ME 461 / 561 Orbital Mechanics

Chapter 1 - The Two-Body Problem

Professor Christopher D. Hall

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

 Keplers
Keplers Laws:
Laws:
First
First Law
Law (1609):
(1609):
The
The orbit
orbit of
of each
each planet
planet isis
an
an ellipse
ellipse with
with the
the sun
sun at
at aa focus.
focus.

Focus
Focus

Second
Second Law
Law (1609):
(1609):
The
The line
line joining
joining the
the planet
planet to
to the
the sun
sun
sweeps
sweeps out
out equal
equal areas
areas in
in equal
equal time.
time.
Third
Third Law
Law (1619):
(1619):
The
The square
square of
of the
the period
period of
of aa planet
planet isis
proportional
proportional to
to the
the cube
cube of
of its
its mean
mean
distance
distance from
from the
the sun.
sun. P 2 a3
These
These laws
laws were
were formed
formed for
for motion
motion of
of planets
planets about
about the
the sun,
sun, but
but
also
also apply
apply to
to artificial
artificial satellites
satellites orbiting
orbiting the
the sun,
sun, planets,
planets, or
or moons
moons
ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

 Newtons
Newtons Laws
Laws ((Principia
Principia,, 1687):
1687):
First
First Law:
Law:
Every
Every body
body continues
continues in
in its
its state
state of
of rest
rest or
or of
of uniform
uniform motion
motion in
in aa
straight
straight line
line unless
unless itit isis compelled
compelled to
to change
change that
that state
state by
by forces
forces
impressed
impressed upon
upon it.
it.
Second
Second Law:
Law:

F~

d(mi~v)
dt

Third
Third Law:
Law:
m1

m2
~
-F

Universal
Universal Gravitational
Gravitational Law:
Law:

F~

GMm ~r
~
Fgm = 2
r
r

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

~r
M

The N-Body Problem

Z

F~gj

~rjn , ~rn ~rj

mn

~rjn

m1

~rn

mj

~rj

O
X

~other
F

Start
Start
point
point

End
End
point
point

F~gj = Gmj
m2

n
X
mk

~rkj
3
r
k=1 kj

~solarpressure + F~perturbe + . . .
F~other = F~Drag + F~T hrust + F
nd
Applying
Applying Newtons
Newtons 22nd Law
Law for
for the
the jth
jth particle:
particle:

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

F~ =

d(mij ~
vj )
dt
4

The N-Body Problem

F~other +F~gj =
| {z }
0

d(i ~
v )
mj dt j

= mj

i 2 i

d ( ~
rj )
dt2

n
X
mk

~rj = G
~rkj
3
rkj
k=1

~r12

n
X
~rk2 ~rk1
G(m1 + m2 )
=
~r12
Gmk 3 3
3
r12
rk2
rk1
k=3
|
{z
} |
{z
}

Gravitational
Gravitational force
force
between
between earth
earth
and
and satellite
satellite

Perturbing
Perturbing effects
effects of
of
sun,
sun, moon,
moon,

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

The Two-Body Problem

Z

Assumptions:
Assumptions:
The
The bodies
bodies are
are spherically
spherically
symmetric
symmetric (we
(we can
can assume
assume
each
each as
as aa point
point mass).
mass).
The
The only
only force
force isis the
the
gravitational
gravitational force,
force, along
along
the
the line
line joining
joining the
the centers
centers
of
two
bodies.
of two bodies.

~rM
O0

~rM =

Y0

Inertial
InertialFrame
Frame

m
GM

m~rm = GM
~
r

~
r
=

~r
m
r3
r3
GMm
r
r3 ~

~r
M

X0

M ~rM =

~rm

Z0

Gm
r
r3 ~

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

Nonrotating
NonrotatingFrame
Frame

~r = ~rm ~rM

~r
~r = G(M+m)
r3
Differential
Differential Eq.
Eq. of
of the
the
relative
relative motion
motion
6

Equation of motion of TBP

When
When (( M>>m)
M>>m) i.e.
i.e. ,, artificial
artificial satellites,
satellites, space
space probes,
probes, ballistic
ballistic missiles,
missiles,
G(M + m) GM

~r +

r
r3 ~

= ~0

Constants
Constants (Integrals)
(Integrals) of
of the
the Motion:
Motion:
Conservation
Conservation of
of mechanical
mechanical energy
energy
Conservation
Conservation of
of angular
angular momentum
momentum

E =T +V
Mechanical
MechanicalKinetic
Kinetic
energy
energy
energy
energy

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

~h = ~r ~v

Potential
Potential
energy
energy

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

Lets
Lets start
start with
with the
the EOM:
EOM:

Using
Using the
the fact
fact that
that

~r +

r
r3 ~

= ~0

~r ~r +

r
r3 ~

~r = 0

~r ~r = rr

Then:
Then:

vv
+
which
which can
can be
be written
written as:
as:

d v2
dt 2

E=

+
v2
2

r2 r

d
dt

=0

c r =0

+ c r

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

v2
E = 2 + c
| {z r }

Specific
Specific mechanical
mechanical
energy
energy

Potential
Potential energy
energy per
per
unit
unit mass
mass of
of satellite
satellite
Kinetic
Kinetic energy
energy per
per
unit
unit mass
mass of
of satellite
satellite

If:
If:
If:
If:

c=

rM

V (rM ) = 0

c = 0 lim V (r) = 0
r

Vis-viva
Vis-viva (living
(living force)
force) Eq.:
Eq.:

E=

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

v2
2

r
9

Matlab Function: rv2E.m

functionE=rv2E(R,V,mu)
functionE=rv2E(R,V,mu)
%RV2EFunctiontocalculatethespecificmechanicalenergyofaKeplerian
%RV2EFunctiontocalculatethespecificmechanicalenergyofaKeplerianorbit.
orbit.
%Theinputsofrv2Earethepositionvectorofthesatellite,R,thevelocity
%Theinputsofrv2Earethepositionvectorofthesatellite,R,thevelocity
%vectorofthesatellite,V,andthegravitationalparameter
%vectorofthesatellite,V,andthegravitationalparameterofthecentral
ofthecentral
%body,mu.Theoutputisthespecificmechanicalenergy,E.
%body,mu.Theoutputisthespecificmechanicalenergy,E.
%
%
%Thepositionandvelocityvectorsmustbeeither3x1or1x3
%Thepositionandvelocityvectorsmustbeeither3x1or1x3matrices,and
matrices,and
%thefunctionwillresizebothofthemsothattheyare3x1.
Ifavalue
%thefunctionwillresizebothofthemsothattheyare3x1. Ifavalue
%formuisnotinputed,thedefaultvalueisthatforEarth(3.986e5km^3/s^2)
%formuisnotinputed,thedefaultvalueisthatforEarth(3.986e5km^3/s^2)
%Determineifinputvectorsarethecorrectsizeandresizethem
%Determineifinputvectorsarethecorrectsizeandresizethem
iflength(R)~=3||length(V)~=3
iflength(R)~=3||length(V)~=3
error('Inputvectorsarenotthecorrectsize.Pleaseinputnewvectors.')
error('Inputvectorsarenotthecorrectsize.Pleaseinputnewvectors.')
end
end
R=[R(1);R(2);R(3)];
R=[R(1);R(2);R(3)];
V=[V(1);V(2);V(3)];
V=[V(1);V(2);V(3)];
%Ifnovalueofmuisgiven,usethedefaultvalueforEarth
%Ifnovalueofmuisgiven,usethedefaultvalueforEarth
ifnargin
ifnargin<3
<3
mu=3.986e5;
mu=3.986e5;
end
end
%CALCULATEORBITRADIUSANDVELOCITYMAGNITUDE
%CALCULATEORBITRADIUSANDVELOCITYMAGNITUDE
r=norm(R);
r=norm(R);
v=norm(V);
v=norm(V);
%CALCULATESPECIFICMECHANICALENERGYOFTHEORBIT
%CALCULATESPECIFICMECHANICALENERGYOFTHEORBIT
E=v^2/2
E=v^2/2mu/r;
mu/r;

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

10

Matlab Program using rv2E.m

%Thisprogram(anmfile)calculatestheenergywhilevaryingthemagnitudeofthevelocityvector
%Thisprogram(anmfile)calculatestheenergywhilevaryingthemagnitudeofthevelocityvector
%foragivenradiusvector,thenmakesaplotofEvs
%foragivenradiusvector,thenmakesaplotofEvs|V|
|V|
%Setparameters
%Setparameters
mu=3.986e5;
mu=3.986e5;
Npoints
Npoints=100;
=100;
%Initializevariables
%Initializevariables
R=[7000;0;0];
R=[7000;0;0];
Vrange
Vrange=linspace(1,15,Npoints);%eachofthesevelocitymagnitudeswillbeusedtocomputeE
=linspace(1,15,Npoints);%eachofthesevelocitymagnitudeswillbeusedtocomputeE
Erange
=zeros(1,Npoints);
Erange =zeros(1,Npoints);
fori=1:Npoints
fori=1:Npoints
V=[0;Vrange(i);0];%setVperpendiculartoR,soeitherperiapsis
V=[0;Vrange(i);0];%setVperpendiculartoR,soeitherperiapsisorapoapsis
orapoapsis
Erange(i)=rv2E(R,V,mu);
Erange(i)=rv2E(R,V,mu);
end
end
figure
figure
hg=plot(Vrange,Erange);%usehandlegraphics
hg=plot(Vrange,Erange);%usehandlegraphicstomakeprofessionalgraph
tomakeprofessionalgraph
set(hg,'linewidth',2)
set(hg,'linewidth',2)
xlabel('Velocity
xlabel('Velocitymagnitude(km/s)','fontsize',12)
magnitude(km/s)','fontsize',12)
ylabel('Energy
ylabel('Energy(km^2/s^2)','fontsize',12)
(km^2/s^2)','fontsize',12)

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

11

Matlab Program using rv2E.m

60

Thisplotistheresult
Thisplotistheresult
ofrunningthe
ofrunningthe
Matlab
Matlabmfile
mfilethat
that
callstheMatlab
callstheMatlab
functionrv2E.m
functionrv2E.m

20

Notethatforsmall
Notethatforsmall
velocitiestheenergy
velocitiestheenergy
isnegative,andfor
isnegative,andfor
largevelocitiesthe
largevelocitiesthe
energyispositive
energyispositive
Thinkaboutthat
Thinkaboutthat
pointwherethe
pointwherethe
energyiszeroand
energyiszeroand
askwhatitmight
askwhatitmight
mean
mean

Energy (km /s )

40

-20

-40

-60

10

15

Velocity magnitude (km/s)

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

12

Conservation of Angular Momentum

~r +

We
We start
start with
with the
the EOM:
EOM:
Cross
r
Cross product
product with
with ~
Using
Using identity:
identity:

= ~0

~r ~r + 3 ~r ~r = ~0
|r {z }
=0

d
dt

Then:
Then:

r
r3 ~

~
~r r = ~r ~r = ~0

~
~r ~v = h = const.
ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

13

Conservation of Angular Momentum

isis the
the flight-path
flight-path angle
angle

isis the
the zenith
zenith angle
angle

caall
llooc

r and
to
to the
the plane
plane of
of ~
and

~v

The
The motion
motion takes
takes place
place in
in aa plane
plane that
that isis M
fixed
fixed in
in inertial
inertial space.
space.
This
This plane
plane isis called
called the
the orbital
orbital plane
plane

~v
~vr

ccaall
i
t
i
r
t
ll vveer
a
c
a
LLooc

nttaall
riizzoon
hhoor

~r
~h

~v

tan =

vr
v

h = rv sin
or
or

h = r v cos
ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

14

The Trajectory Equation

~r = r3 ~r
~r ~h =

~
r3 (h

~r)

(a)

~r ~h =

d
r
dt (~

~h)

(b)

LHS
LHS of
of Eq.
Eq. (a)
(a)
Using
Using the
the identity:
identity:
RHS
RHS of
of Eq.
Eq. (a)
(a) ::

r3

~h ~r) =

~ B)
~ C
~ = B(
~ A
~ C)
~ C(
~ A
~ B)
~
(A

r
r 3 (~

~v ) ~r =

r3

~v (~r ~r) ~r(~r ~v )

v
r~

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

r
r
r2 ~

d ~
r
dt
r

(c)
15

The Trajectory Equation

Combining
Combining Eqs.
Eqs. (b)
(b) && (c)
(c)
d
r
dt (~
After
After integration
integration

Using
Using the
the identity:
identity:

~h) =

~r ~h =

d ~
r
dt
r

~
r
r

~
+B

Constant
Constant vector
vector

~r ~r ~h =

~
r~
r
r

~
+ ~r B

~ (B
~ C)
~ = (A
~ B)
~ C
~
A
2

h = r + rB cos

~>
< ~r, B

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

r=

h2 /
1+(B/) cos
16

The Trajectory Equation

Conic
Conic Section
Section Eq.
Eq.

p
1+e cos

r=

e=1
e>1

r=

h2 /
1+(B/) cos

The
The parameter
parameter or
or
semi-latus
semi-latus rectum:
rectum:

p=

h2

The
The eccentricity:
eccentricity:

e=

Eccentricity
Eccentricity
e=0
0<e<1

Trajectory
Trajectory Eq.
Eq. for
for TBP
TBP

Type
Type of
of orbit
orbit or
or Trajectory
Trajectory
Circle
Circle
Ellipse
Ellipse
Parabola
Parabola
Hyperbola
Hyperbola

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

~r
F

~e
17

Some terminology[2]
Satellite:
Satellite: any
any object
object which
which travels
travels in
in an
an elliptical
elliptical orbit
orbit around
around aa
planet
planet isis called
called aa satellite
satellite of
of that
that planet.
planet.
Space
Space probe:
probe: any
any object
object which
which travels
travels in
in an
an open
open trajectory;
trajectory; i.e.,
i.e.,
aa hyperbolic
hyperbolic trajectory
trajectory in
in aa vicinity
vicinity of
of aa planet
planet and
and in
in elliptical
elliptical
orbit
orbit around
around the
the sun
sun isis called
called aa space
space probe.
probe.
Interstellar
Interstellar probe:
probe: any
any object
object with
with aa velocity
velocity greater
greater than
than
heliocentric
heliocentric escape
escape velocity
velocity isis called
called an
an interstellar
interstellar probe.
probe.
Orbit
Orbit or
or Trajectory:
Trajectory: path
path of
of aa spacecraft
spacecraft or
or natural
natural body
body in
in
space.
space. We
We use
use orbit
orbit for
for closed
closed and
and trajectory
trajectory for
for open
open paths.
paths.
Barycenter:
Barycenter: the
the location
location of
of the
the center
center of
of mass
mass of
of two
two bodies.
bodies.
ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

18

Some important orbit terminology

Peri
Peri means
means the
the closest
closest point.
point. Perigee
Perigee means
means the
the closest
closest point
point to
to the
the
earth.
earth. Perihelion
Perihelion means
means the
the closest
closest point
point to
to the
the sun,
sun, and
and so
so forth.
forth.

Apo
Apo means
means the
the farthest
farthest point.
point. Apogee
Apogee means
means the
the farthest
farthest point
point
from
the
earth.
Aphelion
means
the
farthest
point
from
the
from the earth. Aphelion means the farthest point from the sun.
sun.

Keplerian
Keplerian orbit:
orbit: isis an
an orbit
orbit in
in which
which
1.1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.

The
The only
only force
force isis gravity
gravity
The
The central
central body
body isis spherically
spherically symmetric
symmetric
The
The primary
primary mass
mass isis much
much greater
greater than
than secondary
secondary mass
mass
There
There are
are no
no other
other masses
masses in
in the
the system
system

Also
Also called
called two-body
two-body problem
problem orbit
orbit or
or unperturbed
unperturbed orbit
orbit
AA memory
memory aid:
aid:

aa bb cc dd ee ff gg hh II jj kk ll m
m nn o
o pp qq rr ss tt uu vv ww xx yy zz
ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

19

Planet Symbols

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

20

Conic Sections
AA

r/e
r/e

Circle
Circle

H
H

rr
F
F

Ellipse
Ellipse

FF

Parabola
Parabola

Hyperbola
Hyperbola
branches
branches

Directrix
Directrix

AA conic
conic section
section isis the
the locus
locus of
of points
points such
such that
that the
the ratio
ratio of
of the
the absolute
absolute
distance
distance from
from aa given
given point
point (a
(a focus)
focus) to
to the
the absolute
absolute distance
distance from
from aa
given
given line
line (a
(a directrix)
directrix) isis aa positive
positive constant
constant e.
e.
ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

21

Conic Sections

2a

2a

2c

2p

F, F 0

Ellipse
Ellipse
2c

Circle
Circle

a=
c=
Parabola
Parabola

2p

F0

2a

2p
F

F0

2p

Hyperbola
Hyperbola
ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

22

Conic Sections
e=

Eccentricity:
Eccentricity:

c
a

(Except
(Except for
for parabola)
parabola)

p = a(1 e2 )

The
The parameter:
parameter:

(Except
(Except for
for parabola)
parabola)

Periapsis
Periapsis radius:
radius:

rp =

p
1+e cos 0o

Apoapsis
Apoapsis radius:
radius:

ra =

p
p
=
1+e cos 180o
1e

The
The eccentricity
eccentricity vector:
vector:

~e =

~
v~
h

p
1+e

= a(1 e)
= a(1 + e)

~
r
r

~e = (v2 r )~r (~r ~v)~v

p=

h2

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

23

Conic Sections
Relating
Relating

E and
and h

p=

h2

to
to the
the geometry
geometry of
of orbit
orbit

h = r p vp = r a v a

E=
e=

2a

1+

Circle
Circle and
and Ellipse:
Ellipse: E < 0
Parabola:
Parabola:

E =0

Hyperbola:
Hyperbola:

E >0

2Eh2
2

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

24

The Circular Orbit

For
For Circular
Circular orbit
orbit we
we have:
have: e

r=

=0

p
1+0cos

h2

=a

Circular
Circular velocity:
velocity:
2
vcs
2

The
The period
period is:
is:

T Pcs =

2a

2 a
vcs

vcs =

TPcs =

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

p
a

2 (3/2)

a
25

Pop Quiz (doesnt count)

An
An earth
earth satellite
satellite isis in
in aa circular
circular orbit
orbit with
with
altitude
altitude 400
400 km.
km. What
What are
are the
the satellites
satellites
speed
speed and
and orbital
orbital period?
period?
Useful
Useful information:
information:
=
= 3.986
3.986
10
1055 km
km33/s
/s22
RR=
= 6378
6378 km
km

Answer:
Answer:
ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

26

The Elliptic Orbit

The
The eccentricity:
eccentricity:

e=

Line
Line of
of
apses
apses

ra rp
ra +rp

Center
Centerof
ofmass\
mass\
Barycenter
Barycenter

Semi-minor
Semi-minor
b
Axis
Axis

a
Focus
Focus

The
The period
period is:
is:

h=

r 2 d
dt

from
from calculus:
calculus:

Apoapsis
Apoapsis
(Apofocal)
(Apofocal)

dt =

r2
h d

2ab
h

Semi-major
Semi-major
Axis
Axis

a2 = b2 + c2
&&

rp + ra = 2a

dA = 12 r2 d
TP =

(a)
(b)
dt = h2 dA

2
Eliminating
Eliminating r d between
between (a)
(a) && (b):
(b):

For
For one
one period:
period:

Empty
Empty
Focus
Focus

Periapsis
Periapsis
(Perifocal)
(Perifocal)

TP =

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

2 3/2

a
27

Pop Quiz (doesnt count)

An
An earth
earth satellite
satellite isis in
in an
an elliptical
elliptical orbit
orbit with
with
perigee
perigee altitude
altitude 400
400 km
km and
and apogee
apogee altitude
altitude
900
900 km.
km. What
What are
are the
the satellites
satellites speed
speed at
at
perigee
perigee and
and apogee,
apogee, and
and orbital
orbital period?
period?
Useful
Useful information:
information:
=
= 3.986
3.986
10
1055 km
km33/s
/s22
RR=
= 6378
6378 km
km

Answer:
Answer:
ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

28

The Parabolic Trajectory

For
For aa parabolic
parabolic trajectory
trajectory we
we have:
have: e = 1

rp =

p
1+cos 0

p
2

Escape
Escape velocity
velocity ::
2
vesc

2
v

=0
2
r
|{z}
|{z}
0

Note:
Note:

vesc

vesc =

2
r

= 2 vcs

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

29

Pop Quiz (doesnt count)

An
An earth
earth satellite
satellite isis in
in aa circular
circular orbit
orbit with
with
altitude
altitude 400
400 km.
km. What
What isis the
the satellites
satellites speed?
speed?
What
What isis the
the satellites
satellites escape
escape speed?
speed? Suppose
Suppose
the
the satellites
satellites speed
speed isis changed
changed to
to the
the escape
escape
speed,
speed, then
then what
what isis the
the satellites
satellites speed
speed when
when
the
the radius
radius reaches
reaches infinity?
infinity?
Useful
Useful information:
information:
=
= 3.986
3.986
10
1055 km
km33/s
/s22
RR=
= 6378
6378 km
km
ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

30

The Hyperbolic Orbit

Turning
Turning angle:
angle:

sin 2 =

a
c

1
e
c

Hyperbolic
Hyperbolic excess
excess velocity:
velocity:
2
vbo

2
v

rbo

2
2
v
= vbo

2
rbo

2
2
= vbo
vesc

E=

a F 0

2
Note:
Note: v isis denoted
denoted by
byC3
and
and itit isis called
called departure
departure energy
energy..

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

c2 = a2 + b2

vv

rr

rrbo
bo
vvbo
bo

31

Canonical Units and The Reference Orbit

In
In order
order to
to simplify
simplify the
the arithmetic,
arithmetic, we
we use
use the
the following
following canonical
canonical
units
units in
in Astrodynamics.
Astrodynamics.
Mass:
Mass: We
We assume
assume the
the mass
mass of
of the
the central
central body
body isis 1,1, i.e.
i.e. 11 mass
mass
unit.
unit.
Distance:
Distance: Mean
Mean distance
distance from
from earth
earth to
to sun
sun isis called
called Astronomical
Astronomical
unit,
unit, AU.
AU.
Distance:
Distance: For
For orbits
orbits about
about aa planet,
planet, typically
typically use
use radius
radius of
of planet
planet
as
as 11 Distance
Distance unit,
unit, or
or D.U.
D.U.
Time:
Time: We
We choose
choose the
the time
time unit
unit so
so that
that the
the period
period of
of the
the orbit
orbit isis
TP
TP =
= 2
2 T.U.
T.U.
1AU/T U
1AU
Exercise:
Exercise:
1 DU
11 DU/TU
DU/TU
What
What is
is ??
Planet

Sun
Sun
ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

32

Extrasolar Planets
More than 700 planets orbiting
other stars have been discovered
since the first was detected in 1995
Most of these are large planets
(Jupiter-sized and larger)
Detection is mainly by wobble of
the stars motion
At least one planet has been
detected by observing its transit
across the star

Our sun wobbles 12 m/s due to Jupiter

Upsilon Andromedae has 3 planets!

Planet
B
C
D

Period (days) Eccentricity,

e
4.617
0.02
241.3
0.24
1308
0.31

Mass, m
(Jupiter masses)
0.69
2.05
4.29

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

Semi-major
axis, a (AU)
0.059
0.828
2.556

33

References
[1]
[1] http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov
[2]
[2] Mission
Mission Geometry;
Geometry; Orbit
Orbit Constellation
Constellation
Design
J. Wertz,
Wertz, 2001.
2001.
Design and
and Management
Management,, J.

ME 461 / 561 - Chapter 1

34