Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Review
Texture changes
of processed fruits
and vegetables:
potential use
of high-pressure
processing
Daniel N. Silaa,
Thomas Duvettera,
Ans De Roecka, Isabel Verlenta,
Chantal Smouta,
Graham K. Moatesb,1,
Brian P. Hillsb,1,
Keith K. Waldronb,1,
Marc Hendrickxa,* and
Ann Van Loeya
a
0924-2244/$ - see front matter ! 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2007.12.007
This review focuses on the plant cell wall structure and the
processing dependent changes in plant cell walls with focus
on enzymatic and non-enzymatic degradation of pectin.
Stability as well as catalytic activity of two major plant endogenous pectin degrading enzymes, namely pectinmethylesterase and polygalacturonase, towards elevated pressure and
temperature is reviewed. Finally, the effect of processing on
texture of plant based foods and different approaches to
improve the texture of processed plant based foods (i.e.
preheating, phenolics, washing/dipping/infusion pretreatments, high-pressure pretreatments and genetic modification)
are discussed.
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D.N. Sila et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 309e319
ORGAN
TEXTURE
TISSUE
CELL
CELL WALL
POLYMER
Physiological change
D.N. Sila et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 309e319
endogenously, but exhibit in vitro activity far below the anticipated level for cell wall loss/degradation. To date, the enzymatic degradation of the cell wall remains complex and it
appears that a multiple class of enzymes and probably other
proteins are responsible.
Non-enzymatic cell wall degradation and disassembly
Pectin shows a high stability in aqueous solutions at
pH 3.0e4.0. Nonetheless, three processes are known so
far that lead to non-enzymatic pectin degradation. First,
the fragmentation of the polymer can occur in planta
due to highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (Fry, Dumville,
& Miller, 2001). Increasing evidence suggests that these
reactions are part of the mechanisms that drive wall restructuring, but their significance in the degradation of
processed plant based foods is not known. During thermal
processing, pectin may undergo either acid or base catalyzed depolymerization. At low pH ("3.5), acid hydrolysis is proposed despite some recent doubts (Krall &
McFeeters, 1998). Under these conditions, which are not
common during regular food handling and processing,
low methoxy pectin depolymerizes faster than high methoxy pectin. At higher pHs (%4.5) and at elevated temperatures (>80 # C), a prevalent condition in most
thermally processed plant based foods, base catalyzed depolymerization (b-elimination reaction) of pectin is quite
relevant (Albersheim, Neukom, & Deuel, 1960; Greve,
McArdle, Gohlke, & Labavitch, 1994). A prerequisite
for the b-elimination reaction is the presence of methyl
ester group at the C-6, which renders H-5 sufficiently
acidic to be removed by an alkali. The reaction rate increases as pH increases, because hydroxyl ions initiate
the reaction (Neukom & Deuel, 1958).
Since the b-elimination reaction is highly dependent on
the methyl ester content of the pectin in plant tissues
(Sajjaanantakul, Van Buren, & Downing, 1989; Waldron,
Smith, Parr, Ng, & Parker, 1997), targeted manipulation of
the degree of methylesterification of pectin can lead to
controlled b-elimination. This can be achieved in vivo
through genetic engineering or by in situ activation of endogenous or exogenous PME using pretreatment conditions (cfr.
later). The beneficial effect of the latter has been shown for
thermally processed carrots (Vu et al., 2004). Brine ingredients affect the b-elimination reaction in different ways and
311
Fig. 2. Light micrographs of onion outer scale leaves: (A) fresh, (B) pressure cooked (20 min) and (C) pressure cooked (50 min).
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D.N. Sila et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 309e319
D.N. Sila et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 309e319
demethoxylation of pectin by tomato PME increases significantly (5e7 fold): the optimal conditions at pH 8.0 are
55 # C in combination with 300 MPa and at pH 4.4
60 # C in combination with 400 MPa. Optimal conditions
for carrot PME are reported to be 500 MPa and 50 # C (pH
6.5). In case of recombinant A. aculeatus PME, the optimal
conditions are about 50e55 # C depending on the applied
pressure (200e300 MPa). A likely explanation for the
stimulating effect of pressure on PME activity is based
on the assumption that any phenomenon accompanied by
a decrease in volume at constant temperature is favored
by an increase in pressure. Solvation of the charged groups
created by pectin demethoxylation is accompanied by volume reduction resulting from electrostriction, i.e. the compact alignment of water dipoles owing to the coulombic
field of the charged groups. It is important to note that at
low pH, i.e. pH 4.4 and 4.5 chemical demethoxylation of
pectin is not detected. In contrast, a spontaneous chemical
demethoxylation of pectin, which is accelerated by pressureetemperature treatment, is noticed at pH 8.
Polygalacturonase activity at elevated
pressureetemperature conditions
PG activity at elevated pressureetemperature conditions has only been studied for purified tomato PG
at pH 4.4 (Verlent, Van Loey, Smout, Duvetter, &
Hendrickx, 2004). At atmospheric conditions, purified tomato PG shows optimal catalytic activity at 55e60 # C.
When comparing atmospheric pressure conditions with elevated ones, the optimum temperature at elevated pressure
for PG catalyzed hydrolysis of polygalacturonic acid
shifts to lower values at pH 4.4 probably due to inactivation. Tomato PG does not show any activity at 500 MPa
between 25 and 75 # C.
Effect of processing on texture of plant based foods
Kinetics of texture degradation in plant based foods
Kinetics of texture degradation during thermal
processing has been investigated for several plant based
foods (e.g. artichoke, apple, apricot, asparagus, and carrots)
(Rao & Lund, 1986). The texture degradation models have
continuously been evolving: a first-order degradation mechanism (e.g. Huang & Bourne, 1983), a biphasic degradation
mechanism (e.g. Van Loey, Fransis, Hendrickx, Maesmans,
& Tobback, 1995), a fractional conversion model (e.g.
Rizvi & Tong, 1997), neural network and fuzzy logic
modeling (Xie, Xiong, & Church, 1998), etc. More
recently, in situ micromechanical techniques have been
used (Vanstreels et al., 2005).
Progress in modes of improving the texture
of processed plant based foods
The demand for fresh like processed plant based foods
has prompted progressive research in ways of improving
the texture of thermally processed products. Various approaches have been employed including low temperature
blanching (<70 # C) prior to sterilization (e.g. Roy, Taylor,
313
& Kramer, 2001), calcium infusion before thermal processing (e.g. Gras, Vidal, Betoret, Chiralt, & Fito, 2003; Siliha,
Janh, & Gierschner, 1996), pH adjustment during processing (Van Buren & Pitifier, 1992) and exogenous pectinmethylesterase infusion prior to thermal processing (e.g.
Duvetter et al., 2005). All these pre-processing methods
have a common goal namely reducing texture degradation,
but each of them contributes uniquely to the textural value
of the end product.
Preheating
Preheating at mild temperatures (50e70 # C) typically
for %30 min prior to high temperature processing
(%100 # C) has been used to improve the texture of
thermally processed plant based foods. At these conditions, thermal stimulation of cell wall bound pectinmethylesterase demethoxylates pectic polysaccharides increasing
the chances for formation of ionically cross-linked pectin
complexes and reducing the b-elimination reaction. This
reduces the vulnerability of the product to softening. Preheating also increases the permeability of the plasma
membrane triggering a cation influx which boosts PME
activity (Van Buren, 1973). The availability of divalent
ions (exogenous or endogenous) is important (Ng & Waldron, 1997), hence the frequent combination of preheating
with calcium impregnation (calcium soaking and vacuum
infusion).
Phenolics
Other possible firming mechanisms relate to peroxidase
activity. A small percentage of the sugars in the wall carry
ferulic acid and the associated phenolic groups, which may
be cross-linked by the action of peroxidase and hydrogen
peroxide. These cross-linked structures form intercellular
bridges like diferulate and o,o0 -dityrosine, thus connecting
polymers together in a tight network (Brett & Waldron,
1996).
In bamboo shoots, sugar beets and Chinese waterchestnuts, thermal texture stability is linked to diferulic acid
(Parker & Waldron, 1995; Waldron et al., 1997). In the
case of Chinese waterchestnut, ferulic acid-substituents
on thermally-stable arabinoxylan hemicelluloses are involved in cell adhesion, and are particularly concentrated
at the edge of the cell faces where adhesion is controlled
(Waldron & Brett, 2007). Thermal processing of Chinese
waterchestnuts causes starch gelatinization, and the rounding up of cells, but adhesion and texture is maintained.
Only by modifying the diferulate-cross-linked arabinoxylans by chemical or enzymatic means can the cells be separated. Interestingly, the work of Parker, Parker, Smith, and
Waldron (2003) has indicated that such adhesion is dependent on a particular diferulate (8,80 -diferulic acid, aryltetralyn form). In sugarbeet, thermal stability is also influenced
by diferulic acid, but here it cross-links pectic polysaccharides. The peroxidative cross-linking of pectic polysaccharides was highlighted originally by Thibault (1986). Ng,
D.N. Sila et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 309e319
Harvey, Parker, Smith, and Waldron (1998) showed that although sugarbeet could be softened by thermal processing
(through cell separation), this could be reduced by incubating tissues in hydrogen peroxide. This stimulated
endogenous peroxidase enzymes to cross-link pectic ferulic
acid, increasing the cross-links (particularly 8-O-40 diferulic acid and 8,50 -diferulic acid (benzofuran form))
within the pectin network and enhancing cell adhesion.
Washing, dipping or infusion treatments
In view of texture stability of plant based foods, firming
agents such as calcium salts, gelling hydrocolloids, PME
have been applied (Saurel, 2002).
Calcium. To counter the deleterious textural effects in
thermally processed plant tissues, calcium treatments
have been used successfully for firming of many fruits
and vegetables, e.g. cauliflower (Hoogzand & Doesburg,
1961), Jalapeno pepper (Howard, Burma, & Wagner,
1994), and carrots (Vu et al., 2004), due to its ability
to bind with demethoxylated polyuronides (Grant, Morris,
Rees, Smith, & Thom, 1973). The formation of crosslinks between free carboxyl groups of a pectin chain
and calcium ions has led to the widespread use
of calcium infiltration techniques. However, a high
concentration of calcium confers undesirable taste to the
product and promotes the b-elimination reaction (Grant
et al., 1973). The effectiveness of calcium as a firming
agent is amplified by increasing PME activity. This is
demonstrated by the extra benefits attained when combining calcium pretreatment conditions with mild heating
(Smout, Sila, Vu, Van Loey, & Hendrickx, 2005; Vu
et al., 2004). Industrially, empirical procedures are employed during the application of calcium due to lack of
precise knowledge on the mechanisms conferring tissue
stability while the functionally relevant pectic polymers
remain unknown.
Polyamines. The preservation of whole fruits by dipping
them in aqueous solutions like plant hormones (polyamines), which is improved by vacuum application,
is not new (Valero, Martinez-Romero, Serrano, &
Riquelme, 1998). For minimally processed plant based
foods, e.g. strawberries, polyamines have been used to
enhance the firmness of the fruit, but they are less effective than calcium treatments (Ponappa, Scheerens, &
Miller, 1993).
Pectinmethylesterase. Exploitation of endogenous PME
activity is renowned in plant based foods unlike exogenous
PME infusion which has been limited to beverages and
ground/macerated foods. With the invention of vacuumimpregnation technology, PME can be incorporated into
porous solid food matrices containing occluded air such
as strawberries (Duvetter et al., 2005; Guillemin, Degraeve,
Guillon, Lahaye, & Saurel, 2006). However, the technique
1200
b b
1000
Hardness (g)
314
600
d d
d d
800
d d
a a
400
c c
200
0
0,1
cc
cc
5
c c
10
15
c c
20
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D.N. Sila et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 309e319
60
115 C
120 C
125 C
50
40
30
20
10
tro
l
co
n
C
90
Ca
C
60
60
+
Ca
Ca
P
H
+
C
60
Ca
Ca
0
H
solute gain is significant, especially as mass transfer phenomena are generally limited by the high viscosity of gelling agent solutions.
Among the well-known applications, the vacuum treatment of button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) with xanthan
gum before blanching and canning has been shown to improve the weight yield and the organoleptic quality of the
final product (Gormley & Walshe, 1986). Preliminary vacuum impregnation of strawberries in solutions containing
gelling agents was proposed by Cierco (1994) as a new
method for improving the quality of frozen fruits. Matringe,
Chatellier, and Saurel (1999) showed the possibility of
introducing various gelling hydrocolloids (gelatin, pectin,
alginate and starch) through the application of vacuum on
fresh apple pieces before freezing.
Pretreatment conditions
Fig. 4. Effect of pretreatment on the texture of carrot discs after thermal
processing at different temperatures for equivalent processes
(Fo 6 min): HP Ca, high-pressure pretreatment (400 MPa,
60 # C for 15 min) followed by calcium soaking, Ca HP, calcium
soaking prior to high-pressure pretreatment (400 MPa, 60 # C for
15.0 min), 60 # C, preheating at 60 # C for 40 min (low temperature
blanching), 60 # C Ca, low temperature blanching followed by
calcium soaking, Ca 60 # C, calcium soaking prior to low temperature blanching, Ca, calcium soaking only, 90 # C, conventional
high temperature blanching (preheating at 90 # C for 4 min), and
control, non-pretreated samples (Sila et al., 2005).
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D.N. Sila et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 19 (2008) 309e319
Fig. 5. Micro-structural images indicating changes in cell wall area to cell vacuole for (a) non-pretreated, non-cooked carrots, (b) non-pretreated
cooked carrots (100.0 # C, 120.0 min), (c) high pressure pretreated, non-cooked carrots and (d) high pressure pretreated cooked carrots
(100.0 # C, 120.0 min). Each micrograph represents four fused snapshots taken at a magnification (&40) (Sila, Yue, et al., 2007).
significantly by expressing a rhamnogalacturonan I degrading lyase which reduces the levels of arabinan and galactan
in the tubers altering the biophysical properties (Ulvskov
et al., 2004). In tomatoes, introduction of an anti-sense
gene for PME is known to have created high solid fruits
with minimal PME activity (Tieman, Harriman, Ramamohan, & Handa, 1992). The decreased PME activity was associated with a 30e70% decrease in bound Ca2 and Mg2
in transgenic pericarp (Tieman & Handa, 1994). Pectin solubility in transgenic plant cell walls can be controlled by
modulating pectinmethylesterase/endo-polygalacturonase
digestion (Tucker, 2004). A significant control in texture
may be realized by using a combination of enzyme knockouts as opposed to a single enzyme activity, especially if
these are targeted to different domains within the wall.
Conclusion
Knowledge on the effect of processing on the texture of
plant based foods and the related correlations with pectin
conversions is still inadequate. Whether the future for
texture improvement of processed fruits and vegetables
will depend on chemical and/or enzymatic approaches or
the in planta genetic modification approach is not clear.
Also a combination of approaches (e.g. combining the
infusion of PME with the impregnation of gelling and/or
firming agents) may be adopted in the future to improve
the mechanical properties of plant based foods. Although
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