject, it will be the first element in the clause or follow a subordinating conjuction: After being
questioned so aggressively (the man collapsed).
The final clause element in English is the adverbial. The important difference between the adverbial
function and adverb forms, as with all clause elements, is that a number of different forms fulfil the
function of an adverbial clause element, and not all of them are based on adverbs. In addition noun
phrases, particularly when they refer to moments or periods in time, can function in this way:
The train pulled away from the station very slowly (adverb phrase).
In a moment, I shall pour you a cup of tea. (prepositional phrase).
Every day of my life I practice for four hours (noun phrase).5

Clauses
4 Complex-transitive verbs are verbs that are followed by direct object and object complement. The most common verbs of this
class are: appoint, call, consider, declare, drive, elect, feel, find, get, have, hear, help, hold, keep, leave, let, like, make, notice,
prefer, pronounce, rate, see, send, think, turn, vote, watch etc.

5 They all describe the circumstances in which the action or process of the clause takes place.

Clause is group of words that consists of subject and verb, but it doesnt necessarily have to make a
complete sense. It can be main or subordinate, depending on its position in the sentence.
Non-clauses according to Carter and McMarthy:
the green sofa (NP)
in the garden (PrepP)
Hello (greeting formula)
hopefully (adverb)

Adjective clauses
It qualifies nouns, and it is generally introduced by a relative pronoun : which, who, whose, that etc. They
can be defining or non-defining.
1.
2.

Defining adjective clauses: The students who answered the question6 was John.
Non-defining adjective clauses: Bernard Shaw, who wrote St Joan,7 died in 1950.

Noun clauses
Also called nominal or complement clause is one which does the work of a noun. It may be:
1.

The object of a sentence: I forgot to ask how long it would take.8

The noun clase, i.e. the object clause, may be:

a)
b)
2.
3.
4.

A direct or indirect statement: He told me that the debt had been paid.
A direct or indirect question: He asked me where I lived.
The subject of a sentence (always precedes a verb): What you are doing9 seems very difficult.
A part of a prepositional phrase: He only laughed at what we said.
Predicative (after Vc): That is not what I want.

Adverbial clauses
They do the work of adverbs, they function as AM in sentences.
1.
2.

Adverbial clauses of manner (How?; introduced by as, as if10, as though): He ran as if his life depended on
it.
Adverbial clauses of place (Where?; introduced by where, whenever): Stay where you are.

6 If this part is left out of the sentence does not make complete sense.
7 In these sentences the adjective clause could be omitted and the rest of the sentence would still make a perfect sense.
8 We could replace the underlined clause with any noun phrase and the sentence is still complete.
9 Subject noun clause always precedes the verb. The verb is usually the verb to be or another verb of incomplete predication.

3.

Adverbial clauses of time (When?; introduced by when, while, after, until, since, as soon as): I learnt a lot
of French while I was in Paris.
4. Adverbial clauses of reason (Why?; introduced by because, since, now that, it is/was only because that):
He sold the car because it was too small.
5. Adverbial clauses of concession (introduced by though, even though, whatever): However difficult it was,
we managed to do it.
6. Adverbial clauses of comparison (introduced by asas, so, than): This work is not so easy as you think.
7. Adverbial clauses of condition (introduced by if, unless, provided): I will go as long as he asks me.
8. Adverbial clauses of result (introduced by so that): I received my wages yesterday, so that I can now pay
what I owe you.
9. Adverbial clauses of purpose (introduced by so that, in order that, for fear that): They came in time so that
they wouldnt miss the train.
10. Adverbial clauses of contrast (introduced by whereas, while): He likes fried rice, while I prefer boiled.
11. Adverbial clauses expressing comment ( introduced by as you know, I believe, I suppose): I could ring him,
I suppose.

Main and subordinate clauses

Main clauses are not dependent on any other clause in the sentence and a sentence must have at least one
main clause: I went to speak to them; If I went down there, I could use the computer.
The following consist of subordinate clause, which need to be accompanied by a main clause in order to
form a sentence: before I went; which arrived yesterday
According to Carter and McCarthy, these examples are non-sentences: they are constructions without
main clause, and they cannot form a sentence.
Embedded clauses are dependent clauses which function as constituents of phrases. They are most
typically relative clauses, but may also be adverbial clauses, nominal clauses or comparative clauses. In
the sentence Two people I know have gone there, the clause I know modifies the noun people, and is a
constituent of the subject noun phrase.
Coordination and subordination are two principal ways in which clauses are combined to form
sentences.
Coordinated clauses are clauses which have the same syntactic status. Coordination most typically
involves conjuctions and, but and or: Jim brought me here and Phils taking me home. In addition to this,
there also either or, not onlybut : Either she could come down here or I could go there.
Coordination may also occur without the explicit link created by a conjuction. This is particularly true in
literary style or for special effect in narrative texts.
Coordination may involve more than two clauses, especially in informal spoken language. This is called
multiple coordination: Ill be driving off down to France and Ill try and ring again but remember Ill
be in my car most of the day. Also, it is equally possible to consider coordination at the word and phrase
level: a) words: me or you; up and down; b) phrases: good book but bad film; very pretty and very clever

10 Simple subordinators are single words which introduce subordinate clauses: after, how, if, in case, in order that, whom,
unless. Unlike them, complex subordinators consist of more than one word and include common expressions ending in as and
that (or optional that), plus a small number of other expressions: as far as, considering, such that, supposing (that).

Subordinate clauses are typically introduced by a class of words known as subordinators (as, if, since,
when). In addition to a subordinator, a subordinate clause may be introduced by using a non-finite verb
form to create a non-finite subordinate clause: Ill call you when I get home (subordinate clause
introduced by subordinator when); Looking at it now, I dont think its such a good idea after all (nonfinite subordinate clause introduced by the participle looking). A subordinate clause may also be
dependent on another subordinate clause: She worked there for some time, although, as she herself has
told you, she was not happy in her job.
Not at least important, we need to mention sentential relative clauses. They comment on a whole
previous sentence or series of clauses, or a speaker turn, or a longer stretch of discourse. They are always
introduced by which. Their most frequent function in informal language is to express evaluation:
Hes always in the office and then he complains about not having any time off
and how wonderful he is to the company, which is his own fault.

Now, look at this example:

Quickly and resolutely, he strode into the bank.

This type of coordination, with a coordinator present, is called syndetic coordination. However,
coordination can also occur without the presence of a coordinator:
(Quickly), (resolutely), he strode into the bank.

No coordinator is present here, but the conjoins are still coordinated. This is known as asyndetic
coordination.
Let us now consider some examples of phrasal coordination. All phrases can be joined by conjunctions,
but there we shall look at the verb phrase as predicator, to see how it operates:
My children were running and jumping for sheer joy.
The audience were crying but laughing at the same time.
Athletes were training or resting according to their schedule.

Although these are examples of phrasal coordination, in each case the second phrase has the auxiliary
verb (were) missing through ellipsis, which is the deletion of entirely predictable elements of structure. As
with the coordination of words, these examples provide mutually supportive notions (running and
jumping), apparently contradictory but concurrent processes (crying but laughing), and mutually
exclusive processes (training or resting) respectively. It is important to note that the role of a coordinated
structure is exactly the same as it would be for a single item performing the same function.
There are at least two methods of picking out one clause element and placing it in a focal position,
thereby downgrading the importance, in information terms, of the remainder of the clause. One of these
methods is known as fronting, and as its name implies it simply requires the focal clause element to be
put at the beginning of the clause. In English there are two kommon kinds of fronting, which is also
known as inversion: the first is when the subject and predicator elements are put in reverse order, and in
the second the subject and first auxiliary elements are reversed:

Heres the hotel.

Hardly had I arrived (before )

The other method of focusing on the information in a clause element is to create what is known as a cleft
sentence. This involves using a fairly information-light frame, such as It was that , and then slotting
the required clause element into the focal point after the verb. The remainder of the basic clause ends up
in a relative clause (beginning with that) and its importance is accordingly lessened.
This sentence has all five clause elements, as follows:
The British electorate (subject) voted (predicator) Tony Blair (object) prime
minister (complement) in 1997 (adverbial).

If we take each element in turn, we find out that with exception of the predicator we can put any of them
into the focal position in the cleft sentence frame:
It was the British electorate that elected Tony Blair prime minister in 1997.
It was Tony Blair that the British electorate voted prime minister in 1997.
It was prime minister that the British electorate voted Tony Blair in 1997.
It was in 1997 that the British electorate voted Tony Blair prime minister.

Basic clause structure: Central and peripheral elements

The verb is the most central element in the clause as it tends to determine what else must or may occur in
the clause. Next in importance come the subject and object or predicative complement, which express the
relationship between participants and the process expressed by the verb. Central elements have a
relatively fixed word order in English. Unlike them, objects and predicative complements have slightly
more flexibility and occasionally occur in untypical positions for reasons of emphasis (Well, rich they
may be, but Im not sure theyre happy.)
Adjuncts are normally regarded as peripheral elements in the clause; they are always optional, and they
do not determine what else must occur in the clause. They may occur in a variety of positions in the
clause, either front (In the summer, Above), mid position (often, above) or end position (every day, in a
big way). They modify the verb or the clause but, unlike complements, they do not complete the meaning
of the verb and are not required elements.
Sometimes, especially in informal spoken language, elements occur which are not contained within the
clause structure. Items may occasionally occur before or after the clause for emphasis and be repeated in
some form within the clause (most typically by a pronoun):
Joe, Ive known him for years.

Pragmatic markers are also normally considered to be outside of the clause structure. These include
discourse markers (words and phrases indicating boundaries in the discourse or words that monitor the
state of the discourse in some way), stance markers (words and phrases indicating a stance or attitude to a
segment or section of discourse) and interjections.

Well, what are you going to do with it? (discourse marker)

To be honest, I dont think Ill go this year. (stance marker)
Gosh, thats very cheap. (interjection)

Vocatives are also considered to be outside of the clause structure.

Sentence
Sentence is an independent construction, or an independent language form. A sentence contains one or
more predications (subject + predicate). Also, a sentence consists of one or more clauses and each of them
has its own subject and predicate.
Simple sentence is a group of words that contains a finite verb and makes complete sense. It contains
only one predication. In following examples it is underlined: (They left; A very interesting novel was
lying on the top shelf of an old bookcase.)
Complex sentence consists of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The clauses are
therefore in the subordination relation. The main clause is much nearer being complete in itself, while the
subordinate clause makes complete sense only when it is with the main clause: I will come if you invite
me; I cannot do that for you since I have no idea how to do that.
Compound sentence consists of two or more clauses that have a complete meaning onto each and that
are joined by one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but). These clauses are therefore in the
coordination relation:
Im standing and youre sitting.
Bring your book here and open it at page four, but dont begin reading.

It is also possible to find combinations of a complex sentence plus a simple sentence:

Since she didnt want to come with us, we decided to stay at home but she objected to that.

The above mentioned three types of sentences are called major sentence types.
Minor sentence types
They do not conform to the subject + predicate rule, but are still considered sentences as they express a
full meaning. These are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Sentences without subject: Go away!

Vocatives: Peter!
Aphorisms/Sayings: The sooner the better.
Fragments: My God!

The main part of each sentence is a finite verb.

There is another division of sentences into:
1.

declarative (which can be positive or negative)

2.
3.
4.

interrogative
imperative
exclamatory

Word order is very important in English. We call English an SVO language (subject + verb + object).
Congruence (concord) is a formal agreement of the elements of a sentence (number, gender, person,
tense). For example
-

number: this book and these books

gender: John saw his friends; Jane saw her friends
person: I speak/He speaks
tense: He said he would come.

Elipsis is omitting elements of a sentence in order to avoid repetition:

-

Have you spoken to her?

Yes, I have (spoken to her).