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BASICREQUIREMENTS
CHAPTER1
BASICREQUIREMENTS
Aircraftpowerplantsmustmeetexactingrequirementsfordependabilityandendurance.Many
difficultengineeringproblemshavebeenovercomeinanefforttosatisfytheserequirementswith
furtheradvancesbeingmadeeachday.Requirementsimposedonaircraftpowerplantsinaneffortto
obtainenginessuitableforaircraftinclude
Reliability.
Durability.
Compactness.
Lowweightperhorsepower.
Highspecificpoweroutput.
Reasonablecost.
Highthermalefficiency.
Freedomfromvibration.
Easeofmaintenance.
Operatingflexibility.
DEFINITIONOFTERMS
Reliability
Reliabilityisthemostimportantfundamentalpowerplantrequirement.Intheaireachworkingpart,
nomatterhowsmallisimportant.Onlybycarefulattentiontothesmallestdetailcanaircraftpower
plantmanufacturersandmechanicsassurepowerplantreliability.
Durability
Durabilityisthemeasureofreliableenginelife.Thedurabilityrealizedbyanenginedependslargely
onthetypeorconditionofoperation.Intelligentapplicationofoperationandmaintenanceprocedures
resultsingreatlyimprovedpowerplantdurability.
Compactness
Compactnessisessentialtopowerplantdesigninordertolowerparasiticdragandtoattainhigher
speeds.
Theoverallformanenginetakesisdeterminedtoahighdegreebythecompactnessrequired.The
degreeofcompactnessthatmaybeachievedislimitedbythephysicalrequirementsoftheengine.For
example,compactnessislimitedonradialaircooledenginesduettothefrontalarearequiredfor
sufficientcoolingofenginecylinders.
LowWeightperHorsepower
Minimumweightperhorsepower(HP)isaprimaryrequirementinaeronautics.Theweightofa
powerplantmustbekeptaslowaspossible.Thisallowstheaircrafttocarryalargeusefulloadwitha
satisfactorymarginofsafetyinproportiontogrossweight.Thelargermodernaircraftreciprocating
engineshaveattainedahorsepowertoweightratioof1horsepowerto1poundweight.Gasturbine
enginescurrentlyusedbytheArmyhaveagreaterhorsepowertoweightratio.Agoodexampleisthe
http://www.waybuilder.net/sweethaven/MechTech/Aviation/ch01.htm
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T55L712,whichdevelops4500shafthorsepower(SHP)andweighs750pounds(dry)(6.0HPper
pound).
HighSpecificPowerOutput
Poweroutputisbasedonenginesize,RPM,andweightforthefuelairmixture.SizeandRPMare
limitedinthereciprocatingengine.Therefore,anincreaseintheeffectiveworkingpressureinthe
cylindersisoneofthemostvaluablewaystoincreasethespecificpoweroutput.Greaterpressure
increasesarepossiblebysuperchargingtheengine(comprisingthemixturebeforeitentersthe
cylinders).Thelimitingfactorsinincreasingcylinderpressureareresistanceofthefueltodetonation
andthemaximumallowablecylinderpressure.
ReasonableCost
Despiteperfectionofdesignandqualityofworkmanship,nopowerplantwillbedesirableifitistoo
costlyinacompetitivemarket.Aprimaryfactordeterminingtheusefulnessofanengineisitscost.
Becauseoftherawmaterialsandthegreatnumberofmanhoursinvolved,complexdesignsdriveup
thecost.Themostsatisfactorydesignisgenerallythesimplestthatwillmeetrequirements.
HighThermalEfficiency
Thermalefficiencyisameasureofthelossessufferedinconvertingheatenergyinthefuelinto
mechanicalworkitistheratiooftheheatdevelopedintousefulworktotheheatingvalueofthefuel.
Highthermalefficiency,therefore,meanshighfueleconomysomethingofgreatimportancein
aircraftengines.Thelessfuelrequiredforamilitarymission,thegreaterthemilitaryloadthatcanbe
carriedandthelowerthefuelcost.
FreedomFromVibration
Apowerplantthatisfreefromvibrationisimportantinthelight,somewhatflexibleaircraftstructure
sincesevereenginevibrationwillinsomecasesreducethelifeofcertainstructuralparts.Theneedfor
freedomfromvibrationismetusuallybyusingalargenumberofcylinderstooffsetthevibration
torquedeliveredbytheindividualcylinders.Counterweightsareinstalledoncrankshaftstobalance
rotatingmasses.Theseareusuallyhingedtoprovidedynamicdampingofvibrationwhichresults
frompowerimpulsesandtocounteractundesirabletorsionalortwistingvibration.Also,flexible
enginemountisolatorsareusedtopermitcertainmovementsofthepowerplantthatareharmfulto
aircraftstructures.
EaseofMaintenance
Therequirementofeaseofmaintenanceisespeciallyimportanttomilitaryoperationsinthefield.
Simplicityofdesignanduseofstandardparts,whenpossible,assistinkeepingmaintenanceatalow
level.
OperatingFlexibility
Flexibilityistheabilityofapowerplanttorunsmoothlyandprovidethedesiredperformanceatall
speedsfromidlingtomaximumpoweroutput.Thewiderangeofoperatingrequirementsdemanded
ofaircraftenginespresentsdifficultiesrarelyencounteredinotherpowerplantfields.Inadditionto
therequirementofunfailingreliability,theenginemustoperateinwidelyvaryingpositions,altitudes,
andatmosphericconditions.
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FUELS
Requirements
Anenginefuelmustbetailoredtoanengineandviceversasincetheremustbeenoughquantitiesof
fuelavailabletotheengine.Somesignificantpropertiesofaviationfuelsarediscussedbelow.
HeatEnergyContentorNetHeatingValue.Theenergycontentorheatingvalueofafuelisexpressed
inheatunits(Britishthermalunits[BTUs]).Afuelsatisfactoryforaircraftenginesmusthaveahigh
heatenergycontentperunitweight.Ahighheatenergycontentcausestheweightoffuelcarriedtobe
lowerthanalowheatenergycontent.Thenmoreoftheloadcarryingcapacityisavailableforthe
payloadAviationgasolineandJPfuelsareverydesirablefromthisstandpoint.Theheatenergy
contentforaviationgasolineisabout18,700BTUs/pound,andforJPfuelsabout18,200
BTUs/pound.Thevariousalcohols,whichhavemaximumenergycontentofabout12,000
BTUs/pound,dopossesssomeotherdesirablecharacteristicsasaninternalcombustionenginefuel.
Volatility.Avolatileliquidisonecapableofreadilychangingfromaliquidtoavaporwhenheatedor
whencontactingagasintowhichitcanevaporate.Sinceliquidfuelsmustbeinavaporousstateto
burnvolatilityisanimportantpropertytoconsiderwhenchoosingasuitablefuelforanaircraft
engine.Volatilitydeterminesthestartingacceleratingvaporlockinganddistributioncharacteristicsof
thefuel.GasolineandJPfuelsareverysatisfactorybecausetheycanbeblendedduringtherefining
processtogivethedesiredcharacteristics.Becauseofthenatureofconstantpressurecombustionin
gasturbineenginesahighlyvolatilefuelisnotnecessary.JPfuelsareofratherlowvolatilitywhile
aviationgasolineishighlyvolatile.Comparingahighlyvolatilefuellikeaviationgasolinetoaless
volatileonelikeJPfuelthefollowingeffectsbecomeapparent.Thehighlyvolatilefuel
Startseasierincoldtemperatures.
Hasaslightlybettercombustionefficiency.
Leaveslessdepositinthecombustionchamberandontheturbineblades.
Isagreaterfirehazard.
Createsagreaterdangerofvaporlockofthefuelsystem.
Hashighevaporationlossesthroughthebreatherofthefueltankathighaltitudes.
NOTE:Thelasttwodifficultiesarepracticallynonexistentwithfuelshavinglowvolatility.
Stability.Thefuelsusedinaircraftenginesmustbestable.Becauseaviationfuelsaresometimes
storedforlongperiods,theymustnotdepositsediment.Thegumsthatarenormallyformedare
insolubleingasolineandJPfuelsandmaycauserestrictionsinfuelstrainersandliners.Aviationfuel
mustalsoretainitsoriginalpropertiesduringstorage.
Purity.Aviationfuelmustbefreefromwater,dirt,andsulfur.Smallamountsofwaterwillnot
usuallycauseanydifficultybecausewatercanberemovedfromthefuelsystembydraining.Large
amountsofthisimpurity,however,cancausecompleteenginefailure.Itisveryimportantthat
corrosivesulfurbeeliminatedfromfuel.Thesulfurcontentoffuelmayformcorrosiveacidswhen
broughtincontactwiththewatervaporformedinthecombustionprocess.
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FlashPoint.Theflashpointisthelowesttemperatureatwhichfuelwillvaporizeenoughtoforma
combustiblemixtureoffuelvaporandairabovethefuel.Itisfoundbyheatingaquantityoffuelina
specialcontainerwhilepassingaflameabovetheliquidtoignitethevapor.Adistincthashofflame
occurswhentheflashpointtemperaturehasbeenreached.
FirePoint.Thefirepointisthetemperaturewhichmustbereachedbeforeenoughvaporswillriseto
produceacontinuousflameabovetheliquidfuel.Itisobtainedinmuchthesamemannerastheflash
point.
ReidVaporPressure.Reidvaporpressureistheapproximatevaporpressureexertedbyafuelwhen
heatedto100%.Thisisimportantbecauseitisusedtodeterminewhenafuelwillcreateavaporlock.
SpecificGravity.Specificgravityistheratioofthedensity(weight)ofasubstance(fuel)comparedto
thatofanequalamountofwaterat60oF.SpecificgravityisexpressedintermsofdegreesAPI.Pure
waterhasaspecificgravityof10.Liquidsheavierthanwaterhaveanumberlessthan10.Liquids
lighterthanwaterhaveanumbergreaterthan10.AnexampleisJP4,whosespecificgravityin
degreesAPIis57.TheAmericanPetroleumInstitute(API)haschosenpurewaterbywhichto
measurethespecificgravityoffuels.
NOTE:Bothflashandfirepointsgivearelativemeasureofthesafetypropertiesof
fuelahighflashpointdenotesthatahightemperaturemustbereachedbefore
dangeroushandlingconditionsareencountered.Theminimumflashpoint
permittedinafuelisusuallywrittenintothespecifications.
Grades
Turbinefuelsarehighqualityfuelscoveringthegeneralheavygasolineandkerosenebodingrange.
Theydonotcontaindyesortetraethyllead.
Oneofthemajordifferencesbetweenthewideboilingandkerosenetypesisthefuelvolatility.JP4
fuelshaveawiderbodingrangewithaninitialboilingpointconsiderablybelowthatofkerosene.Asa
groupthesefuelshavelowerspecificgravitiesthankerosenetypes.WideboilrangefuelshaveReid
vaporpressuresof2to3poundsandflashpointsbelowroomtemperature.Kerosenetypefuelshave
Reidvaporpressuresoflessthan0.5poundandflashpointshigherthanl00oF(38oC).Wideboiling
rangefuelsgenerallyhavelowerfreezingpointsthankerosenefuels.
ThefuelauthorizedforArmyaircraftgasturbineenginesisJP4.Theletters"JP"standforjet
propulsionthenumber4indicatesfuelgrade.
MilitaryspecificationMILT5624coversJP4,JP5,andJP8fuels.JetA,JetAl,andJetBare
commercialfuelswhichconformtotheAmericanSocietyforTintingMaterialsspecificationASTM
D1655.
JetBisaJP4typefuelitsfreezingpointis56F(49oC)insteadof72oF(58oC)forJP4.
JP5,Jet4andJetA1arekerosenetypefuels.ASTMJetAandA1differprimarilyintheirfuel
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freezingpoints.JetAisconsideredsuitabledowntofueltemperaturesof36oF(38oC)JetA1,to
54oF(48oC).
JP4isafuelconsistingofapproximately65percentgasolineand35percentlightpetroleum
distillate,withrigidlyspecifiedproperties.JP4iscurrentlytheArmystandardfuelforturbine
engines.
JP5isaspeciallyrefinedkerosenehavingaminimumflashpointof140oFandafreezingpointof
51oF(46C).
JP8isaspeciallyrefinedkerosenewithaminimumflashpointof110oFandafreezingpointof54
F(48C).ThisfuelisbeingclassifiedasatotalreplacementfuelforallofNATO.Itwillreplaceall
fuelscurrentlyusedinmilitaryequipmentfromgeneratorstotankstoaircraftandeventotrucks.This
classificationwilleaselogisticsincombat.Havingonlyonefuelforallequipmentprevents
accidentallymixingorusingthewrongfuels.TodatetestingofJP8isproceedingwellwiththetotal
singlefuelconceptonitswaytofullfielding.
JPfuelsvaryfromwaterwhitetolightyellowcolorcoding,however,doesnotapplytothesefuels.
AdditivesinJPfuelsincludeoxidationandcorrosioninhibitors,metaldeactivators,andicing
inhibitors.Icinginhibitorsalsofunctionasbiocidestokillmicrobesinaircraftfuelsystems.
ShouldmixingofJPfuelsbecomenecessary,thereisnoneedtodraintheaircraftfuelsystembefore
addingthenewfuel.Duetothedifferentspecificgravitiesofthesefuels,mixingthemwillaffectthe
turbineengine'sperformance.Besuretoconsultappropriatetechnicalmanualsforadditional
informationandprocedures.
Whenchangingtoafuelwithadifferentspecificgravity,externallyadjustedfuelcontrolsandfuel
flowdividersonsomeenginesmayrequireretrimmingorreadjustmentforoptimumperformance.
COMBUSTION
Mixingfuelwithairandburningitwouldseemtobeaverysimpleprocess,butthisapparent
simplicityisdeceptive.Problemsencounteredarewithdistributionknock,ignitiontiming,andso
forth.Inaninternalcombustionengine,thecombustionprocessistheratherrapidreactionbetween
fuelandoxygen.Thisprocessliberatesthepotentialenergycontainedinthefuelsuppliedtothe
engine.Inagasturbineengineatmosphericairistakeninandcompressedfuelisthenburnedinthe
compressedair,whichthenexpandsthroughaturbinethatdrivesacompressor.
Thecombustionproblemwouldnotbesogreatifweightandspacewerenotsoimportantinaircraft
gasturbineengines.Withoutsuchlimitationtheairsupplyforthecompressorscouldbedivided.A
portionsuitabletothedesiredpoweroutputcouldbeburnedatapproximatelythechemicallycorrect
fuelairratioinalowvelocitycombustionchamber.Designofthecombustionchamberissuchthat
lessthanathirdofthetotalvolumeofairenteringthechamberispermittedtomixwiththefuel.The
excessairbypassesthefuelnozzlesandisusedtocoolthehotsurfacesandtomixwithandcoolthe
burnedgasesbeforetheyentertheturbines.
TemperatureLimitations
Gasturbineenginesproduceworkinproportiontotheamountofheatreleasedinternally.Mostofthis
heatisobtainedbyburningfuelalthoughsomeheatoriginateswhenairiscompressedinthe
compressor.Lowfuelairratioisrequiredtokeepthetemperatureofthegasesdeliveredtotheturbine
downtoavaluewhichtheturbinewheelcantolerate.Withpresentmaterialsofconstruction,the
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highlystressedbladesorbucketsoftheturbinewheelcannotstandatemperatureofmorethanabout
1500oF(815oC)therefore,thegasesatentrancetotheturbinevanescannotexceedabout1600oF
(898oC)formorethanbriefperiods.
FuelAirRatio
Thefuelairratioissolowingasturbineenginesthatiffuelandairwereuniformlymixed,the
mixturewouldnotignite.Completecombustionofbothfuelandairisobtainedwithisooctaneata
fuelairratioof0.066.Thisisthetheoreticalvaluewhichwouldproducecompletecombustionif
givensufficienttimetoreachequilibrium.Inpractice,completecombustionofeitherfuelorair
requiresanexcessofoneortheother.Thus,ifalloftheairistobeburnedexcessfuelmustbepresent
andafuelairratioofabout0.080isrequired.Controlofpoweroutputislargelydeterminedbymeans
offuelairratio.Increasingfuelairratioincreasesthequantityofairandthetemperatureatwhichitis
dischargedattheexhaustjetpipe.
RichMixtureBlowout
Combustionefficiencyinawelldesignedcombustionchamberusingthemostfavorablefuelmaybe
ashighas98percentatsealevel.Ontheotherhand,itmayfalltoaslowas40percentatextremely
highaltitudeswithabadlydesignedcombustionchamberandunsuitablefuelAscombustion
efficiencyisreduced,apointisreachedwhentheturbinedoesnotdevelopenoughpowertodrivethe
compressor.Increasingthefuelsupplyinordertomaintainorincreaseenginespeedmaynotresultin
increasedengineRPM,andtheunburnedfuelmayextinguishtheflame.Thisisknownasrich
mixtureblowout.
LeanMixtureDieOut
Incontrasttorichmixtureblowout,leanmixturedieoutoccurswhenthemixtureistooleantobum
underconditionsofefficientcombustion.Whencombustionefficiencyisverylow,themixturemay
beignitedfromanexternalsource(suchasanigniterplug).Itwilltheneitherbeextinguishedwhen
thesparkceasesormaybumsoslowlythattheflameiscarriedoutthroughtheturbine.Leanmixture
dieoutcanalsooccurwhenthefuelsupplyisreducedinordertodecreaseenginespeed.
Richmixtureblowoutandleanmixturedieouthavebeenvirtuallyeliminatedthroughtherefinement
offueldeliverysystems.
LUBRICATION
Lubricationisaveryimportantpartofpowerplantoperation.Anengineallowedtooperatewithout
lubricationscertaintofail.Lubricationnotonlycombatsfrictionbutalsoactsasacoolingagent.
WARNING
Nevermixreciprocatingengineoilsandgasturbineengineoilsthey
arenotcompatible.Mixingthemcausesenginefailure.
Theprimarypurposeofalubricantistoreducefrictionbetweenmovingparts.Becauseliquid
lubricants(oils)canbecirculatedreadily,theyareuseduniversallyinaircraftengines.Intheory,fluid
lubricationisbasedonactualseparationofthesurfacessothatnometaltometalcontactoccurs.As
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longastheoilfilmremainsunbroken,metallicfictionisreplacedbytheinternalfluidfrictionofthe
lubricant.Underidealconditionsfrictionandwearareheldtoaminimum.Inadditiontoreducing
friction,theoilfilmactsasacushionbetweenmetalparts.Thiscushioningeffectisparticularly
importantforsuchpartsasreciprocatingenginecrankshaftandconnectingrods,whicharesubjectto
shockloading.Asoilcirculatesthroughtheengine,itabsorbsheatfromtheparts.Pistonsand
cylinderwallsinreciprocatingenginesespeciallydependonoilforcooling.Oilalsoaidsinforminga
sealbetweenthepistonandcylinderwalltopreventgasleaksfromthecombustionchamber.Oilsalso
reduceabrasivewearbypickingupforeignparticlesandcarryingthemtoafiltertoberemoved.
FrictionReduction
Lubricatingoildecreasesfrictionbypreventingmetaltometalcontactatbearingpointsthroughout
theengine.Separatingmatingsurfacesofmovingpartsbyathinfilmofoilchangesdryorsolid
frictiontofluidfriction.Theresultislessheatgeneratedinthemovingpartsanddecreasedwearon
theparts.
CushioningEffect
Lubricatingoilcushionsbearingsurfacesbyabsorbingtheshockbetweenthem.
Cooling
Ithasbeennotedthatreducingfrictionresultsinlessheatbeinggenerated.Also,asoiliscirculated
throughbearingsandsplashedonvariousengineparts,itabsorbsagreatamountofheat.Lubrication
isparticularlyimportantinreciprocatingenginestocoolthepistonandcylinder.Anefficient
lubricationsystemwillabsorbasmuchas10percentofthetotalheatcontentoffuelconsumedbythe
engine.Bycarryingawaythisheat,theoilflowreducesoperatingtemperaturesofinternalpartsnot
directlycooledbytheenginecoolingsystem.
SealingAction
Oilhelpssealmatingsurfacesintheengine,andthefilmofoilonvarioussurfacesisaneffective
pressureseal.Inreciprocatingenginestheoilfilmbetweenthecylinderwallandpistonandpiston
ringsisimportantinretainingthehighgaspressureinthecylinder.
CleaningEffect
Oilcleanstheenginebypickingupcarbonandotherforeignparticlesasitpassesthroughandaround
engineparts.Itcarriestheseparticlesthroughthesystemtoastrainerwheretheyarefilteredfromthe
oil.
LUBRICATINGOILREQUIREMENTS
Theconditionswhichtheengineoperatesunderdeterminetherequirementsforlubricatingoil.
Conditionsliketemperature,contactpressure,andtypeandrateofmotionvarysomuchthatone
lubricantcannotprovideideallubricationforallcomponents.Usingalubricatingoilwithallthe
desirablepropertiesindegreeswillprovidesatisfactoryresults.TB55915020024specifiesengine
oilsforuseinArmyaircraft.Somedesirablelubricatingoilqualitiesare
Viscosity.
Antifrictionability.
Coolingability.
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Chemicalstability.
Viscosity
Thedegreeofresistanceofanoilflowataspecifiedtemperatureindicatesitsviscosity.Anoilthat
flowsslowlyisdescribedasaviscousoiloranoilofhighviscosity.Anoilthatflowsreadilyissaidto
possessalowviscosity.Theviscosityofalloilsisaffectedbytemperature.Asthetemperature
increases,oilbecomesthinner.Therateatwhichanoilresistsviscositychangesthroughagiven
temperaturerangeiscalleditsviscosityindexTheviscosityofaircraftengineoilisfairlyhigh
becauseofhighoperatingtemperatureshighbearingpressures,andrelativelylargeclearancesinside
anaircraftengine.Sinceaircraftenginesarealsosubjectedtoawiderangeoftemperatures,anoil
withahighviscosityindexisrequired.
Antifriction
Thetheoryoffluidlubricationisbasedontheactualseparationofmetallicsurfacesbyanoilfilm.
Lubricantsshouldhavehighantifrictioncharacteristicstoreducefrictionalresistanceofthemoving
partsandhighantiwearpropertiestoresistthewearingactionthatoccursduringengineoperation.
CoolingAbility
Lubricatingoilshouldhavemaximumcoolingabilityinordertoabsorbasmuchheataspossiblefrom
alllubricatedsurfaces.
ChemicalStability
Theextremeoperatingconditionsandhighdollarvalueofaircraftenginesmakeitnecessarytouse
lubricatingoiloftheverybestquality.Thefollowingchemicaltransformationscanoccurina
lubricatingoilandmakeitunfitforservice.
Acidity.Acidityinoilsisdangerouschieflywhenhightemperaturesandmoisturearepresentasisthe
caseinaircraftengines.Theresultsofahighacidcontentarecorrosionofmetalandtheformationof
sludges,emulsions,anddepositsintheoilsystem.
Oxidation.Alllubricatingoilstendtooxidizewhenincontactwithair.Thecompoundsformedby
oxidationareundesirableandharmfulsincetheyaregenerallyofagummyoracidcharacter.
Sulfur.Sulfurmayoccurinlubricatingoilasfreesulfurorassulfonates.Freesulfurmaybepresent
throughcarelessorimproperrefiningorbyactualaddition.Freesulfuriscorrosiveinnatureand
impairsthestabilityoftheoil.Thepresenceofsulfonatesindicatesovertreatmentwithsulfuricacidor
inadequatewashingoftheoiltofreeitofchemicalsduringtherefiningprocess.Sulfonatesarestrong
emulsifyingagentsthattendtopromotesludgeformationintheoilsystem.Lubricatingoils
containinghighpercentagesofsulfuroxidizemoreeasilythanthosewithlowsulfurcontent.
CarbonResidue.Petroleumlubricatingoilsarecomplexmixturesofhydrocarbonsthatvarywidelyin
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theirphysicalandchemicalproperties.Owingtothesedifferencesomeoilsmayvaporizeunder
atmosphericconditionswithoutleavinganyappreciableresidues.Otheroilsleaveanonvolatile
carbonresidueuponvaporization.Thiscarbonresidueistheresultofapartialbreakdownoftheoilby
heat,whichiscausedbydestructivedistillationoftheoilwithoutairenteringintothereaction.Many
partsintheengineoperateatatemperaturehighenoughtocausethisreactionandtoformcarbon
deposits.Thesedepositsareundesirableastheymayrestrictpassages.Inreciprocatingenginesthey
maycausestickingpistonringsandstickingvalves.
Moisture.Corrosionofbearingmetalsisalmostalwaysduetomoistureintheoil.Althoughitis
possibleforcorrosiontooccurfromacidity,itisunlikelyunlessmoistureisalsopresent.Therefore,to
preventcorrosion,itisimportanttoeliminatemoisturefromtheoilasmuchaspossible.Thisis
especiallytrueathightemperaturesbecausetheyincreasetherateofcorrosion.
Becauseoftheaccumulationoftheseharmfulsubstancescommonpracticeistodraintheentire
lubricationsystematregularintervalsandrefillitwithnewoil.Thetimebetweenoilchangesvaries
witheachmakeandmodelaircraftandenginecombination.
WARNING
Whenhandlingoilusedingasturbineengines,donotallowoilto
remainonskinanylongerthannecessary.Itcontainsatoxic
additivethatisreadilyabsorbedthroughskin.
GASTURBINEENGINELUBRICANTS
Therearemanyrequirementsforturbineenginelubricatingoilsbutbecauseofthesmallnumberof
movingpartsandthecompleteabsenceofreciprocatingmotion,lubricationproblemsareless
complexintheturbineengine.This,togetherwiththeuseofballandrollerbearings,requiresaless
viscouslubricant.Theturbopropengine,whileusingessentiallythesametypeofoilastheturbojet,
mustuseahigherviscosityoilbecauseofthehigherbearingpressuresintroducedbythehighly
loadedpropellerreductiongearing.
Gasturbineengineoilmusthavehighviscosityforgoodloadcarryingabilitybutmustalsohave
viscositylowenoughtoprovidegoodflowability.Itmustalsobeoflowvolatilitytopreventlossby
evaporationatthehighaltitudesatwhichtheengineoperates.Inaddition,theoilshouldnotfoamand
shouldbeessentiallynondestructivetonaturalorsyntheticrubbersealsinthelubricatingsystem.
Also,withhighspeedantifrictionbearings,theformationofcarbonsorvarnishesmustbeheldtoa
minimum.
Themanyrequirementsforlubricatingoilsaremetinthesyntheticoilsdevelopedspecificallyfor
turbineengines.Syntheticoilhastwoprincipaladvantagesoverpetroleumoil:ittendstodepositless
lacquerandcokeandevaporateslessathightemperatures.Itsprincipaldisadvantageisthatittendsto
blisterorremovepaintwhereveritisspilled.Paintedsurfacesshouldbewipedcleanwithpetroleum
solventafterspills.
Oilchangeintervalsforturbineenginesvarywidelyfrommodeltomodel.Theydependonthe
severityofoiltemperatureconditionsimposedbythespecificairframeinstallationandengine
configuration.Followtheapplicablemanufacturer'sinstructions.
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Syntheticoilforturbineenginesisusuallysuppliedinsealedlquartorlgallonmetalcans.Although
thistypeofcontainerwaschosentominimizecontamination,itisoftennecessarytofiltertheoilto
removemetalslivers,cansealants,andsoforth,whichmayoccurwhenopeningthecan.
Someoilgradesusedinturbojetenginesmaycontainoxidationpreventives,loadcarryingadditives
andsubstancesthatlowerthepourpoint,inadditiontosyntheticchemicalbasematerials.
BEARINGS
InArmyaircraftbearingsarefoundthroughoutthepowertrainsystemfromtheenginetotherotoror
propeller.Thefailureofanyoneofthesebearingswouldplacetheentireaircraftinjeopardy.Itis
crucialthattheybeproperlyservicedandmaintained.Infact,bearingsareconsideredsoimportant
thatamajorairraidwasconductedatconsiderablesacrificeduringWorldWarIIinanattemptto
eliminateoneofGermany'sprincipalbearingmanufacturingcenters.IftheAlliescouldhave
destroyedGermany'scapacitytoproduceantifrictionbearings,itsentireaviationeffortwouldhave
cometoanimmediatestandstill.Today,oureconomycouldnotfunctionwithoutbearings.
Bearingshavethefollowingfunctions.They
Supporttheloadonashaft.Theloadmaybeawheel,pulley,orgear,oritmaybetheturning
shaftitself.
Reducefrictioncreatedbyturning.Thisisaccomplishedbothbydesignandbylubricationand
isoneofthemostimportantfunctionsofbearings.
Reducefrictioncreatedbythrust.Aspeciallydesignedbearingisrequiredforthispurpose.
Holdashaftinrigidalignment.Ahighspeedrotatingshafthasatendencyto"whip"unless
adequatelysupportedbybearings.
Provideaplaceforadjustment.
Bearingsareclassifiedintotwobroadcategories:
Frictionalsocommonlyknownasaplainorbabbitttypeitmakesaslidingcontactwiththe
shaft.
Antifrictioncontainsrollersorballsitmakesarollingcontactwiththeshaft.
Theterm"antifriction"haslongbeenusedtodifferentiaterollingandslidingbearings.Thewordis
graduallybeingdroppedindeferencetotheword"rolling"todescribeballandrollerbearings.The
term"rollingbearings"willbeusedinthismanualtodescribeallbearingsconsistingofballorroller
elementsthatrollbetweenconcentricinnerandouterrings.Theterm"plainorjournalbearings"will
beusedtodescribetwopiecebearingswherethetworotatingsurfacesareslidingwithrespecttoeach
other.
RollingBearings
Abriefreviewofhistoryrevealsthelonggradualdevelopmentofrollingbearing.Theywere
developedtoreducefriction,therebyincreasingworkoutputwhilereducingenergyinput.Rolling
typebearingschangedslidingfrictionintorollingmotionwithagreatlyreducedfrictionlevel.
AssyriansandBabyloniansasfarbackas1100BCusedroundlogsasrollerstomovehuge
monumentsandstones.Withtherollersplacedundertheload,itcouldmoreeasilybepulled.Asthe
rollerscameoutoftherearoftheload,theywerecarriedaroundtothefrontandplacedinthe
oncomingpathoftheload
Thewheelwasanextremelyimportantdevelopmenthowever,itwasbasedonslidingfriction.The
useoflubricantsdidreducefrictionandincreaseloadandlifeexpectancyofthewheel.Butitwasnot
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untiltheaxlerestedonballsorrollersthatslidingfrictionwasfinallychangedtorollingmotionand
thefictionlevelsignificantlyreduced.
Modernrollingbearinghadtheiroriginwiththegreatinventor,LeonardodaVinci,about1500AD.
Manyofhisdrawingsshowtheuseofballsandrollersandforeshadowsuchmodemtechnologyas
surfacefinish,racewaygrooves,andconicalpivots.
Rollingbearingsarealsoclassifiedintotwotypes:ballandroller.
BallBearings.Theballbearingisoneofthemostcommonusedinaircraft.Withrelativelyminor
variationsitcanbeadaptedtomanydifferentuses.Itcreatestheleastamountoffrictionofany
commonbearingbecausetheballitselfisthebestantifrictionrollingdeviceknown.Theball
maintainspointcontactwiththesurfaceitrollsonandreducesfrictiontoaminimum.Itis,therefore,
bestsuitedtohighspeedapplications.
RollerBearing.Therollerbearingmakesuseofacylindricalshapedrollerbetweenthefiction
surfaces.
Sinceitisacylinder,itwillmakelinecontactratherthanpointcontact.Itisthereforemoresuitedto
heavyloadsbecausetheweightisdistributedoveralargercontactarea.
ConstructionFeatures.RefertoFigure11.Therollingelementsinrollingbearingsareprovidedwith
bothaninnertrackandanoutertrackonwhichtoroll.Thesetracksareknownas"races."Theraces
formaprecision,hardened,andtruesurfacefortheballsorrollerstoridein.Theballsorrollersare
heldtogetherandspacedevenlyaroundthebearingbymeansofacageorseparator.Sealsareusedon
somebearingstokeepoutdirtandtokeepgreasein.
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BASICREQUIREMENTS
Dimensionalinterchangeabilitydoesnotnecessarilyindicatefunctionalinterchangeability.Therefore,
somebearingsmaybesuitedforthrustoraxialloadswhileothersarenot.Bearingdesign(sizeand
numberofballs,depthandtypeofgroove,widthandthicknessofraces,constructionofthe
separators)willdeterminetheloadandspeedforwhichthebearingcanbeused.Bearingsmadeto
takebothradialandthrustloadswillbeincreasedononesideoftheouterraceandwillusuallybe
stamped"thrust."
PlainBearings
Plainbearingsareclassifiedassplittypeorsolidtype.
SplitType.Thelowerendofanengineconnectingrodisagoodexampleofasplitbearing.Itmaybe
installedandusedonashaftinlocationsthatprecludeuseofotherbearingtypes.Anotherexampleof
splitbearingsisthemainbearingmountssupportingtheenginecrankshaft.
SolidType.Anengineconnectingrodalsofurnishesagoodexampleofasolidfrictionbearingthe
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BASICREQUIREMENTS
pistonpinbearingorbushing.Bearingsofthistypecanbeusedonlywhereitispossibletoslipthem
overtheendoftheshaftonwhichtheyrun.
ConstructionFeatures.RefertoFigure12.Abasicrequirementfortheplainbearingisthatitandthe
shaftbemadeofdissimilarmetals.Asteelbearingsurfacecouldneverbeusedwithasteelshaft.The
bearingmetalisalwayssofterthanthesteelshaft,yetitmustbehardenoughtoprovideadequateheat
transferandpossessgoodwearqualities.Themetalusedinbearingisknownasbabbitt.
Atypicalfrictionbearingcontainsbabbittmetalinsertsinthebearinghousing.Abearinginsert
consistsofasteelshellonwhichalayerofbabbitthasbeenappliedTheshellisactuallytwohalf
shellsthatwhenplacedinasplittypebearinghousingproduceaunitwhichisbothefficientand
easilymaintained.Bearinginsertscanbemassproducedtoveryclosetolerancesandrequirelittleor
nofittingduringassembly.Thebearingisrenewedbymerelytakingthehousingapart,replacingthe
inserts,andboltingitupagain.
Insertsonaviationenginesareoftenofthetrimetalvariety.Thesteelshellwillhavealayerofsilver
onitsinnersurfaceandalayerofbabbittontopofthesilver.Thisbearingisdurableandprovides
excellentheattransfer.Itistypicallyusedforcrankshaftandrodendbearing(Figure13).
Bearinginsertsmustalwaysbesecuredinthehousingtheymustneverturnwiththeshaft.Splittype
insertswillhaveatangoneachhalfwhichwillfitintoanotchinthehousing.Solidtypeinserts
(bushings)arepressedintothehousing.Eithermethodwillprecludethechanceofturninginthe
housing.Insertsthatmustabsorbthrustoraxialloadsaredesignedwithflangesalongthesidestotake
thissideload.Bearingswithoutthissideflangemustneverbesubjectedtothrustoraxialloads.
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BASICREQUIREMENTS
TeflonLinedBearings
AnewtypeofbearingfindingincreasinguseistheTeflonlinedbearing.Itoffershighreliabilityand
easymaintenance.Itisselflubricating,chemicallyinert,andshockresistantandithasalow
coefficientoffriction.Itisdesignedasasphericalorasajournalbearingandalsoasarodend
bearing.RefertoFigures14and15.
BearingLoads
Thetwotypesofbearingloadsare
Radial.Whenawheelturns,itproducescentrifugalforce.Whenthisforceis90ofromtheshaft,
itisknownasradialloading.
Axial/Thrust.Whentheforceorloadonabearingisinadirectionparalleltotheshaft,itis
knownasaxial/thrustloading.
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BASICREQUIREMENTS
NOTE:Thrustloadsarethesameasaxialloads.Whenevertheterm"thrustload"
isusedthroughoutthismanual,itwillalsorefertoaxialloads.
Manytimesabearingissubjecttoacombinationofbothradialandthrustleakforexample,the
enginecrankshaftmainbearings.Thethrowsonthecrankshaftproduceradialloadwhilethepullof
thepropellerproducesthrustload.Onhighhorsepowerenginesthethrustloadproducedbythe
propellerissogreatthatthepropshaftcouldnotturnunlessthisload(andtheresultingfriction)were
absorbedbyaspecialthrustbearingintheenginefrontsection.
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BACKGROUND,DEVELOPMENT,ANDTHEORY
CHAPTER2
Intheirearlyattemptsatflighthumankindsoonlearnedthatthehumanbodywastotallyinadequateas
apropulsiondevice.Theyalsolearnedthatheavierthanairaircraftwouldneedpowertoattainand
sustainflight.Earlyeffortstodevelopasatisfactoryengineincludedrocket,steam,jet,and
reciprocatingengines,butitwasthereciprocatingenginethatfirstpushedtheWrightbrothersaloft.
Today'sArmyaircraftarepropelledbygasturbineandreciprocatingengines.Whilethetechnology
whichledtotheseenginesisrelativelynew,theideaisnot.
EARLYDEVELOPMENT
TheAeolipile
Hero,anEgyptianscientistfromAlexandria,developedthefirst"jetengine"abouttheyear100BC.
Knownasthe"aeolipile"(Figure21),itconsistedofaboiler,twohollowbenttubesmountedtoa
sphere,andthesphere.Steamcomingfromtheboilerenteredthroughthetwohollowtubes
supportingthesphere.Thesteamthenexitedthroughthebenttubesonthesphere,causingittospin.
Heroissaidtohaveusedthisinventiontopullopentempledoors.
TheChimneyJack
LeonardoDaVincidesignedadevicecalledthe"chimneyjack"aroundtheyear1500AD.The
chimneyjackwasusedtoturnaroastingskewer.Thisreactiontypeturbineworkedontheprinciple
ofheatraisinggasesfromtheroastingtire.Asthehotairrose,itpassedthroughfanlikebladesthat
turnedtheroastthroughaseriesofgears.
Rockets
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Withthediscoveryofgunpowderaround1000ADtheChinese,probablyaccidentallythrougha
defectivefirecrackerdevelopedtherocket.Rocketswereusedasearlyas1232bytheMongolsto
createfearamongenemytroops.AChinesescholar,WanHuattemptedtopropelhissledwith
rockets.Hebecamethefirstmartyrinhumankind'sattemptstofly.Rocketswereusedinthe
NapoleonicWarsandtheWarof1812.TheGermansusedV2rocketsinWorldWarIIThemost
noteduseofrocketsistolaunchspacevehicles.
Branca'sStampingMill
In1629anItalianengineer,GiovanniBranca,wasprobablythefirsttoinventanactualimpulse
turbine.Thisdevice,astampingmill(Figure22),wasgeneratedbyasteampoweredturbine.Ajet
nozzledirectedsteamontoahorizontallymountedturbinewheel,whichthenturnedanarrangement
ofgearsthatoperatedhismill.
TheSteamWagon
In1687IsaacNewtonattemptedtoputhisnewlyformulatedlawsofmotiontothetestwithhis
"steamwagon"(Figure23).Hetriedtopropelthewagonbydirectingsteamthroughanozzlepointed
rearwardSteamwasproducedbyaboilermountedonthewagon.Duetolackofpowerfromthe
steam,thisvehicledidn'toperate.
TheFirstGasTurbine
In1791JohnBarber,anEnglishman.wasthefirsttopatentadesignthatusedthethermodynamic
cycleofthemodemgasturbine.Hisdesign(Figure24)containedthebasicsofthemodemgas
turbineithadacompressor,acombustionchamber,andaturbine.Themaindifferenceinhisdesign
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wasthattheturbinewasequippedwithachaindrivenreciprocatingtypeofcompressor.Heintended
itsuseforjetpropulsion.
MODERNAVIATION
English
InJanuary1930anEnglishman,FrankWhittle,submittedapatentapplicationforagasturbineforjet
propulsion.Itwasn'tuntilthesummerof1939thattheAirMinistryawardedPowerJetsLtdacontract
todesignaflightengine.InMay1941theWhittleW1engine(Figure25)madeitsfirstflight
mountedintheGlosterModelE28/39aircraft.Thisairplanewouldlaterachieveaspeedof370MPH
inlevelflightwith1000poundsofthrust.
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German
TheGermans,HansvonOhainandMaxHahn,studentsatGottingen,seeminglyunawareofWhittle's
workpatentedajetpropulsionenginein1936.ErnstHeinkelAircraftCompanyadaptedtheirideas
andflewthesecondaircraftengineofthisdevelopmentinanHE178aircraft(Figure26)onAugust
27,1939.Thiswasthefirsttruejetpropelledaircraft.Theengine,knownastheHeinkelHES36,
developed1100poundsofthrustandhurledtheHE178tospeedsofover400MPH.Thisengineused
acentrifugalflowcompressor.Laterdevelopmentproducedamoreadvancedturbineenginethatused
anaxialflowcompressor.ThisturbinewasusedtopowertheME262jetfighterto500MPH.These
planeswereintroducedintheclosingstagesofWorldWarII.Themoremodernenginefeaturesof
bladecooling,iceprevention,andthevariableareaexhaustnozzlewereincorporatedintotheME262
aircraftengine.OnSeptember30,1929,usingamodifiedgliderandOpelrockets,theGermanswere
thefirsttoachieveflightusingareactionengine.
Italian
AnItalian,SecundoCampirioftheCaproniCompany,developedaturbineenginethatuseda900HP
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reciprocatingenginetodriveitsthreestagecompressor.ThisturbinewasinstalledintheCaproni
CampiriCC2,butitonlyachievedadisappointing205MPH.InAugust1940theCC2madeitsfirst
flight,withthewholeprojectendingjusteightyearslater.
American
WiththehelpoftheBritish,AmericaenteredthejetpropulsionfieldinSeptember1941.TheW.lX
engine,acompletesetofplansfortheW.2Bengine,andagroupofPowerJetsengineerswereflown
totheUnitedStatesfromBritian.AcontractwasawardedGeneralElectricCorporationtodevelopan
AmericanversionofTheW.IX.Oneyearlater(October1942)theBellXP59A(Figure27),fitted
withtwoGeneralElectriclAengines(ratedat1300poundsofthrusteach)madethiscountry'sfirst
jetpropulsionflight.
AlthoughGeneralElectricintroducedAmericatojetpropulsionwithitsmodifiedWhittledesign,
WestinghouseCorporationgaveAmericaitsowngasturbineengine.TheWestinghouseengine
includedanaxialcompressorandanannularcombustionchamber.ThesetwoWestinghousedesigns
(axialcompressorandannularcombustionchamber)orvariationsthereofarestillbeingusedin
turbineengines.
NEWTON'SLAWSOFMOTION
FirstLaw
Newton'sfirstlawstatesabodyinastateofrestremainsatrestabodyinmotiontendstoremainin
motionataconstantspeedandinastraightlineunlessacteduponbysomeexternalforce.
Thefirstpartofthislawisevidentfromeverydayexperienceforinstance,abookplacedonatable
staysonthetable.Thesecondpartofthelawismoredifficulttovisualize.Itstatesthatifabodyisset
inmotionandlefttoitself,itvirtuallykeepsonmovingwithouttheactionofanyfurtherforce.The
statementiscorrectthebodywouldcontinuetomovewithoutanyreductioninvelocityifnoforce
acteduponit.However,experienceshowsthataretardingforce(friction)isalwayspresent.Ablock
ofwoodthrowntoslidealongacementpavedroadcomestorestafterslidingonlyashortdistance
becausethefrictionisgreatalongawaxedflooritwouldslidefartherbecausethefrictionisless,
alongasheetoficeitwouldslidemuchfartherbecausethefictionismuchless.Fromexampleslike
theseitistheorizedthatiffrictionwereeliminatedentirely,abodyoncesetinmotiononalevel
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surfacewouldcontinuetomoveindefinitelywithundiminishedvelocity.
SecondLaw
Newton'ssecondlawstates:anunbalanceofforcesonabodyproducesortendstoproducean
accelerationinthedirectionofthegreaterforcetheaccelerationisdirectlyproportionaltotheforce
andinverselyproportionaltothemassofthebody.
Themeaningofthesecondlawisillustratedbytheexampleoftwoidenticalboxesbeingmoved
acrossafloor.Ifmoreforceisappliedtooneboxthantotheother,theonesubjectedtothegreater
forcewillhavegreateracceleration.Orifafullboxandanemptyonearedrawnacrossthefloorwith
exactlyequalforces,theemptyboxhasthegreateracceleration.Ingeneral,thegreatertheunbalanced
forceandthesmallerthemass,thegreatertheacceleration.
ThirdLaw
Newton'sthirdlawstates:foreveryactionthereisanequalandoppositereactionthetwoactionsare
directedalongthesamestraightline.Inthisstatementtheterm"action"meanstheforcethatonebody
exertsonasecond,and"reaction"meanstheforcethatthesecondbodyexertsonthefirst.Thatis,if
bodyAexertsaforceonbodyB,thenBmustexertanequalandoppositeforceonA.Notethataction
andreaction,thoughequalinmagnitudeandoppositeindirection,neverneutralizeorcanceleach
otherfortheyalwaysactondifferentobjects.
Therecoilofarifledemonstratesthislawofactionreaction.Thegunpowderinachargeisignitedby
theignitioncap,combustiontakesplace,andthebulletisrapidlyacceleratedfromtherifle.Asa
resultofthisaction,therifleisacceleratedrearwardagainsttheshoulderofthepersonfiringit.The
recoilfeltbythepersonisthereactiontotheactionwhichejectedthebullet.
Theprincipleofjetpropulsioncanbeillustratedbyatoyballoon(Figure28).Wheninflatedwiththe
stemsealed,pressureisexertedequallyonallinternalsurfaces.
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Sincetheforceofthisinternalpressureisbalanced,thereisnotendencyfortheballoontomove.If
thestemisreleased,theballoonwillmoveinadirectionawayfromtheescapingjetofair.Although
theflightoftheballoonmayappearerratic,itismovinginadirectionawayfromtheopenstematall
times.
Theballoonmovesbecauseofanunbalancedconditionexistinginit.Thejetofairdoesnothaveto
pushagainsttheoutsideatmosphereitcouldfunctionbetterinavacuum.Whenthestemareaofthe
balloonisreleased,aconvergentnozzleiscreated.Astheairflowsthroughthisarea,velocityis
increasedaccompaniedbyadecreaseinairpressure.Inaddition,anareaoftheballoon'sskinagainst
whichtheinternalforceshadbeenpushingremoved.Ontheoppositeinternalsurfaceoftheballoon,
anequalareaofskinstillremains.Thehigherinternalpressureactingonthisareamovestheballoon
inadirectionawayfromtheopenstem.Theflightoftheballoonwillbeofshortduration,though,due
totheamountofaircontainedwithinit.Ifasourceofpressurizedairwereprovided,itwouldbe
possibletosustaintheballoon'sflight.
THEBRAYTONCYCLE
The"Braytoncycle"(Figure29)isthenamegiventothethermodynamiccycleofagasturbine
enginetoproducethrust.Thisisavaryingvolume,constantpressurecycleofeventsandis
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commonlycalledthe"constantpressurecycle"or"opencycle."Amorerecenttermis"continuous
combustioncycle."
Thefourcontinuousandconstanteventsare:intake,compression,expansion(includespower),and
exhaust.Thesecycleswillbediscussedastheyapplytoagasturbineengine.
Intheintakecycleairentersatambientpressureandinaconstantvolumeandleavesatanincreased
pressureanddecreasedvolume.Inthecompressorsectionairisreceivedfromtheintakeatincreased
pressureslightlyaboveambientandslightlydecreasedvolume.Airentersthecompressorwhereitis
compressed,leavingwithalargeincreaseinpressureanddecreaseinvolume.Thisiscausedbythe
mechanicalactionofthecompressor.Thenextstep(expansion)takesplaceinthecombustion
chamberbyburningfuel,whichexpandstheair.Pressureremainsrelativelyconstant,butamarked
increaseinvolumetakesplace.Theexpandinggasesmoverearwardthroughtheturbineassemblyand
areconvertedfromvelocityenergytomechanicalenergybytheturbine.
BERNOULLI'STHEOREM
Bernoulli'stheoremstates:whenagasorfluidisflowingthroughaconvergentduet(asinnozzle
statorvanesorventuri),itsspeedwillincreaseanditstemperatureandpressurewilldecrease(Figure
210).Ifthisareaisadivergentduct(asinadiffuserorrotorblade),itsspeedwillslow,andits
temperatureandpressurewillincrease.Thetotalenergyinaflowinggasismadeupofstaticand
dynamictemperaturesandpressures.Anozzleoradiffuserdoesnotchangethetotalenergylevelbut
ratherchangesoneformofenergytoanother.Byvaryingtheareaofapipe,velocitycanbechanged
intopressureandpressureintovelocity.Aturbineengineisjustsuchapipe,withareaswhereair
pressureandvelocityareconstantlybeingchangedtoachievedesiredresults.
Tostatethisprinciplesimply:theconvergentductincreasesvelocityanddecreasespressure.The
divergentduetcanbeassociatedwiththecompressorwheretheairisslowingandpressurizing.Inthe
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combustionareatheoppositeistrue.There,thevelocityisincreasingandthepressureisdecreasing.
BOYLE'SLAW
Thislawstatesthatifthetemperatureofaconfinedgasisnotchanged,thepressurewillincreasein
directrelationshiptoadecreaseinvolume.Theoppositeisalsotruethepressurewilldecreaseas
thevolumeisincreased.Asimpledemonstrationofhowthisworksmaybemadewithatoyballoon.
Ifyousqueezetheballoon,itsvolumeisreduced,andthepressureofairinsidetheballoonis
increased.Ifyousqueezehardenough,thepressurewillbursttheballoon.
CHARLES'LAW
Thislawstatesthatifagasunderconstantpressureissoconfinedthatitmayexpand,anincreasein
thetemperaturewillcauseanincreaseinvolume.Ifyouholdtheinflatedballoonoverastove,the
increaseintemperaturewillcausetheairtoexpandand,iftheheatissufficientlygreat,theballoon
willburst.Thus,theheatofcombustionexpandstheairavailablewithinthecombustionchamberofa
gasturbineengine.
PRESSUREANDVELOCITY
Airisnormallythoughtofinrelationtoitstemperature,pressure,andvolume.Withinagasturbine
enginetheairisputintomotionandanotherfactormustbeconsidered,velocity.Consideraconstant
airflowthroughaduct.Aslongastheductcrosssectionalarearemainunchanged,airwillcontinueto
flowatthesamerate(disregardfrictionalloss).Ifthecrosssectionalareaoftheduetshouldbecome
smaller(convergentarea),theairflowmustincreasevelocityifitistocontinuetoflowthesame
numberofpoundspersecondofairflow(Bernoulli'sPrinciple).Inordertoobtainthenecessary
velocityenergytoaccomplishthis,theairmustgiveupsomepressureandtemperatureenergy(lawof
conservationofenergy).Thenetresultofflowthroughthisrestrictionwouldbeadecreaseinpressure
andtemperatureandanincreaseinvelocity.Theoppositewouldbetrueifairweretoflowfroma
smallerintoalargerduct(divergentarea)velocitywouldthendecrease,andpressureandtemperature
wouldincrease.Thethroatofanautomobilecarburetorisagoodexampleoftheeffectofairflow
througharestriction(venturi)evenonthehottestdaythecenterportionofthecarburetorfeelscool.
Convergentanddivergentareasareusedthroughoutagasturbineenginetocontrolpressureand
velocityoftheairgasstreamasitflowsthroughtheengine.
GASTURBINEENGINEVSRECIPROCATINGENGINE
Acycleisaprocessthatbeginswithcertainconditionsandendswiththosesameconditions.
Reciprocatingandturbineengineshavesimilarities.Bothpowerplantsareairbreathingengines.Both
engineshavethesameseriesofevents(intake,compression,power,andexhaust).Thedifferenceis
thatinaturbineenginealloftheseeventshappensimultaneously,whereasinthereciprocatingengine
eacheventmustfollowtheprecedingevent.Anotherdifferenceisthatinaturbineengineeach
operationinthecycleisperformedbyaseparatecomponentdesignedforitsparticularfunctioninthe
reciprocatingengineallofthefunctionsareperformedinonecomponent.
Notethatthereciprocatingengineobtainsitsworkoutputbyemployingveryhighpressures(asmuch
as1000poundspersquareinch[psi])inthecylinderduringcombustion.Withthesehighpressuresa
greateramountofworkcanbeobtainedfromagivenquantityoffuel,therebyraisingthethermal
efficiencyofthistypeengine.Ontheotherhand,aturbineengine'sthermalefficiencyislimitedby
theabilityofitscompressortobuilduphighpressureswithoutexcessivetemperaturerises.Ideally,a
turbineengineshouldburnasmuchfuelaspossibleinordertoraisethegastemperatureandincrease
theusefuloutput.
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Energyaddedintheformoffuelismorethanenoughtodrivethecompressor.Theremainingenergy
producesthethrustorpowerforusefulwork.
NOTE:Thermalefficiencyisdefinedastherelationshipbetweenthepotentialheat
energyinthefuelandtheactualenergyoutputoftheengine.
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PRINCIPLES,OPERATION,ANDCONSTRUCTION
COMPRESSORSECTION
Thecompressorsectionoftheturbineenginehasmanyfunctions.Itsprimaryfunctionistosupply
enoughairtosatisfytherequirementsofthecombustionburners.Thecompressormustincreasethe
pressureofthemassofairreceivedfromtheairinletductandthendischargeittotheburnersinthe
requiredquantityandpressure.
Asecondaryfunctionofthecompressoristosupplybleedairforvariouspurposesintheengineand
aircraft.Thebleedairistakennomanyofthevariouspressurestagesofthecompressor.Theexact
locationofthebleedportdependsonthepressureortemperaturerequiredforaparticularjob.The
portsaresmallopeningsinthecompressorcaseadjacenttotheparticularstagefromwhichtheairis
tobebled.Varyingdegreesofpressureandheatareavailablesimplybytappingintotheappropriate
stage.Airoftenbledfromthefinalorhighestpressurestagebecauseatthispointpressureandair
temperatureareatamaximum.Attimesitmaybenecessarytocoolthishighpressureair.Ifitisused
forcabinpressurizationorotherpurposeswhereexcessheatwouldbeuncomfortableordetrimental
theairissentthrougharefrigerationunit.
Bleedairhasvarioususesincludingdrivingtheremotedrivenaccessories.Somecurrentapplications
ofbleedairare
Incabinpressurizationheatingandcooling.
Indeicingandantiicingequipment.
Forpneumaticstartingofengines.
Inauxiliarydriveunits(ADUs).
Incontrolboosterservosystems.
Aspowerforrunninginstruments.
Compressorsectionlocationdependsonthetypeofcompressor.Inthecentrifugalflowenginethe
compressorisbetweentheaccessorysectionandthecombustionsectionintheaxialflowenginethe
compressorisbetweentheairinletductandthecombustionsection.
CentrifugalFlowCompressor
Thecentrifugalflowcompressorbasicallyconsistsofanimpeller(rotor),adiffuser(stator),anda
compressormanifold.Theimpellerandthediffuserarethetwomainfunctionalelements.Although
thediffuserisaseparatecomponentpositionedinsideandsecuredtothemanifold,theentireassembly
(diffuserandmanifold)isoftenreferredtoasthediffuser.
Theimpeller'sfunctionistopickupandaccelerateairoutwardtothediffuser.Impellersmaybeeither
oftwotypessingleentryordoubleentry.Botharesimilarinconstructiontothereciprocating
enginesuperchargerimpeller.Thedoubleentrytypeissimilartotwobacktobackimpellers.
However,becauseofmuchgreatercombustionairrequirementsinturbineengines,theseimpellersare
largerthansuperchargerimpellers.
Theprincipaldifferencesbetweenthetwotypesofimpellersaresizeandductingarrangement.The
doubleentrytypehasasmallerdiameterbutisusuallyoperatedatahigherrotationalspeedtoensure
enoughairflow.Thesingleentryimpellerpermitsconvenientductingdirectlytotheimpellereye
(inducervanes)asopposedtothemorecomplicatedductingnecessarytoreachtherearsideofthe
doubleentrytype.Althoughslightlymoreefficientinreceivingair,thesingleentryimpellermustbe
largeindiametertodeliverthesamequantityofairasthedoubleentrytype.Thisofcourse,increases
theoveralldiameteroftheengine.
Includedintheductingfordoubleentrycompressorenginesistheplenumchamber.Thischamberis
necessaryforadoubleentrycompressorbecauseairmustentertheengineatalmostrightanglesto
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theengineaxis.Togiveapositiveflow,airmustsurroundtheenginecompressoratapositive
pressurebeforeenteringthecompressor.
Multistagecentrifugalcompressorsconsistoftwoormoresinglecompressorsmountedintandemon
thesameshaft.Theaircompressedinthefirststagepassestothesecondstageatitspointofentry
nearthehub.Thisstagewillfurthercompresstheairandpassittothenextstageifthereisone.The
problemwiththistypeofcompressionisinturningtheairasitispassedfromonestagetothenext.
Thediffuserisanannularchamberprovidewithanumberofvanesformingaseriesofdivergent
passagesintothemanifold.Thediffuservanesdirecttheflowofairfromtheimpellertothemanifold
atanangledesignedtoretainthemaximumamountofenergyimpartedbytheimpeller.Theyalso
delivertheairtothemanifoldatavelocityandpressuresatisfactoryforcombustionchambers.
Thecompressormanifolddivertstheflowofairfromthewhich,whichisanintegralpartofthe
manifold,intothecombustionchambers.Themanifoldwillhaveoneoutletportforeachchamberso
thattheairisevenlydivided.Acompressoroutletelbowisboltedtoeachoftheoutletports.Theseair
outletsareconstructedintheformofductsandareknownbyavarietyofnamesincluding"airoutlet
ducts","outletelbows,"and"combustionchamberinletducts."Theseoutletductsperformavery
importantpartofthediffusionprocess.Theychangetheairflowdirectionfromradialtoaxial.The
diffusionprocessiscompletedaftertheturn.Tohelptheelbowsperformthisfunctionefficiently,
turningvanes(cascadevanes)aresometimesfittedinsidetheelbows.Thevanesreduceairpressure
lossesbypresentingasmooth,turningsurface.
Thecentrifugalcompressorisusedbestonsmallerengineswheresimplicity,flexibility,and
ruggednessareprimaryrequirements.Thesehaveasmallfrontalareaandcanhandlehighairflows
andpressureswithlowlossofefficiency.
Centrifugalflowcompressorshavethefollowingadvantages:
Highpressureriseperstage.
Efficiencyoverwiderotationalspeedrange.
Simplicityofmanufacturewithresultinglowcost.
Lowweight.
Lowstartingpowerrequirements.
Theyhavethefollowingdisadvantages:
Largefrontalareaforgivenairflow.
Impracticalityifmorethantwostagesbecauseoflossesinturnsbetweenstages.
AxialFlowCompressor
Axialflowcompressorshavetwomainelements:arotor(drumordisctype)andastator.These
compressorsareconstructedofseveraldifferentmaterialsdependingontheloadandoperating
temperature.Thedrumtyperotorconsistsofringsthatareflangedtofitoneagainsttheothersothat
theentireassemblycanbeheldtogetherbythroughbolts.Thistypeofconstructionissatisfactoryfor
lowspeedcompressorswherecentrifugalstressesarelow(Figure37).Therotor(disctype)
assemblyconsistsof
Stubshafts.
Discs.Blades.
Ducts.
Airvortexspoilers.
Spacers.
Tiebolts.
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Torquecones.
Rotorbladesaregenerallymachinedfromstainlesssteelforgings,althoughsomemaybemadeof
titaniumintheforward(colder)sectionofthecompressor(Figure38).Thebladesareattachedinthe
discrimbydifferentmethodsusingeitherthefirtreetype,dovetailtype,orbulbtyperootdesigns.
Thebladesarethenlockedintoplacewithscrews,peening,lockingwires,pins,keys,orplates
(Figure39).Thebladesdonothavetofittootightlyinthediscbecausecentrifugalforceduring
engineoperationcausesthemtoseat.Allowingthebladessomemovementreducesthevibrational
stressesproducedbyhighvelocityairstreamsbetweentheblades.Thenewestadvanceintechnology
isaonepiecedesignmachinedbladedisc(combineddiscandblade)bothdiscandrotorbladeare
forgedandthenmachinedintoone(refertoFigure38again).
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Clearancesbetweenrotorbladesandtheoutercaseareveryimportanttomaintainhighefficiency.
Becauseofthis,somemanufacturersusea"wearfit"designbetweenthebladeandoutercase.Some
companiesdesignbladeswithknifeedgetipsthatwearawaytoformtheirownclearancesasthey
expandfromtheheatgeneratedbyaircompression.Othercompaniescoattheinnersurfaceofthe
compressorcasewithasoftmaterial(Teflon)thatcanbewornawaywithoutdamagingtheblade.
Rotordiscsthatarejoinedtogetherbytieboltsuseserrationsplinesorcurvecouplingteethtoprevent
thediscsfromturninginrelationtoeachother.Anothermethodofjoiningrotordiscsisattheirrims.
Axialflowcompressorcasingsnotonlysupportstatorvanesandprovidetheouterwalloftheaxial
pathstheairfollowsbutalsoprovidethemeansforextractingcompressorairforvariouspurposes.
Thestatorandcompressorcasesshowgreatdifferencesindesignandconstruction.Somecompressor
caseshavevariablestatorvanesasanadditionalfeature.Others(compressorcases)havefixedstators.
Statorvanesmaybeeithersolidorhollowandmayormaynotbeconnectedattheirtipsbyashroud.
Theshroudservestwopurposes.First,itprovidessupportforthelongerstatorvaneslocatedinthe
forwardstagesofthecompressorsecond,itprovidestheabsolutelynecessaryairsealbetween
rotatingandstationaryparts.Somemanufacturersusesplitcompressorcaseswhileothersfavora
weldment,whichformsacontinuouscase.Theadvantageofthesplitcaseisthatthecompressorand
statorbladesarereadilyavailableforinspectionormaintenance.Ontheotherhandthecontinuous
caseofferssimplicityandstrengthsinceitrequiresnoverticalorhorizontalpartingsurface.
Boththecaseandtherotorareveryhighlystressedparts.Sincethecompressorturnsatveryhigh
speedsthediscsmustbeabletowithstandveryhighcertrifugalforces.Inadditionthebladesmust
resistbendingloadsandhightemperatures.Whenthecompressorisconstructedeachstageis
balancedasaunit.Thecompressorcaseinmostinstancesisoneoftheprincipalstructural,load
bearingmembersoftheengine.Itmaybeconstructedofaluminumsteel,ormagnesium.
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Axialflowcompressorshavethefollowingadvantages:
Highpeakefficiency.
Smallfrontalareaforgivenairflow.
Straightthroughflow,allowinghighramefficiency.
Increasedpressureriseduetoincreasednumberofstageswithnegligiblelosses.
Theyhavethefollowingdisadvantages:
Goodefficiencyovernarrowrotationalspeedrange.
Difficultyofmanufactureandhighcost.
Relativelyhighweight.
Highstartingpowerrequirements(thishasbeenpartiallyovercomebysplitcompressors).
Theairinanaxialcompressorflowsinanaxialdirectionthroughaseriesofrotating(rotor)blades
andstationary(stator)vanesthatareconcentricwiththeaxisofrotation.Unlikeaturbine,whichalso
employsrotorbladesandstatorvanestheflowpathofanaxialcompressordecreasesincross
sectionalareainthedirectionofflow.Thisreducesthevolumeofairascompressionprogressesfrom
stagetostage.
Afterbeingdeliveredtothefaceofthecompressorbytheairinletductincomingairpassesthrough
theinletguidevanes.Uponenteringthefirstsetofrotatingblades,theair,whichisflowingina
generalaxialdirectionisdeflectedinthedirectionofrotation.Theairisarrestedandturnedasitis
passedontoasetofstatorvanes.Followingthatitispickedupbyanothersetofrotatingbladesand
soonthroughthecompressor.Airpressureincreaseseachtimeitpasssesthroughasetofrotorsand
stators.
Therotorbladesincreasetheairvelocity.Whenairvelocityincreases,therampressureofairpassing
througharotorstagealsoincreases.Thisincreaseinvelocityandpressureissomewhatbutnot
entirelynullifiedbydiffusion.Whenairisforcedpastthethicksectionsoftherotorbladesstatic
pressurealsoincreases.Thelargerareaattherearoftheblades(duetoitsairfoilshape)actsasa
diffuser.
Inthestatorsvelocitydecreaseswhilestaticpressureincreases.Asairvelocitydecreases,thepressure
duetovelocityorramthathasjustbeengainedinPassingthroughprecedingrotorstagedecreases
somewhathowever,thetotalpressureisthesumofstaticpressureandpressureduetoram.
Successiveincreasesanddecreasesinvelocityasairleavesthecompressorareusuallyonlyslightly
greaterthanthevelocityoftheairattheentrancetothecompressor.Asthepressureisbuiltupby
successivesetsofrotorsandstators,lessandlessvolumeisrequired.Thus,thevolumewithinthe
compressorisgraduallydecreased.Attheexitofthecompressor,adiffusersectionaddsthefinal
stagetothecompressionprocessbyagaindecreasingvelocityandincreasingstaticpressurejust
beforetheairenterstheengineburnersection.
Normally,thetemperaturechangecausedbydiffusionisnotsignificantbyitself.Thetemperaturerise
whichcausesairtogethotterandhotterasitcontinuesthroughthecompressor,istheresultofthe
workbeingdoneontheairbythecompressorrotors.Heatingoftheairoccursbecauseofthe
compressionprocessandbecausesomeofthemechanicalenergyoftherotorisconvertedtoheat
energy.
Becauseairflowinanaxialcompressorisgenerallydiffusingitisveryunstable.Highefficiencyis
maintainedonlyatverysmallratesofdiffusion.Comparedtoaturbine,quiteanumberofcompressor
stagesareneededtokeepthediffusionratesmallthrougheachindividualstage.Also,thepermissible
turninganglesofthebladesareconsiderablysmallerthanthosewhichcanbeusedinturbines.These
arethereasonswhyanaxialcompressormusthavemanymorestagesthantheturbinewhichdrivesit.
Inaddition,morebladesandconsequentlymorestagesareneededbecausethecompressor,incontrast
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toaturbine,isendeavoringtopushairinadirectionthatitdoesnotwanttogoin.
DualCompressor
Thedualcompressorisacombinationeitheroftwoaxialcompressorsorofanaxialandacentrifugal
compressor(Figure310).Thedualaxialcompressorconsistsofalowpressurecompressorinfront
andahighpressurecompressorintherear.Bothcompressors(lowandhigh)aredrivenbytwo
differentshaftsthatconnecttodifferentturbines.Thestarterisusuallyconnectedtothehighpressure
compressorbecauseitreducesthetorquerequiredtostarttheengine.Withtherear(highpressure)
compressorturningatgovernedSpeed,thefront(lowpressure)compressor(notgoverned)is
automaticallyrotatedbyitsturbine.Rotationspeediswhateverspeedwillensureanoptimumflowof
airthroughthecompressor.Withthefrontandrearcompressorrotorsworkinginharmonyinsteadof
interferingwitheachother,compressionratescanbeincreasedwithoutdecreasingefficiency.Dueto
theaddedlengthoftheenginethistypeofcompressorisfoundonturbojetaircraft.
MostgasturbinesinArmyaircrafthaveacombinationofanaxialcompressor(front)anda
centrifugalcompressor(rear).Theusualcombinationisafiveorsevenstageaxialflowcompressor
andacentrifugalflowcompressor.Theaxialcompressorandcentrifugalcompressorcombinationis
mountedonthesameshaftthecompressorsturninthesamedirectionandatthesamespeed.By
combiningthem,themanufacturermakesthemostoftheadvantagesofbothcompressorssmall
frontalarea,increasedcompressionratios,andshortenedoverallenginelength.Usingthecentrifugal
flowcompressorboostscompressionandincreasesefficiencyoftheturbineengine.Thecentrifugal
compressoralsoshortensthelengthoftheengine.Ifthecentrifugalcompressorwerenotadded,the
manufacturerwouldhavetoaddmorestagesofaxialcompressiontoequalthatofthecentrifugal
compressor.
COMBUSTIONSECTION
Thecombustionsectioncontainsthecombustionchambers,igniterplugs,andfuelnozzleorfuel
injectors.Itisdesignedtoburnafuelairmixtureandtodelivercombustedgasestotheturbineata
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temperaturenotexceedingtheallowablelimitattheturbineinlet.Theoretically,thecompressor
delivers100percentofitsairbyvolumetothecombustionchamber.However,thefuelairmixture
hasaratioofl5partsairto1partfuelbyweight.Approximately25percentofthisairisusedtoattain
thedesiredfuelairratio.Theremaining75percentisusedtoformanairblanketaroundtheburning
gasesandtodilutethetemperature,whichmayreachashighas3500F,byapproximatelyonehalf.
Thisensuresthattheturbinesectionwillnotbedestroyedbyexcessiveheat.
Theairusedforburningisknownasprimaryairthatusedforcordingissecondaryair.Secondaryair
iscontrolledanddirectedbyholesandlouversinthecombustionchamberliner.Igniterplugsfunction
duringstartingonlytheyareshutoffmanuallyorautomatically.Combustioniscontinuousandself
supporting.Afterengineshutdownorfailuretostart,apressureactuatedvalveautomaticallydrains
anyremainingunburnedfuelfromthecombustionchamber.ThemostcommontypeusedinArmy
gasturbineenginesistheexternalannularreverseflowtype.
Theprimaryfunctionofthecombustionsectionis,ofcourse,tobumthefuelairmixture,thereby
addingheatenergytotheair.Todothisefficiently,thecombustionchambermust
Providethemeansformixingthefuelandairtoensuregoodcombustion.
Bumthismixtureefficiently.
Coolthehotcombustionproductstoatemperaturewhichtheturbinebladescanwithstand
underoperatingconditions.
Deliverthehotgasestotheturbinesection.
Thelocationofthecombustionsectionisdirectlybetweenthecompressorandturbinesections.The
combustionchambersarealwaysarrangedcoaxiallywiththecompressorandturbine,regardlessof
type,sincethechambersmustbeinathroughflowpositiontofunctionefficiently.
Allcombustionchamberscontainthesamebasicelements:
Acasing
Aperforatedinnerliner.
Afuelinjectionsystem.
Somemeansforinitialignition.
Afueldrainagesystemtodrainoffunburnedfuelafterengineshutdown.
Therearecurrentlythreebasictypesofcombustionchambers,varyingindetailonly:
Themultiplechamberorcantype.
Theannularorbaskettype.
Thecanannulartype.
CanTypeCombustionChamber
Thecantypecombustionchamberistypicalofthetypeusedonbothcentrifugalandaxialflow
engines(Figure311).Itisparticularlywellsuitedforthecentrifugalcompressorenginesincetheair
leavingthecompressorisalreadydividedintoequalportionsasitleavesthediffuservanes.Itisthen
asimplemattertoducttheairfromthediffuserintotherespectivecombustionchambersarranged
radiallyaroundtheaxisoftheengine.Thenumberofchamberswillvaryinthepastasfewas2and
asmanyas16chamber'shavebeenused.Thepresenttrendisabout8or10combustionchambers.
Figure311illustratesthearrangementofcantypecombustionchambers.OnAmericanbuiltengines
thesechambersarenumberedinaclockwisedirectionfacingtherearoftheenginewiththeNo.1
chamberatthetop.
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Eachcantypecombustionchamberconsistsofanoutercaseorhousingwithaperforatedstainless
steel(highlyheatresistant)combustionchamberlinerorinnerliner(Figure312).Theoutercaseis
dividedforeaseoflinerreplacement.Thelargersectionorchamberbodyencasesthelinerattheexit
endtheSmallerchambercoverencasesthefrontorinletendoftheliner.
Theinterconnector(flamepropagation)tubesareanecessarypartofcantypecombustionchambers.
Sinceeachcanisaseparateburneroperatingindependentlyoftheothers,theremustbesomewayto
spreadcombustionduringtheinitialstartingoperation.Thisisdonebyinterconnectingallthe
chambers.Theflameisstartedbythesparkigniterplugsintwoofthelowerchambersitpasses
throughthetubesandignitesthecombustiblemixtureintheadjacentchamber.Thiscontinuesuntilall
chambersareburning.Theflametubeswillvaryinconstructiondetailsfromoneenginetoanother
althoughthebasiccomponentsarealmostidentical.
TheinterconnectortubesareshowninFigure312.Bearinmindthatnotonlymustthechambersbe
interconnectedbyanoutertube(inthiscase,aferrule),buttheremustalsobeaslightlylongertube
insidetheouteronetointerconnectthechamberlinerswheretheflameislocatedTheoutertubesor
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jacketsaroundtheinterconnectingflametubesnotonlyaffordairflowbetweenthechambersbutalso
fulfillaninsulatingfunctionaroundthehotflametubes.
Thesparkignitersarenormallytwoinnumber.Theyarelocatedintwoofthecantypecombustion
chambers.
Anotherveryimportantrequirementintheconstructionofcombustionchambersisprovidingthe
meansfordrainingunburnedfuel.Thisdrainagepreventsgumdepositsinthefuelmanifold,nozzles,
andcombustionchambers.Thesedepositsarecausedbytheresidueleftwhenfuelevaporates.Iffuel
isallowedtoaccumulateaftershutdownthereisthedangerofafterfire.
Ifthefuelisnotdrained,agreatpossibilityexiststhatatthenextstartingattemptexcessfuelinthe
combustionchamberwilligniteandtailpipetemperaturewillgobeyondsafeoperatinglimits.
Thelinersofcantypecombustorshaveperforationsofvarioussizesandshapes,eachholehavinga
specificpurposeandeffectonflamepropagationintheliner.Airenteringthecombustionchamberis
dividedbyholes,louvers,andslotsintotwomainstreamsprimaryandsecondaryair.Primary
(combustion)airisdirectedinsidethelineratthefrontendwhereitmixeswiththefuelandbums.
Secondary(cooling)airpassesbetweentheoutercasingandthelinerandjoinsthecombustiongases
throughlargerholestowardtherearoftheliner,coolingthecombustiongasesfromabout3500Fto
near1500F.
Holesaroundthefuelnozzleinthedomeorinletendofthecantypecombusterlineraidin
atomizationofthefuel.Louversarealsoprovidedalongtheaxiallengthofthelinerstodirecta
coolinglayerofairalongtheinsidewalloftheliner.Thislayerofairalsotendstocontroltheflame
patternbykeepingitcenteredintheliner,preventingburningofthelinerwalls.
AnnularorBasketTypeCombustionChamber
Figure313illustratestheflowofairthroughthelouversinthedoubleannularcombustionchamber.
Someprovisionisalwaysmadeinthecombustionchambercaseorinthecompressorairoutletelbow
forinstallationofafuelnozzle.Thefuelnozzledeliversthefuelintothelinerinafreelyatomized
spray.Thefreerthespray,themorerapidandefficienttheburningprocess.Twotypesoffuelnozzles
currentlybeingusedinthevarioustypesofcombustionchambersarethesimplexnozzleandthe
duplexnozzle.
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Theannularcombustionchamberconsistsbasicallyofahousingandaliner,asdoesthecantype.The
linerconsistsofanundividedcircularshroudextendingallthewayaroundtheoutsideoftheturbine
shafthousing.Thechambermaybeconstructedofoneormorebaskets.Iftwoormorechambersare
used,oneisplacedoutsidetheotherinthesameradialplanehence,theterm"doubleannular
chamber."
Thesparkigniterplugsoftheannularcombustionchamberarethesamebasictypeusedinthecan
combustionchambers,althoughconstructiondetailsmayvary.Thereareusuallytwoplugsmounted
onthebossprovidedoneachofthechamberhousings.Theplugsmustbelongenoughtoprotrude
fromthehousingintotheouterannulusofthedoubleannularcombustionchamber.
Theannulartypecombustionchamberisusedinmanyenginesdesignedtousetheaxialflow
compressor.Itisalsousedbyenginesincorporatingdualtypecompressors(combinationsofaxial
flowandcentrifugalflow).Itsusepermitsbuildinganengineofsmalldiameter.Insteadofindividual
combustionchambers,thecompressedairisintroducedintoanannularspaceformedbyacombustion
chamberlineraroundtheturbineshaft.Usually,enoughspaceisleftbetweentheouterlinerwalland
thecombustionchamberhousingtopermittheflowofcoolingairfromthecompressor.Fuelis
introducedthroughnozzlesorinjectorsconnectedtoafuelmanifold.Thenozzleopeningmayface
upstreamordownstreamtoairflowdependingonenginedesign.Variousmeansareprovidedto
introduceprimary(compressed)airtothevicinityofthenozzleorinjectorstosupportcombustionand
additionalairdowmstreamtoincreasethemassflow.Secondarycoolingairreducesthetemperature
ofgasesenteringtheturbinetotheproperlevel,
Someaxialcompressorengineshaveasingleannularcombustionchambersimilartothatshownin
Figure314.Thelinerofthistypeofburnerconsistsofcontinuous,circular,innerandoutershrouds
aroundtheoutsideofthecompressordriveshafthousing.Holesintheshroudsallowsecondary
coolingairtoenterthecenterofthecombustionchamber.Fuelisintroducedthroughaseriesof
nozzlesattheupstreamendoftheliner.Becauseoftheirproximitytotheflamesalltypesofburner
linersareshortlivedincomparisontootherenginecomponentstheyrequiremorefrequent
inspectionandreplacement.
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Thistypeofburnerusesthelimitedspaceavailablemosteffectively,permittingbettermixingofthe
fuelandairwithinarelativelysimplestructure.Anoptimumratioofburnerinnersurfaceareato
volumeisprovidedthisensuresmaximumcoolingofthegasesascombustionoccurs.Thedesign
alsotendstopreventheatwarpingHowever,theburnerlineronsomeenginescannotbedisassembled
withoutremovingtheenginefromtheaircraftadistinctdisadvantage.
Thelatestannularcombustionsystemformilitaryuseisalowpressurefuelinjectionsystemwith
vortexairswirlerstomixfuelandcompressordischargeairbeforecombustion.Thefuelinjectoris
positionedintothecenterofanairswirlerinthedomeoftheliner.Fuelleavingtheinjectors(which
hasbeenswirled)issurroundedbyaconcentricairvortexpattern.Thisbreaksfuelparticlesdownto
anextremelysmallsizebeforetheyreachthecombustionzone,Thiscreatesexcellentfuelairmixing
thatensuresalowsmokelevelintheexhaust.Thelowpressurefuelsystemdoesnothavetinenozzle
orificesandcanhandlecontaminatedfuelwithoutclogging.
CanAnnularTypeCombustionChamber
ThecanannulartypecombustionchamberwasdevelopedbyPrattandWhitneyforuseintheirJT3
axialflowturbojetengine.Sincethisenginefeaturesthesplitspoolcompressor,itneededa
combustionchambercapableofmeetingthestringentrequirementsofmaximumstrengthandlimited
lengthplushighoverallefficiency.Thesewerenecessarybecauseofthehighairpressuresand
velocitiesinasplitspoolcompressoralongwiththeshaftlengthlimitationsexplainedbelow.
Thesplitcompressorrequirestwoconcentricshaftstojointheturbinestagestotheirrespective
compressors.Thefrontcompressorjoinedtotherearturbinestagesrequiresthelongershaft.Because
thisshaftisinsidetheother,alimitationisimposedondiameter.Thedistancebetweenthefront
compressorandtherearturbinemustbelimitedifcriticalshaftlengthsaretobeavoided.
Sincethecompressorandturbinearenotsusceptibletoappreciableshorteningthenecessaryshaft
lengthlimitationhadtobeabsorbedbydevelopinganewtypeofburner.Adesignwasneededthat
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wouldgivethedesiredperformanceinmuchlessrelativedistancethanhadpreviouslybeenassigned.
Canannularcombustionchambersarearrangedradiallyaroundtheaxisoftheengineinthisinstance
therotorshafthousing.Thecombustionchambersareenclosedinaremovablesteelshroudthat
coverstheentireburnersection.Thisfeaturemakestheburnersreadilyavailableforanyrequired
maintenance.
Theburnersareinterconnectedbyprojectingflametubes.Thesetubesmaketheenginestarting
processeasier.Theyfunctionidenticallywiththosepreviouslydiscussedbutdifferinconstruction
details.
Eachcombustionchambercontainsacentralbulletshapedperforatedliner.Thesizeandshapeofthe
holesaredesignedtoadmitthecorrectquantityofairatthecorrectvelocityandangle.Cutoutsare
providedintwoofthebottomchambersforinstallationofthesparkigniters.Thecombustion
chambersaresupportedattheaftendbyoutletductclamps.Theseclampssecurethemtotheturbine
nozzleassembly.
Theforwardfaceofeachchamberpresentssixapertureswhichalignwiththesixfuelnozzlesofthe
correspondingfuelnozzleduster.Thesenozzlesarethedualorifice(duplex)type.Theyrequirea
flowdivider(pressurizingvalve)aswasmentionedaboveinthecantypecombustionchamber
discussion.Aroundeachnozzlearepreswirlvanesforimpartingaswirlingmotiontothefuelspray.
Thisresultsinbetteratomizationburningandefficiency.
Swirlvanesperformtwoimportantfunctions.Theycause
Highflamespeedprovidesbetternixingofairandfuelandensuresspontaneousburning.
Lowairvelocityaxiallyswirlingpreventstheflamefrommovingaxiallytoorapidly.
Swirlvanesgreatlyaidflamepropagationbecauseahighdegreeofturbulenceintheearlycombustion
andcoolingstageisdesirable.Vigorousmechanicalmixingoffuelvaporwithprimaryairis
necessarymixingbydiffusionaloneistooslow.Mechanicalmixingisalsodonebyothermeasure
forexample,placingcoarsescreensinthediffuseroutletasisdoneinmostaxialflowengines.
Canannularcombustionchambersmustalsohavefueldrainvalvesintwoormoreofthebottom
chambers.Thisensuresdrainageofresidualfueltopreventitsbeingburnedatthenextstart.
Theflowofairthroughtheholesandlouversofthecanannularchambersisalmostidenticalwiththe
flowthroughothertypesofburners.Specialbafflingisusedtoswirlthecombustionairflowandto
giveitturbulence.
PerformanceRequirements
Performancerequirementsinclude
Highcombustionefficiency.Thisisnecessaryforlongrange.
Stableoperation.Combustionmustbefreefromblowoutatairflowsrangingfromidleto
maximumpowerandatpressuresrepresentingtheaircraft'sentirealtituderange.
Lowpressureloss.Itisdesirabletohaveasmuchpressureaspossibleavailableintheexhaust
nozzletoacceleratethegasesrearwardHighpressurelosseswillreducethrustandincrease
specificfuelconsumption.
Uniformtemperaturedistribution.Theaveragetemperatureofgasesenteringtheturbineshould
beascloseaspossibletothetemperaturelimitoftheburnermaterialtoobtainmaximumengine
performance.Highlocaltemperaturesorhotspotsinthegasstreamwillreducetheallowable
averageturbineinlettemperaturetoprotecttheturbine.Thiswillresultinadecreaseintotalgas
energyandacorrespondingdecreasemengineperformance.
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Easystarting.Lowpressuresandhighvelocitiesintheburnermakestartingdifficult.Apoorly
designedburnerwillstartonlywithinasmallrangeoflightspeedsandaltitudes,whereasawell
designedburnerwillpermiteasierairrestarts.
Smallsize.Alargeburnerrequiresalargeenginehousingwithacorrespondingincreaseinthe
airplane'sfrontalareaandaerodynamicdrag.Thiswillresultinadecreaseinmaximumflight
speedExcessiveburnersizealsoresultsinhighengineweight,lowerfuelcapacityandpayload,
andshorterrange.Modemburnersrelease500to1000timestheheatofadomesticoilburneror
heavyindustrialfurnaceofequalunitvolume.Withoutthishighheatreleasetheaircraftgas
turbinecouldnothavebeenmadepractical.
Lowsmokeburner.Smokenotonlyannoyspeopleontheground,itmayalsoalloweasy
trackingofhighflyingmilitaryaircraft.
Lowcarbonformation.Carbondepositscanblockcriticalairpassagesanddisruptairflowalong
thelinerwalls,causinghighmetaltemperaturesandlowburnerlife.
Alloftheburnerrequirementsmustbesatisfiedoverawiderangeofoperatingconditions.For
example,airflowsmayvaryasmuchas50:1,fuelflowsasmuchas30:1,andfuelairratiosasmuch
as5:1.Burnerpressuresmaycoveraratioof100:1,whileburnerinlettemperaturesmayvarybymore
than700F.
Theeffectofoperatingvariablesonburnerperformanceis
Pressure.
Inletairtemperature.
Fuelairratio.
Flowvelocity.
TURBINESECTION
Allturbinesinmodernjetengines,regardlessofthetypeofcompressused,areofofaxialflow
design.Theyconsistofoneormorestageslocatedimmediatelytotherearoftheengineburner
section.Turbinesextractkineticenergyfromtheexpandinggasesasthegasescomefromtheburners.
Theyconvertthisenergyintoshafthorsepowertodrivethecompressorandengineaccessories.Ina
turboshaftorturbopropengineoneormoreturbineswillalsofurnishthepowerrequiredtoturnthe
enginedriveorpropellershaft.Nearlythreefourthsofalloftheenergyavailablefromcombustionis
neededtodrivethecompressororcompressorsinthecaseofadualcompressorengine.Thisincludes
thefanofaturbofanengine.Iftheengineisaturboshaftorturboprop,theturbinesaredesignedto
extractasmuchenergyaspossiblefromthegasespassingthroughtheengine.Soefficientarethe
turbinesinsuchenginesthatthepropellerinaturbopropaircraftprovidesapproximately90percentof
thepropulsiveforcewithonly10percentsuppliedbyjetthrust.
Theaxialflowturbinehastwomainelements:turbinerotors(orwheels,astheyaresometimescalled)
andstationaryvanes.Thestationarypartoftheassemblyconsistsofaplaneofcontouredvanes,
concentricwiththeaxisoftheturbineandsetatanangletoformaseriesofsmallnozzles.These
nozzlesdischargethegasesontothebladesintheturbinerotors.Thestationaryvaneassemblyofeach
stageintheturbineisusuallyreferredtoastheturbinenozzleguidevanes.Theturbinenozzleareais
themostcriticalpartoftheturbinedesign.Ifthenozzleareaistoolarge,theturbinewillnotoperate
atitsbestefficiency.Iftheareaistoosmallthenozzlewillhaveatendencytochokeandlose
efficiencyundermaximumthrustconditions.Theturbinenozzleareaisdefinedasthetotalcross
sectionalareaoftheexhaustgaspassagesattheirnarrowestpointthroughtheturbinenozzle.Itis
calculatedbymeasuringandaddingtheareasbetweenindividualnozzleguidevanes.
Therearethreetypesofturbines:implusereactionandacombinationofthesetwoknownasreaction
impulse.Intheimpulsetypethereisnonetchangeinpressurebetweentherotorinletandtherotor
exit.Theblade'srelativedischargevelocitywillbethesameasitsrelativeinletvelocity.Thenozzle
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guidevanesareshapedtoformpassageswhichincreasethevelocityandreducethepressureofthe
escapinggases.Inthereactiontype,thenozzleguidevanesdolittlemoreinrelationtotherotorthan
alterflowdirection.Thedecreaseinpressureandincreaseinvelocityofgasesarecausedbythe
convergentshapeofthepassagebetweentherotorblades.Inajetenginetheturbineisusuallya
balancedcombinationofbothtypesknownasareactionimpulseturbine.Itsdesignisintendedto
achievebothasmalldiameterandapropermatchwiththecompressor.
Turbinesmaybeeithersingleormultiplestage.Whentheturbinehasmorethanonestage,stationary
vanesareinsertedbetweeneachrotorwheelandtherotorwheeldownstream.Theyarealsoplacedat
theentranceandexitoftheturbineunit.Eachsetofstationaryvanesformsanozzlevaneassembly
fortheturbinewheelthatfollows.Theexitsetofvanesservestostraightenthegasflowbefore
passagethroughthejetnozzle.Thewheelsmayormaynotoperateindependentlyofoneanother,
dependingonenginetypeandturbinepowerrequirements.
ShaftRPM,gasflowrate,turbineinletandoutlettemperatureandpressure,turbineexhaustvelocity,
andrequiredpoweroutputmustallbeconsideredbythedesigneroftheturbine.Iftheengineis
equippedwithadualcompressor,theturbinemustalsobedualor"split."Inthisevent,theforward
partoftheturbine(whichdrivesthehighpressurecompressor)canbesinglestagebecauseitreceives
highenergygasesdirectlyfromtheburnerandturnsatahigherRPMthantheturbineforthelow
pressurecompressor.Bythetimethegasesreachtherearpartoftheturbine(whichdrivesthelow
pressurecompressor),theyhaveexpanded.Considerablymorebladeareaisneededifworkorenergy
balanceistobemaintained.Todoamultistageturbineisusedforthesecondpartoftheturbine
(Figure315).
Turbinesmustbedesignedsothatthegaseshaveahighexpansionratio.Thisresultsinalarge
temperaturedropingasespassingthroughtheturbineandacoolturbineexhaust.Iftheengineis
equippedwithanafterburner,acoolexhaustenablesmorefueltobeburnedintheafterburnerwithout
exceedingthetemperaturelimitoftheconstructionmaterialsusedintheafterburner.
Theturbinewheelisadynamicallybalancedunitconsistingofsuperalloybladesattachedtoa
rotatingdisc.Thebaseofthebladeisusuallya"firtree"designtoenableittobefirmlyattachedto
thediscandstillallowroomforexpansion.Insometurbinestherotatingbladesareopenattheirouter
perimeter.Morecommonly,thebladeisshroudedatthetip.Theshroudedbladesformabandaround
theperimeteroftheturbinewheel,whichservestoreducebladevibrations.Theweightofthe
shroudedtipsisoffsetbecausetheshroudspermitthinner,moreefficientbladesectionsthanare
otherwisepossiblebecauseofvibrationlimitations.Also,byactinginthesamemannerasaircraft
wingtipfences,theshroudsimprovetheairflowcharacteristicsandincreasetheefficiencyofthe
turbine.Theshroudsalsoservetocutdowngasleakagearoundthetipsoftheturbineblades.
Turbinesaresubjectedtohighspeedsandhightemperatures.Highspeedsresultinhighcentrifugal
forces.Turbinesmustoperateclosetotemperaturelimitsthat,ifexceeded,lowerthestrengthofthe
materialstheyareconstructedof.Turbinebladesundergodistortionorlengtheningknownas"creep."
Creepmeansthatthebladestretchesorelongates.Thisconditioniscumulative.Therateofcreepis
determinedbytheloadimposedontheturbineandthestrengthoftheblade.Thestrengthoftheblade
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isdeterminedbythetemperaturewithintheturbine.Sincechangesinpitchandcreeparemore
pronouncedifengineoperatinglimitsarenotrespectedthepilotorflightengineermustclosely
observethetemperatureandRPMlimitsstipulatedbythemanufacturer.
Construction
Theturbinewheelisoneofthemosthighlystressedengineparts.Notonlymustitoperateat
temperaturesuptoapproximately1700F,butitmustdosounderseverecentrifugalloadsimposedby
highrotationalspeedsofover40,000RPMforsmallenginesand8,000RPMforlargerones.
Consequently,enginespeedandturbineinlettemperaturemustbeaccuratelycontrolledtokeepthe
turbinewithinsafeoperatinglimits.
Theturbineassemblyismadeoftwomainparts:thediscandblades.Thisdiscorwheelisastatically
anddynamicallybalancedunitofspeciallyalloyedsteel.Itusuallycontainslargepercentagesof
chromium,nickel,andcobalt.Afterforging,thediscismachinedalloverandcarefullyinspected
usingXrays,magnetism,andotherinspectionmethodsforstructuralintegrity.Thebladesorbuckets
areattachedtothediscbymeansofafirtreedesigntoallowfordifferentratesofexpansionbetween
thediscandthebladewhilestillholdingthebladefirmlyagainstcentrifugalloads.Thebladeiskept
frommovingaxiallyeitherbyrivets,speciallockingtabsordevices,oranotherturbinestage.
Someturbinebladesareopenattheouterperimeter(Figure316)inothersashroudisused.The
shroudactstopreventbladetiplosses(gasleakagearoundthetipsoftheturbineblade)andexcessive
vibration.Byactinginthesamemannerasaircraftwingtipfence,theshroudsimproveairflow
characteristicsandincreaseturbineefficiency.
Shroudsreduceresistancetodistortionunderhighloads,whichtendtotwistthebladetowardlow
pitch.Theshroudedbladehasanaerodynamicadvantagethinnerbladesectionscanbeusedandtip
linescanbereducedbyusingaknifeedgeorlabyrinthsealatthispoint.
Shroudinghowever,requiresthattheturbineruncooleroratreducedRPMbecauseoftheextramass
atthetip.Onbladesthatarenotshrouded,thetipsarecutorrecessedtoaknifeedgetopermitarapid
"wearingin"ofthebladetiptotheturbinecasingwithamrespondingincreaseinturbineefficiency.
Bladesareforgedfromhighlyalloyedsteel.Theyarecarefullymachinedandinspectedbeforebeing
certifiedforuse.Manyenginemanufacturerswillstampamomentweightnumberonthebladeto
retainrotorbalancewhenreplacementisnecessary.
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Anothermethodforincreasingefficiencyistheuseofhoneycombshrouding(Figure317).This
shroudworksasalabyrinthsealingtheunshroudedturbinetips.Theseshroudsareallhousedbya
statorsupport,which,inturn,issupportedbytheengineoutercasing.Thisdesigniscurrentlyinuse
inthenewGeneralElectricturboshaftengines.
Nozzlevanesmaybeeithercaseorforged.Somevanesarehollow(Figure318)toallowadegreeof
coolingbycompressorbleedair.Inallcasesthenozzleassemblyismadeofveryhightemperature,
highstrengthsteeltowithstandthedirectimpactofthehothighpressure,highvelocitygasflowing
fromthecombustionchamber.
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Somemanufacturersareexperimentingwiththeenginewithtranspirationcoolednozzleandturbine
bladinginwhichtheairflowsthroughthousandsofsmallholesinaporousairfoilmadefroma
sinteredwiremeshmaterial(Figure319).Theperformanceofthegasturbineenginedependslargely
onthetemperatureattheinlet.Increasingthistemperaturefromthepresentlimitofabout1750oFto
the2500oFpossiblewithtranspirationcooledbladeswillresultinabouta100percentincreasein
specifichorsepower.Transpirationcoolingmaybeapromisingdevelopmentingasturbinedesign.
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Cooling
Designengineersuseeverydeviceattheircommandtoincreasetheallowableinlettemperature.On
practicallyalllargeengines,onesuchdeviceistocoolthefretstageturbineinletguidevanesandthe
firststagerotorblades.Thisisdonebyconductingcompressorbleedairthroughpassagesinsidethe
enginetotheturbinearea.There,theair(thecoolant)isledtothelongitudinalholes,tubesorcavities
inthefirststagevanesandblades.
Afterenteringthevaneandbladepassages,theair(coolant)isdistributedthroughholesattheleading
andtrailingedgesofthevanesandblades.Theairimpingesalongthevaneandbladesurfacesand
thenpassesoutoftheenginewiththeexhaust.Althoughbleedaircomingfromthecompressormay
behot,itiscoolinrelationtothetemperatureattheturbineinlet.Thisair,thereforeservestocoolthe
vanesandblades.Thispermitsgasescomingfromtheburnersectiontoentertheturbineathigher
temperaturesthanwouldotherwisebepermissible.
Coolingisnecessaryonlyintheturbineinletareabecauseenoughenergyisextractedfromthe
exhaustgasesbythefirstorfirstandsecondstagesoftheturbinetoreducethetemperaturetoa
tolerablelevel.
EXHAUSTSECTION
Theterm"exhaustduet"appliestotheengineexhaustpipeortailpipeincludingthejetnozzleofa
nonafterburningengine(Figure320).Althoughanafterburnermightalsobeconsideredatypeof
exhaustduct,afterburningisasubjectinitself.
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Iftheengineexhaustgasescouldbedischargeddirectlytotheoutsideairinanexactaxialdirectionat
theturbineexit,anexhaustductmightnotbenecessary.This,however,isnotpractical.Alargertotal
thrustcanbeobtainedfromtheengineifthegasesaredischargedfromtheaircraftatahighervelocity
thanthatpermissibleattheturbineoutlet.Anexhaustductisaddedtocollectandstraightenthegas
flowasitcomesfromtheturbine.Italsoincreasesthevelocityofthegasesbeforetheyaredischarged
fromtheexhaustnozzleattherearoftheduct.Increasinggasvelocityincreasesitsmomentumand
thethrustproduced.
Anengineexhaustductisoftenreferredtoastheenginetailpipe.Theductisessentiallyasimple,
stainlesssteel,conicalorcylindricalpipe.Theenginetailconeandstruts(Figure321)areusually
includedattherearoftheturbine.Thestrutssupporttherearbearingandimpartanaxialdirectionto
thegasflow,thetailconehelpssmooththeflow.Immediatelyaftoftheturbineoutletandusuallyjust
forwardoftheflangetowhichtheexhaustductisattached,theenginehasasensorforturbine
dischargepressure.Inlargeengines,itisnotpracticaltomeasureinternaltemperatureattheturbine
inlet.Therefore,theengineisusuallyalsoinstrumentedforexhaustgastemperatureattheturbine
outlet.Oneormorethermocouplespreinsertedintheexhaustcasetoprovideadequatesamplingof
exhaustgases.Pressureprobesarealsoinsertedinthiscasetomeasurepressureofgasescomingfrom
theturbine.Thegraduallydiminishingcrosssectionalareaofaconventionalconvergenttypeof
exhaustductiscapableofkeepingtheflowthroughtheductconstantatvelocitiesnotexceeding
Mach1.0attheexhaustnozzle.
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ExhaustDucts
Turboshaftenginesinhelicoptersdonotdevelopthrustusingtheexhaustduct.Ifthrustwere
developedbytheengineexhaustgas,itwouldbeimpossibletomaintainastationaryhovertherefore,
helicoptersusedivergentducts.Theseductsreducegasvelocityanddissipateanythrustremainingin
theexhaustgases.Onfindwingaircraft,theexhaustductmaybetheconvergenttype,which
acceleratestheremaininggasestoproducethrust.ThisaddsadditionalSHPtotheenginerating.
Equivalentshafthorsepower(ESHP)isthecombinationofthrustandSHP.
ConventionalConvergentExhaustNozzle
Therearopeningoftheexhaustductisthejetnozzle,orexhaustnozzleasitisoftencalledThe
nozzleactsasanorifice,thesizeofwhichdeterminesvelocityofgasesastheyemergefromthe
engine.Inmostnonafterburningengines,thisareaiscriticalforthisreason,itisfixedatthetimeof
manufacture.Theexhaust(jet)nozzleareashouldnotbealteredinthefieldbecauseanychangeinthe
areawillchangeboththeengineperformanceandtheexhaustgastemperature.Someearlyengines,
however,weretrimmedtotheircorrectRPMorexhaustgastemperaturebyalteringtheexhaust
nozzlearea.Whenthisisdone,smalltabsthatmaybebentasrequiredareprovidedontheexhaust
ductatthenozzleopening.Orsmall,adjustablepiecescalled"mice"arefastenedasneededaround
theperimeterofthenozzletochangethearea.Occasionally,enginesareequippedwithvariablearea
nozzleswhichareopenedorclosed,usuallyautomatically,withanincreaseordecreaseinfuelflow.
Thevelocityofthegaseswithinaconvergentexhaustductisusuallyheldtoasubsonicspeed.The
velocityatthenozzleapproachesMach1.0(thevelocityatwhichthenozzlewillchoke)onturbojets
andlowbypassratioturbofansduringmostoperatingconditions.
ConvergentDivergentExhaustNozzle
Wheneverthepressureratioacrossanexhaustnozzleishighenoughtoproducegasvelocitieswhich
mightexceedMach1.0attheengineexhaustnozzle,morethrustcanbegainedbyusinga
convergentdivergenttypeofnozzle(referbacktoFigure321).Thiscanbedoneprovidedtheweight
penaltyisnotsogreatthatthebenefitoftheadditionalthrustisnullified.Theadvantageofa
convergentdivergentnozzle(CDnozzle)isgreatestathighMachnumbersbecauseoftheresulting
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higherpressureratioacrosstheenginenozzle.Ifthepressureratiothroughasubsonicexhaustductis
greatenough(thiswillbethecasewhenthepressureattheentrancetotheexhaustductbecomes
approximatelytwicethatattheexhaustnozzle),thechangeinvelocitythroughtheductwillbe
enoughtocausesonicvelocity(Mach1.0)atthenozzle.AtveryhighflightMachnumbers,the
pressureratiobecomesmuchmorethan20.IfaCDnozzleisused,thevelocityattheexhaustnozzle
becomescorrespondinglygreaterthanMach1.0.Thisisadistinctadvantage,providedthenozzlecan
effectivelyhandlethesehighvelocities.
Whenadivergentductisemployedincombinationwithaconventionalexhaustduct,itiscalleda
convergentdivergentexhaustduct(Figure321).IntheCDnozzle,theconvergentsectionis
designedtohandlethegaseswhiletheyremainsubsonicandtodeliverthemtothethroatofthe
nozzlejustastheyattainsonicvelocity.Thedivergentsectionhandlesthegasesaftertheyemerge
fromthethroatandbecomesupersonicfurtherincreasingtheirvelocity.
Pressuregeneratedwithinanenginecannotbeconvertedtovelocity,particularlywhenaconvergent
nozzleisused.Theadditionalpressureresultsinadditionalthrustwhich,ashasbeenshown,mustbe
addedwhenthetotalthrustdevelopedbytheengineiscomputed.Theadditionalthrustisdeveloped
ineffliciently.Itwouldbemuchbettertoconvertallofthepressurewithintheenginetovelocityand
developalloftheenginethrustbymeansofchangesinmomentum.Intheory,aCDnozzledoesthis.
Becauseitdevelopsthisadditionalpartofthetotalthrustmoreefficiently,itenablesanengineto
producemoretotalnetthrustthanthesamebasicenginewouldgenerateifitwereequippedwitha
conventionalconvergentductandnozzle.TheCDnozzlewouldbenearlyidealifitcouldalwaysbe
operatedundertheexactconditionsforwhichitwasdesigned.However,iftherateofchangeinthe
ductareaiseithertoogradualortoorapidforthecalculatedincreaseinweightofthegases,unsteady
flowdownstreamofthethroatwilloccurwithanaccompanyinglossofenergy.Thisultimatelymeans
lossofthrust.Iftherateofincreaseinareaoftheductistoolittle,themaximumgasvelocitythatcan
bereachedwillbelimited.Iftherateofincreaseistoogreat,thegasflowwillbreakawayfromthe
surfaceofthenozzle,andthedesiredincreaseinvelocitywillnotbeobtained.Asexhaustgases
accelerateordeceleratewithchangingengineandflightconditions,theirpressurefluctuatesaboveor
belowthepressureratioforwhichthenozzlewasdesignedWhenthisoccurs,thenozzlenolonger
convertsallofthepressuretovelocity,andthenozzlebeginstoloseefficiency.
ThesolutiontothisdilemmaisaCDnozzlewithavariablecrosssectionalconfigurationwhichcan
adjustitselftochangingpressureconditions.SeveraltypesofCDnozzleshavebeentried,andafew
havebeenusedsuccessfullyonproductionaircraft.Astheactualdesignandoperationofsuchnozzles
isusuallyeitherclassifiedmilitaryinformationorproprietaryinformationofthemanufacturer,the
nozzlescannotbedescribedhere.
THRUSTREVERSERS
Thedifficultproblemofstoppinganaircraftafterlandingincreasesmanytimeswiththegreatergross
weightscommontolarge,modernaircraftwiththeirhigherwindloadingsandincreasedlanding
speeds.Wheelbrakesalonearenolongerthebeatwaytoslowtheaircraftimmediatelyafter
touchdown.Thereversiblepitchpropellersolvedtheproblemforpistonengineandturboprop
poweredairplanes.Turbojetandturbofanaircraft,however,mustrelyonsomedevicesuchasa
parabrakeorrunwayarrestergearorsomemeansofreversingthethrustproducedbytheirengines.
Althoughsometimesusedonmilitaryaircraft,theparabrakeordragparachutehasdistinct
disadvantageTheparabrakeisalwayssubjecttoeitheraprematureopeningorafailuretoopenatall.
Theparabrakemustberecoveredandrepackedaftereachuseand,ifdamagedorlostmustberepaired
orreplaced.Oncetheparabrakehasopened,thepilothasnocontrolovertheamountofdragonthe
aircraftexcepttoreleasetheparachutecompletely.
Arrestergearsareprimarilyforaircraftcarrierdeckoperationalthoughtheyaresometimesusedby
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militarybasesasovershootbarriersforlandrunways.Theywouldhardlybesuitableforcommercial
airlineoperationatabusymunicipalairport.
OILSYSTEMSEALS
Thesignificanceofoilsystemsealsinaircraftenginesisgreat.Aleakingsealinaturbineengine
couldcausetire,bearingfailure,orcockpitfumes,tonameafewdangers.Therearethreemaintypes
ofoilsystemseals:synthetic,labyrinth,andcarbon.
Synthetic
Syntheticseals(neoprene,silicone,Teflon,andsyntheticrubber)areusedthroughouttheengine'soil
system.Theyareusedwheremetaltometalcontactwouldnotprovidesatisfactorysealingto
withstandpressuresinsuchitemsasfilters,turbine,andfittings.Sealscomeinmanysizesandshapes
andarenotnormallyreused.Newreplacementsealsarereceivedfromsupplychannelsusuallyina
packagethatpreventsdamage.Inmostcasesthepackageswillhavea"curedate"stampedonthe
outside.(Curedateisthedateofmanufactureoftheseals.)Thisdateisparticularlyimportantwhen
installingsealsretieofrubber,whichhasatendencytodeterioratemorerapidlythansynthetic
material.Justasimportantistousethepropersealwiththecorrectpartnumberforaspecific
installation.Neveruseasealfromanothersystemjustbecauseitlooksliketherightseal.The
compositionormilitaryspecificationsmaybeentirelydifferentwhichcouldcausethesealtofailata
crucialmoment.
SomesyntheticsealscomingintocontactwithsyntheticoilssuchasMIL7808orML23609,havea
tendencytoswellothersmightdeterioratecompletely.Occasionally,sealsarereferredtoas
"packings"or"gaskets."However,thereisadifferencebetweenthetwo.Packingisusedtoprovidea
runningsealagasketisusedbetweentwostationarypartstocreateastaticseal.Somemanufacturers
refertoagasketasapackingandviseversa.Thesetermsshouldnotbetakenliterally,Alwaysgo
strictlybythepartnumberwhenusingseals.
Labyrinth
Labyrinthorairsealsaredesignedtoallowasmallamountofairtoflowacrossthesealingsurface.
Thishelpspreventoil(orlowerpressuredair)seepageacrossthesamesurface(Figure322).Air
sealshavetwoseparateparts.Onepartformsaplainorhoneycombsurfacethecorrespondingpartis
acircularsealwithannulargrooves.Thesegroovesmayuseasoftmetalasthebasiccompositionor
bemachinedintoasurface.Matchingthetwotogether(onerotatingportionorracewithone
stationary)formsanairpressureseal.Aseriesofsoftmetalknifelikeedgesridesveryclosetotheseal
surfaceorcutsapathintoastationaryhoneycomborsilveralloyairseal(Figure323).
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NOTE:Whenhoneycomborsilveralloyisused,itisbondedtothestationary
portionoftheairseal.
Airforthissealisnormallybledfromthecompressorandthenforcedbetweenthesealingsurfaceand
theseal.Theeffectofpressurizationpreventsoil(orlowerpressuredair)fromseepingfromone
sectiontoanotherduringengineoperation.Airsealsworkonlywhentheengineisoperatingwhenthe
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engineisshutdownsealleakagewilloccur.Beextremelycarefulwhenworkinginoraroundtheseal
areabecausesealsarecomposedofverysoftmetal.Averysmallnickorgrooveinasealmaycausea
seriousoilleakwhichmayrequireaprematureenginechange.
Carbon
Carbonoilsealsareusedtocontaintheoilwithinthebearingareasonmostjetturbineengines.All
carbonsealsformasealingsurfacebyhavingasmoothcarbonsurfacerubagainstasmoothsteel
surface.Thesteelsurfaceiscalleda"sealrace"or"faceplate,"dependingontheenginemanufacturer.
Allcarbonsealsarepreloaded.Thatis,thecarbonmustinsomewaybepressedagainstthesteel
surface.Threecommonpreloadmethodsarespringtension,centrifugalforce,andairpressure.During
operation,thesealmaybeaidedbyallowingasmallamountofoiltoflowintotherubbingsurface.
Theoilalsocoolsthesealasacertainamountofheatisbuiltupbythecarbonrubbingonthesteel
surface.
ThecarbonoilsealshowninFigure324consistsoftworowsofcarbonsegments(sealringandback
ring)mountedinahousingandheldtogetheraroundtheircircumferencebyextensionsprings.These
springsnotonlyholdthesegmentstogetherbycirclingtheoutsidebutalsoserveasthepreload
necessarytopressthesealsinward.Thesealsegmentsnearestthebearinghavealipthatformsthe
sealthepositioningpadscontactthesteelraceandmaintainthepropersealingpositionsofthe
segments.Thesepositioningpadsaresometimesreferredtoas"wearblocks"becausetheseallipis
verythinandwithoutthepadswouldhaveashortwearlife.Thegroovesbetweenthepadsare
staggeredtoreduceairflowtowardthesump.Onthisparticularseal,thesealracecontactsurfaceis
cooledbyasprayofoil.Thekeyandspiralpinshowninthefigurekeepthecarbonsegmentsfrom
turningwithinthesealhousingthecompressionspringspressthesealsegmentsintothehousing.The
entireassemblyisheldtogetherbythespringretainerandsnapring.Thistypeofsealisstationaryand
rubsagainstaninner,rotatingsealrace.
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Otherconfigurationsofcarbonsealsmayhaveseveralsealsoneachsideofthebearing.Theymay
alsorubonthesideoroutersurfaceofthesealratherthantheinnersurfaceastheoneillustrateddoes.
SealssuchastheoneinFigure325canberebuiltbyreplacingthesegmentsingroupsotherseals
however,mustbereturnedtoanoverhaulfacilitywhentheyaredamagedandmustbereplacedwitha
completesealassembly.
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MATERIALSANDMETHODSOFCONSTRUCTION
Hightemperature,highstrengthmaterialsanduniquemethodsofmanufacturehavemadethegas
turbineengineapracticalrealityinafewdecades.Theperformanceofturbojetandturbopropengines
dependslargelyonthetemperatureattheinlettotheturbine.Increasingtheturbineinlettemperature
fromthepresentlimit(formosthighlyproducedengines)ofapproximately1700oFto2500oFwill
resultinaspecificthrustincreaseofapproximately130percentalongwithacorrespondingdecrease
inspecificfuelconsumption.Forthisreasonhighcycletemperaturesaredesirable.Notallmaterials
canwithstandthehostileoperatingconditionsfoundinpartsofthegasturbineengine.
PropertiesandCharacteristics
Metallurgistshavebeenworkingforalmost50yearsimprovingmetalsforuseinaircraftconstruction.
Eachtypeofmetaloralloyhascertainpropertiesandcharacteristicswhichmakeitdesirablefora
particularuse,butitmayhaveotherqualitieswhichareundesirable.Themetallurgist'sjobistobuild
upthedesirablequalitiesandtonedowntheundesirableones.Thisisdonebythealloying
(combining)ofmetalsandbyVariousheattreatingprocesses.Itisnotnecessaryfortheairframe
repairertobeametallurgist,butitisadvantageoustohaveageneralknowledgeofthepropertiesused
intheirdevelopment.Therepairershouldbefamiliarwithafewmetallurgicalterms.Thefollowing
termsareusedindescribingthephysicalpropertiesandcharacteristicsofmetals.
Hardness.Hardnessreferstotheabilityofametaltoresistabrasion,penetration,cuttingaction,
orpermanentdistortion.Hardnessmaybeincreasedbyworkingthemetaland,inthecaseof
steelandcertainaluminumalloys,byheattreatmentandcoldworking.Structuralpartsareoften
formedfrommetalsintheirsoftstateandarethenheattreatedtohardenthemsothefinished
shapeisretained.Hardnessandstrengtharecloselyassociatedpropertiesofmetals.
Brittleness.Brittlenessisthepropertyofametalwhichallowslittlebendingordeformation
withoutshattering.Abrittlemetalisapttobreakorcrackwithoutchangeofshape.Because
structuralmetalsareoftensubjectedtoshockloads,brittlenessisnotadesirableproperty.Cast
ironorcastaluminumandveryhardsteelarebrittlemetals.
Malleability.Ametalwhichcanbehammered,rolled,orpressedintovariousshapeswithout
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crackingbreakingorotherdetrimentaleffectsissaidtobemalleable.Thispropertyisnecessary
insheetmetalwhichisworkedintocurvedshapessuchascowling,andwingtips.Copperisan
exampleofamalleablemetal.
Ductility.Ductilityisthepropertyofametalwhichpermitsittobepermanentlydrawn,bent,or
twistedintovariousshapeswithoutbreaking.Thispropertyisessentialformetalsusedin
makingwireandtubing.Ductilemetalsarepreferredforaircraftusebecauseoftheireaseof
formingandresistancetofailureundershockloads.Forthisreason,aluminumalloysareused
forcowlrings,fuselageandwingskin,andformedorextrudedpartssuchasribs,spars,and
bulkheads.Chromemolybdenumsteelisalsoeasilyformedintodesiredshapes.Ductilityis
similartomalleability.
Elasticity.Elasticityisthatpropertywhichenablesametaltoreturntoitsoriginalshapewhen
theforcewhichcausesthechangeofshapeisremoved.Thispropertyisextremelyvaluable,as
itwouldnotbedesirabletohaveapartpermanentlydistortedafteranappliedloadwas
removed.Eachmetalhasapointknownastheelasticlimitbeyondwhichitcannotbeloaded
withoutcausingpermanentdistortion.Inaircraftconstruction,membersandpartsareso
designedthatthemaximumloadstowhichtheyaresubjectedwillneverstressthembeyond
theirelasticlimits.Thisdesirablepropertyispresentinspringsteel.
Toughness.Amaterialwhichpossessestoughnesswillwithstandtearingorshearingandmay
bestretchedorotherwisedeformedwithoutbreaking.Toughnessisadesirablepropertyin
aircraftmaterials.
Conductivity.Conductivityisthepropertywhichenablesametaltocarryheatorelectricity.
Theheatconductivityofametalisespeciallyimportantinweldingasitgovernstheamountof
heatthatwillberequiredforproperfusion.Conductivityofthemetal,toacertainextent,
determinesthetypeofjigtobeusedtocontrolexpansionandcontraction.Inaircraft,electrical
conductivitymustalsobeconsideredinconjunctionwithbondingtoeliminateradio
interference.Metalsvaryintheircapacitytoconductheat.Copper,forinstance,hasarelatively
highrateofheatconductivityandisagoodelectricalconductor.
Fusibility.Fusibilityistheabilityofametaltobecomeliquidbytheapplicationofheat.Metals
arefusedinwelding.Steelsfuseatapproximately2500oF(1371oC),andaluminumalloysfuse
atapproximately1100oF(593oC).
Density.Densityistheweightofaunitvolumeofamaterial.Inaircraftwork,theactualweight
ofamaterialpercubicinchispreferred,asthisfigurecanbeusedindeterminingtheweightof
apartbeforeactualmanufacture.Densityisanimportantconsiderationwhenchoosinga
materialtobeusedinthedesignofapartinordertomaintaintheproperweightandbalanceof
theaircraft.
Contractionandexpansion.contractionandexpansionarereactionsproducedinmetalsasthe
resultofheatingorcooling.Ahighdegreeofheatappliedtoametalwillcauseittoexpandor
becomelarger.Coolinghotmetalwillshrinkorcontractit.Contractionandexpansionaffectthe
designofweldingjigs,castings,andtolerancesnecessaryforhotrolledmaterial.
Strength.Strengthreferstotheabilityofametaltoholdloads(orforces)withoutbreaking
Strengthisapropertythatsumsupmanyofthedesirablequalitiesofmetals.Strengthwith
toughnessisthemostimportantcombinationofpropertiesametalcanpossess.Metalshaving
thiscombinationofpropertiesareusedinvitalstructuralmembersthatmaybecomeoverloaded
inservice.
Inadiscussionofmetalproperties,stressandstrainshouldbementioned.Stressisaforceplaced
uponabodyandismeasuredintermsofforceperunitarea,theforcebeingexpressedinpoundsand
theunitofareainsquareinchesinotherwords,poundspersquareinch(psi).Stressmaybeinthe
formofcompression,tension,torsion,bending,shearingloads,oracombinationoftwoormoreof
these.Allpartsofanaircraftaresubjectedtostresses.Whenapartfailstoreturntoitsoriginalform
afterbeingstressed,itissaidtobestrained.Thevariousstressesactingonpartsofanaircraft,whilein
flight,haveanimportantbearingonthemetalsused:
Tension.Tensionistheresistancetopullingapartorstretchingproducedbytwoforcespulling
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inoppositedirectionsalongthesamestraightline.Thecablesofacontrolsystemareplaced
undertensionwhenthecontrolsareoperated.
Compression.Compressionistheresistancetopushingtogetherorcrushingproducedbytwo
forcespushingtowardeachotherinthesamestraightline.Thelandingstrutsofanaircraftare
undercompressionwhenlandingand,toasmallerdegree,whensupportingtheweightofthe
aircraftasitrestsontheground.
Torsion.Torsionistheresistancetotwisting.Atorsionalforceisproducedwhenanengine
turnsacrankshaft.Torqueistheforcethatproducestorsion.
Bending.Bendingisacombinationoftensionandcompression.Theinsidecurveofthebent
objectisundercompression,andtheoutsidecurveisundertension.Themainsparsofthemain
rotorbladesaresubjectedtobending.Thebladesdroopwhiletherotorheadisatrestandbend
upwardwhenrotating.
Shear.Shearisthestressexertedwhentwopiecesofmetalfastenedtogetherareseparatedby
slidingoneovertheotherinoppositedirections.Thestresscutsoffaboltorarivetlikeapair
ofshears.Ingeneral,rivetsaresubjectedtoshearonlybolts,tobothshearandtension.Thereis
internalshearinmostbendingelementsandintheskinofsheetmetalstructures.
MetallurgicalandMetalworkingTerms
Someofthemorecommonlyusedtermsinthefieldofmetallurgyarelistedbelow:
Strength.
Creepstrengththeonlyabilityofametaltoresistslowdeformationduetostress,but
lessthanthestresslevelneededtoreachtheyieldpoint.Creepstrengthisusuallystated
intermsoftime,temperature,andload.
Yieldstrengththepointreachedwhenmetalexhibitsapermanentsetunderload.
Rupturestrengththepointwheremetalwillbreakunderacontinualloadappliedfor
periodsofl00and1000hours.Metalsareusuallytestedatseveraltemperatures.
Ultimatetensilestrengththeloadunderwhichmetalwillbreakinashorttime.
Ductilitytheabilityofametaltodeformwithoutbreaking.
Coefficientofexpansionameasureofhowmuchametalwillexpandorgrowwiththe
applicationofheat.
Thermalconductivityameasureoftheabilityofametaltotransmitheat.
Corrosionandoxidationresistanceindicateshowwellametalcanresistthecorrosiveeffects
ofthehotexhauststream.
Meltingpointthetemperatureatwhichmetalbecomesaliquid.
Criticaltemperaturepointwhereasitiscooledametal'sinternalstructureandphysical
propertiesarealtered.Therateofcoolingwillgreatlyinfluencetheultimatepropertiesofthe
metal.
Heattreatabilityameasureofhowthemetal'sbasicstructurewillvaryunderanoperationor
seriesofoperationsinvolvingheatingandcoolingofthemetalwhileitisinasolidstate.
Ferritic,austenitic,andmartensiticsteelsallvaryinheattreatability.
Thermalshockresistancetheabilityofametaltowithstandextremechangesintemperaturein
shortperiodsoftime.
Hardnesstheabilityofametaltoresistabrasionpenetrationcuttingactionorpermanent
distortion.Hardnessmaybeincreasedbyworkingthemetalorbyheattreatment.
Alloyingthecombiningofmetalsintheirmoltenstatetocreatedesirablequalitiesorreduce
oreliminateundesirablequalities.
Commonmetalworkingtermsincludethefollowing:
Castingaprocesswherebymoltenmetalsolidifiesinamold.
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Forgingaprocessofplasticdeformationunderpressurethatmaybeslowlyorquickly
applied
Electrochemicalmachining(ECM)controlledhighspeeddeplatingusingashapedtool
(cathode),anelectricityconductingsolutionandtheworkpiece(anode).
Machininganyprocesswheremetalisformedbycutting,hotorcoldrolling,pinching,
punching,grinding,orbylaserbeams.
Extrusionpushingthroughadietoformvariouscrosssectionalshapes.
Weldingaprocessoffusingtwopiecesofmetaltogetherbylocallymeltingpartofthe
materialbyarcwelders,plasmas,lasers,orelectronbeams.
Pressingaprocessofblending,pressing,sintering(fusingthepowerparticlestogether
throughheat),andcoiningmetalsoutofprealloyedpowders.
Protectivefinishandsurfacetreatmentincludesplatingbyelectricalandchemicalprocesses
ceramiccoatings,orpainting.Surfacetreatmentsforincreasedwearmaytaketheformof
nitriding,cyaniding,carburizing,diffusioncoatingandflameplating.
Shotpeeningaplasticfloworstretchingofametal'ssurfacebyarainofroundmetallicshot
thrownathighvelocity.Shotpeeningalsoservestoworkhardenmetals,especiallyaluminum
alloy.
Heattreatmentaseriesofoperationsinvolvingthecontrolledheatingandcoolingofmetalsin
thesolidstate.Itspurposesistochangeamechanicalpropertyorcombinationofpropertiesso
thatthemetalwillbemoreuseful,serviceable,andsafeforaspecificpurpose.Itincludes
normalizingannealingstressrelieving,tempering,andhardening.
Inspection(strictlyspeakingnotapartofthemetalworkingprocessbutintegrallyassociated
withit)includesmagneticparticleanddyepenetrantinspection,Xrayinspection
dimensionalandvisualinspection,andinspectionbydevicesusingsound,light,andair.
HeatRangesofMetals
Theoperatingconditionsinsideagasturbineenginevaryconsiderably,andmetalsdifferintheir
abilitytosatisfactorilymeettheseconditions.
AluminumAlloys.Aluminumanditsalloysareusedintemperaturerangesupto500F.Withlow
densityandgoodstrengthtoweightratios,aluminumforgingsandcastingsareusedextensivelyfor
centrifugalcompressorwheelsandhousings,airinletsections,accessorysections,andforthe
accessoriesthemselves.
MagnesiumAlloys.Magnesiumistheworld'slighteststructuralmetal.Aluminumis15timesheavier,
titanium25timesheavier,steel4timesheavier,andcopperandnickelalloysare5timesheavier.
Magnesiumiscombinedwithsmallamountsofcertainothermetals,includingaluminum,manganese,
zinc,zirconium,thorium,andothers,toobtainthestronglightweightalloysneededforstructural
purposes.
TitaniumAlloys.Titaniumanditsalloysareusedforaxialflowcompressorwheels,blades,andother
forgedcomponentsinmanylarge,highperformanceengines.Titaniumcombineshighstrengthwith
lowdensityandissuitableforapplicationsupto100F.
SteelAlloys.Thisgroupincludeshighchromium,molybdenum,highnickel,andironbasealloysin
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additiontolowalloysteels.Becauseoftherelativelylowmaterialcost,easeoffabrication,andgood
mechanicalproperties,lowalloysteelsarecommonlyusedforbothrotatingandstaticengine
componentssuchascompressorrotorblades,wheels,spacers,statorvanesandstructuralmembers.
Lowalloysteelscanbeheattreatedandcanwithstandtemperaturesupto100F.High
nickelchromiumironbasealloyscanbeusedupto1250F.
NickelBaseAlloys.Nickelbasealloysaresomeofthebestmetalsforusebetween1200Fand1800
F.Mostcontainlittleornoiron.Theydevelophightemperaturestrengthbyagehardeningandare
characterizedbylongtimecreeprupturestrengthaswellashighultimateandyieldstrength
combinedwithgoodductility.Manyofthesematerials,originallydevelopedforturbinebucket
applications,arealsobeingusedinturbinewheels,shafts,spacers,andotherparts.Theiruseis
somewhatrestrictedbecauseofcostandbecauseoftheirrequirementforcriticalmaterials.
CobaltBaseAlloys.Colbaltbasealloysformanotherimportantgroupofhightemperature,high
strength,andhighcorrosionresistantmetals.Theycontainlittleornoiron.Thesealloysareusedin
afterburnerandotherpartsoftheenginesubjectedtoveryhightemperatures.
ChemicalElementsofAlloys
Thenumberofmaterialsusedinalloysislarge.Someofthemostcommonlyusedelementsarelisted
below.
Thepercentagesofelementsusedpartiallydeterminesthephysicalandchemicalcharacteristicsofthe
alloyanditssuitabilitytoaparticularapplication,Temperingandotherprocessesdeterminetherest.
Threecharacteristicsthatmustbeconsideredare
Hightemperaturestrength.
Resistancetooxidationandcorrosion.
Resistancetothermalshock.
HighTemperatureStrength.Themosthighlystressedpartsofthegasturbineenginearetheturbine
bladesanddiscs.Centrifugalforcestendingtobreakthediscvarywiththesquareofthespeed.For
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example,thecentrifugalforceonadiscrotatingat20,000RPMwillbefourtimesthatat10,000
RPM.Bladesweighingonly2ouncesmayexertloadsofover4000poundsatmaximumRPM.Blades
mustalsoresistthehighbendingloadsappliedbythemovinggasstreamtoproducethethousandsof
horsepowerneededtodrivethecompressor.Thereisalsoaseveretemperaturegradient(difference)
ofseveralhundreddegreesbetweenthecentralportionofthediskanditsperiphery.
Manymetalswhichwouldbequitesatisfactoryatroomtemperatureswilllosemuchoftheirstrength
attheelevatedtemperaturesencounteredintheengine'shotsection.Theultimatetensilestrengthofa
metalatonetemperaturedoesnotnecessarilyindicateitsultimatetensilestrengthatahigher
temperature.Forexample,atl000FInconelXhasanultimatetensilestrengthofapproximately
160,000psiandS816atthesametemperaturehasanultimatetensilestrengthof135,000psi.At
1500Ftheirpositionsarereversed.InconelXhasanuntimatetensilestrengthof55,000psiS816
hasanultimatetensilestrengthof75,000psi.Thecreepstrength,whichiscloselyassociatedwith
ultimatetensilestrength,isprobablyoneofthemostimportantconsiderationsintheselectionofa
suitablemetalforturbineblades.Enginevibrationandfatigueresistancewillalsohavesome
influenceontheselectionandusefullifeofbothdiscsandblades.
Manymaterialswillwithstandthehightemperaturesencounteredinagasturbineengine(carbon
columbium,molybdenum,rhenium,tantalum,andtungstenallhavemeltingpointsabove4000F).
However,theabilitytowithstandhightemperatureswhilemaintainingreasonabletensilestrengthis
nottheonlyconsideration.Allofthefollowingqualitiesmustbetakenintoaccountwhenselectinga
particularmetal:
Criticaltemperature.
Rupturestrength.
Thermalconductivity.
Coefficientofexpansion.
Yieldstrength.
Ultimatetensilestrength.
Corrosionresistance.
Workability.
Cost.
ResistancetoOxidationandCorrosion.Corrosionandoxidationareresultsofelectricalandchemical
reactionswithothermaterials.Thehotexhaustgasstreamencounteredintheenginespeedsupthis
reaction.Whileallmetalswillcorrodeoroxidize,thedegreeofoxidationisdeterminedbythebase
alloyandthepropertiesoftheoxidecoatingformed.Iftheoxidecoatingisporousorhasacoefficient
ofexpansiondifferentfromthatofthebasemetal,thebasemetalwillbecontinuallyexposedtothe
oxidizingatmosphere.Onesolutiontooxidationatelevatedtemperaturesisceramiccoatings.
Ceramiccoatedafterburnerlinersandcombustionchambersareinusetoday.Theceramiccoatinghas
twobasicfunctions:
Sealingthebasemetalsurfaceagainstcorrosion.
Insulatingthebasemetalagainsthightemperatures.
Thesecoatingsarenotwithoutdisadvantages:
Theyaremoresusceptibletothermalshock.
Theymusthavethesamecoefficientofexpansionasthebasemetal.
Theyarebrittle.
Theyhavelowtensilestrengthwhichrestrictstheiruseintheengine.
SomepromisingworkisbeingdonewithvariousmetalceramiccombinationscalledCermetsor
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Ceramels.Materialsbeingusedwithceramicsincludealuminum,beryllium,thorium,andzirconium
oxides,tonameafew.
ResistancetoThermalShock.Manymaterialswhichwouldotherwisebequitesuitablemustbe
rejectedbecauseoftheirpoorthermalshockcharacteristics.Severalenginefailureshavebeen
attributedtothermalshockontheturbinedisc.Ceramiccoatinginparticulararevulnerabletothis
formofstress.Improvedfuelcontrols,startingtechniques,andenginedesignhavelessenedthis
problem.
TranspirationCooling
Theefforttoachievehigherturbineinlettemperatures(andthereforehigherthermalefficiency)has
beenapproachedfromtwodirections:(1)hightemperaturematerialsand(2)coolingmethods.A
commonmethodofcoolingthenozzleguidevanesongasturbineenginesistopasscompressorbleed
airthroughthehollowbladestocoolthembyconvectiveheattransfer.Someenginesalsouseairbled
fromthecompressortocoolthefrontandrearfaceoftheturbinediscsandthehollowturbineblades.
Transpirationcoolingisanovelandefficientmethodofallowingtheturbinebladesandotherparts
withinthehotsectiontooperateatmuchhigherturbineinlettemperatures.TheWrightCorporation
hasconstructedandrunturbinebladesataninlettemperatureof2500F.Inthistypeofcooledblade
theairpassesthroughthousandsofholesinaporousairfoilmadefromasinteredwiremeshmaterial.
Sincethesinteredwiremeshisnotstrongenoughbyitself,aninternalstrutisprovidedasthemain
structuralsupportcarryingallairfoilandcentrifugalloads.Fabricationtechniquesinvolverolling
layersofwovenwiremeshandthensinteringtheselayerstoformaporousmetalsheet.Thesheetis
thenrolledintoanairfoilshape.
Porousmaterialshavebeentestedforuseincombustionchambersandforafterburnerliners.A
similarmaterialcalledRigimeshhasalsobeenusedinrocketenginestohelpkeepthefuelnozzles
cool.Manymanufacturersareexperimentingwithothertypesofporousmaterialsforuseinbladesin
anattempttoobtainhigherturbineinlettemperatures.
OtherMaterials
Relativelynewmaterialscalledcompositesarecomingintouseinbothairframesandengines.In
theseproductsgraphite,glassorboronfilamentsareembeddedinanepoxyresinmatrixorbase
substance.Othertypesoffilamentsandmaterialsarebeingtriedtomeetthedemandsofhigher
temperaturesandstressThechiefadvantageofcompositematerialisitsveryfavorablestrengthto
weightratio,whichcanleadtolighterweightinmanystructuralparts.Forexample,alighterfan
bladeallowsalighterfandisc,whichinturnpermitsalighteningofotherpartsallthewaydownthe
line.Compositematerialsmaybeusedinconjunctionwithotherloadbearingmaterialstoprovidea
supportfunction.Typicalofthistypeofstructurearefanbladeswithasteelsparandbaseandwithan
airfoilcompositeshell.
ManufacturingTechniques
Basicpartsoftheengineareproducedbyseveralcastingandforgingprocesses,literallydozensof
machineoperations,andfabricationproceduresusingavarietyofmetaljoiningmethods.
Casting.Severalenginepartsarecastinaluminum,magnesium,orsteelalloys.Thesepartsinclude
intakeandcompressorhousings,accessorycases,andblading,tonameafew.Castingmethodsdiffer.
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Theyinclude
Sandcasting.
SpinCasting.
Lostwaxorinvestmentcasting.
Resinshellmoldcasting.
Slipcasting.
Mercasting.
Sandcastings.Sandcastingusesawoodormetalpatternaroundwhichaclayhesandhasbeen
packedtoformthemold.Themoldisthensplit,thepatternremoved,themoldreassembled,andany
coresthatarenecessaryadded.Moltenmetalataprecisetemperatureispouredintothemoldand
allowedtocool.Themoldisremoved,andvariousheattreatmentsmaybeperformedtoobtainthe
desiredphysicalcharacteristics.Thecastingmaybespunwhilebeingpoured.
Spincasting.Spincastingresultsinadenser,soundercasting.Spinningisnormallyperformedon
smallringsections.Coolingofthemetalradiallyinwardresultsinfewerstresses.
Lostwaxorinvestmentcasting.Basically,theinvestmentcastingprocessinvolvestheuseofheat
disposablewaxorplasticpatternswhicharesurroundedwitharefractorymaterialtoforma
monolithicmoldPatternsareremovedfromthemoldinovens,andmoltenmetalispouredintothe
hotmold.Sometimesthispouringisdoneinavacuumfurnace.Aftercoolingthemoldmaterialis
quitefragileandeasilyremovedfromthecasings.Becausethefinishedproductduplicatesthepattern
exactly,thefabricationofpatternsiscritical.Theyaremadebyinjectingmoltenwaxorplasticinto
metaldies.Thefinishedcastingshaveanexceptionallysmoothsurfacefinishingandrequirevery
littlefurthermachining.Incidentally,thisprocessisnotnew.ItwasusedbytheancientGreeksand
Egyptianstocastlightweightstatues,intricatebowls,andpitchers.
Resinshellmoldcasting.Resinshellmoldcastingisahighproductionmethodsimilartoinvestment
castingexceptthatthetolerancesarenotheldasclosely.Inmanywaysitrivalssandcastingin
economy.
Slipcasting.Slipcasting(whichwasborrowedfromtheceramicsindustry)isusedforsuperheat
resistantmaterials.Oftenitistheonlywaycertainmaterialscanbeshaped.Metalceramics,silicon
nitride,andrefractorymetalscastthiswaycanwithstandtemperaturesover2200F.
Mercasting.TheMercastprocessisaprecisioncastingtechnique.Itisessentiallythesamekindof
methodasthelostwaxerinvestmentprocessexceptthatfrozenmercuryisusedasapatterninsteadof
wax.Liquidmercuryispouredintoamastermoldwhereitisfrozenattemperaturesbelow40F.
Thenitisremovedandcreatedwithacoldrefractoryslurrytoathicknessof1/8inchormore.The
refractoryshellisdriedatlowtemperaturethentheshellandmercuryarebroughttoroom
temperatureandthemercuryismeltedout.Therefractoryshellisfiredtogiveitstrengthandthenis
usedasthemoldforausualcastingprocess.ComplicatedpartscanbemadewiththeMercastprocess.
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Veryclosetolerancesandexcellentsurfacefinishcanbeobtained.Thecost,however,ishigherthan
thatofsomeothermethods.
Forging.Disks,driveShafts,gears,vanes,blades,andnumerousotherpartsofthegasturbineengine
aremanufacturedbyforging.Thisprocessallowsthedevelopmentofagrainstructureandresultsina
finelygrained,moreductile,strongdenseproduct.Forgingisbyrapidhammeringorslowpressing.
Thechoiceoftechniquedependsontheresistanceofmetaltorapiddeformation.Theworkpieceis
generallyheatedtoimproveplasticityandreduceforgingforces.Itwilloftenpassthroughseveral
differentdiesbeforethefinalshapeisobtained.Allductilematerialscanbeforgedbuttheir
forgeabilityvariesconsiderably.Forgeabilitygenerallydependsupon
Meltingpoint.
Ductility.
Yieldstrength.
Crystallographicstructure.
Recoveryfromforgingstresses.
Surfacereactivity.
Diefriction.
Cost.
Machining.Commontoolsusedtomanufacturegasturbinepartsincludelathes,mills,broaches,
grinders,shapersandplaners,polishersandbuffers,drills,saws,shears,filers,threaders,contour
machinesofallkinds,andahostofotherdevicestocutandformmetal.Manyofthesedevicesusea
numericaltapecontrolorotherautomaticcontroldevicestoreducehumanerrorandproduceamore
uniform,lessexpensiveproduct.Robotsequippedwithcomputersalsoassistinmachiningparts.
Somenontraditionalmachiningtechniquesforremovingmetalfromsuperhardandsupertoughalloys
andothermaterialswhosecomplexshapesprecludeconventionalmetalcuttingtoolsinclude
Chemicalmilling.
Electrochemicalmachining(ECM).
Electricdischargemachining(EDM).
Electronbeammachining.
Laserbeammachining.
Othernonconventionalmachiningincludeseverythingfromabrasivejetcuttingtoultrasonic
machining.
Chemicalmilling.Chemicalmillinginvolvestheremovalofmetalbydissolvingitinasuitable
chemical.Thoseareasthatarenottobedissolvedaremaskedwithnonreactivematerials.Theprocess
canbeusedonmostmetals,includingaluminum,magnesium,titanium,steels,andsuperalloyfor
surfacesculpturing.Bothsidesoftheworkpiececanbechemicallymilledsimultaneously.Inaddition,
theprocesscanbeusedtomachineverythinsheets.
Electrochemicalmachining.Electrochemicalmachiningisbasicallyachemicaldeplatingprocessin
whichmetal,removedfromapositivelychargedworkpieceusinghighamperage,lowvoltageDC,is
flushedawaybyahighlypressurizedelectrolytebeforeitcanplateoutonthecathodetool.The
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cathodetoolismadetoproducethedesiredshapeintheworkpiecebothmustbeelectrically
conductive.Theworkproceedswhilethecathodeandworkpiecearebothsubmergedinanelectrolyte
suchassodiumchloride.Avariationandextensionofelectrochemicalmachiningiselectrostream
drilling.Inthisprocessanegativelychargedelectrolyte,usuallyanacid,drillsholesinaworkpiece
thathasbeenpositivelychargedHolesassmallas0.005inchindiameterand0.5inchdeepin
superalloyscanbedrilledinthismanner.
Electricdischargemachining.Inelectricdischargemachininghighvoltagesareusedtoproducea
highelectricalpotentialbetweentwoconductivesurfaces(theworkpieceandelectrodetool)bothof
whichareimmersedinadielectricfluid.Materialisremovedfromboththeelectrodeandthe
workpiecebyaseriesofveryshortelectricdischargesorsparksbetweenthetwoandissweptaway
bythedielectricfluid.Morematerialisremovedfromtheworkpiecethanfromthetoolbyproper
selectionofthetwomaterials.Thisprocesscanbeusedtoshapecomplexpartstoveryclose
tolerancesfromrefractorymetalsandalloysthatwereformerlyimpossibletomachine.Theuseof
electricdischargemachiningislimitedinthatitisslowerthanelectrochemicalmachiningtool
replacementcanbecomeexpensive,andthesurfaceoftheworkpieceisdamagedasaresultofthe
sparks.Ontheotherhand,theEDMprocessislessexpensivethantheECMprocess.
Electronandlaserbeammachining.Electronbeammachiningandlaserbeammachiningarebeing
usedexperimentally.Theymayfindfutureuseintheproductionofgasturbinesandotheraerospace
components.
Fabrication.Weldingisusedextensivelytofabricateandrepairmanyengineparts.Fabricatedsheet
steelisusedforcombustionchambers,exhaustducts,compressorcasings,thrustreversers,silencers,
andsoforth.Commonmethodsincluderesistanceandinertgas(usuallyargon)welding.Less
commonmethodsuseplasmasandlasers.Electricresistanceweldingisusedtomakespot,stitch
(overlappingspots),andcontinuousseamwelds.Inertgasweldingemploysanonconsumable
electrode(tungstenthoriumalloy)surroundedbysomeinertgassuchasargonorhelium.Thegas
preventsanadversereactionwiththeoxygenpresentinthenormalatmosphere.Theinertgascanbe
appliedintheimmediateareaofthearc.Inthecaseofproductionrunstheworkpieceortheentire
weldingmachinecanbeenclosedinathinplasticballoon,sometimesaslargeasaroom.Theentire
plasticbubbleisfilledwithandsupportedbytheinertgas.Theoperatorstandsontheoutsideand
worksthroughspeciallydesignedarmholes.Afterwelding,manypartsmustbestressrelieved.Where
temperatureorworkingloadsarenotlarge,brazingorsilversolderingmaybeusedtojoinsuchparts
asfittingsandtubeassemblies.
Electronbeamweldingisshowinggreatpromiseasamethodoffabricatingpartsfromheretofore
difficulttoweldorunweldablematerials.Electronbeamweldingusesastreamoffocusedelectrons
travelingatspeedsapproaching60percentofthespeedoflight.Eventhoughthemassofelectrons
whichformthebeamissmalltheyaretravelingatsuchspeedsthattheycontainagreatamountof
kineticenergy.Whenthebeamstrikestheworkpiece,thekineticenergyistransformedintoheat
energy.Theweldingusuallytakesplaceinavacuum,althoughnonvacuumtechniquescanbeused.
Thefollowingcharacteristicsmakethisweldingprocessavaluableoneinthegasturbine
manufacturingarea:
Deepnarrowweldswithaverynarrowheataffectedzoneinthebasemetal.
Theabilitytoweldmaterialsasthinas0.00025inchandasthickas4inchesofstainlesssteel.
Theabilitytoweldmanydifferenttypesofmaterials.
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Finishing.Thebasicmaterial,thepropertiesdesiredinthefinishedproduct,andthekindofprotection
desireddeterminethetypeofsurfaceandinternaltreatmentreceived.Thevarietyisconsiderableand
includesthefollowing:
Chemicaltreatment.Chromepicklingisthemostcommonlyusedofallchemicaltreatmentsof
magnesium.Thepartisdippedinasolutionofsodiumbichromate,nitricacid,andwater.
Electrochemicaltreatment.Anodizingisacommonsurfacetreatmentforaluminumalloysin
whichthesurfacealuminumisoxidizedtoanadherentfilmofaluminumoxide.
Painting.Athinpreservativeresinvarnishcoatingisusedtoprotectinternalsteel,aluminum,
andmagnesiumparts.Thecharacteristiccolorofthisshiny,transparentcoatingisusuallygreen
orbluegreen.Agraphitepowdermaybemixedwiththevarnishtoactasanantigellant.Grey,
black,oraluminumenamelorepoxypaintisalsousedextensivelyasaprotectivefinish.
Shotpeering.Thisprocedurecanincreasethelifeofapartmanytimes.Itisessentiallyaplastic
floworstretchingofametal'ssurfacebyarainofroundmetallicshotthrownathighvelocity
byeithermechanicalorpneumaticmeans.The0.005to0.035inchstretchedlayerisplacedina
stateofcompressionwiththestressconcentrationuniformlydistributedovertheentiresurface.
Thisaidstoincreasesurfacehardness.Glassbeadsaresometimesusedastheshotforcleaning
purposes.
Plating.Agreatnumberofplatingmaterialsandproceduresareused.Platingmaterials
involvingtheuseofchemicalorelectrochemicalsolutionsincludecadmium,chromium,silver,
nickel,tinandothers.Theexactprocedureisdeterminedbytheplatingandbasemetal.
Aluminizing.Thisisanotherplatingmethodwherebypuremoltenaluminumissprayedonto
thealuminumalloybasematerialtoformaprotectivecoatingagainstoxidationandcorrosion.
TheCoatingServiceofUnioncarbideCorporationhasdevelopedandisproducingmachinesfor
applyingextremelywearresistantandotherspecializedcoatingtogasturbineparts,tools,andother
machines.Thedifferentcoatingsareappliedbyeitheroftwomethodsthedetonationgun(Dgun)or
theplasmagun.Fourtimesasecond,asparkignitesthemixtureandcreatesadetonationwhichhurls
thecoatingparticles,heatedtoaplasticstatebythe6000Ftemperatureinthegun,outofthebarrel
ataspeedof2500feetpersecond.Theparttobeplatediskeptbelow300Fbyauxiliarycooling
streams.Thehighlevelsoundof150decibelsnecessitateshousingtheguninadoublewalled,sound
insulatedconstruction.Operationiscontrolledfromoutsidethisenclosure.
Theplasmagunortorchproducesandcontrolsahighvelocity,inertgasstreamthatcanbe
maintainedattemperaturesabove20,000F.UnliketheDgunprocessnocombustiontakesplace.
Thehightemperatureplasmaisformedbyionizingargongasintheextremeheatofanelectricarc.
Gasmoleculesabsorbheatenergyfromthearcsplitintoatoms,andthenfurtherdecomposeinto
electricallychargedparticlescalledions.Thehotgasstreamcanmeltanyknownmaterial,without
decomposition.Whenthemoltenparticles,whichareintroducedinpowderedform,strikethepart
beingcoated,apermanentweldedbondisformed.WhiletheDgunisapatentedUnionCarbide
machine,othermanufacturersmakeanddistributeavarietyofplasmaplatingandcuttingdevices.
HeatTreatments.Allofthefollowingproceduresalterthemechanicalpropertiesofsteeltosuitthe
end
Normalizingsteelisheatedtoatemperatureabovethecriticalrangeandallowedtocool
slowly.Normalizingpromotesuniformityofstructureandaltersmechanicalproperties.
Annealingconsistsofheatingtoapointatornearthecriticalrange,thencoolingata
predeterminedrate.Itisusedtodevelopsoftness,improvemachineability,reducestress,
improveorrestoreductility,andmodifyotherproperties.
Stressrelievingmetalisheatedthroughouttoapointbelowthecriticalrangeandslowly
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cooled.Theobjectofthistreatmentistorestoreelasticpropertiesorreducestressesthatmay
havebeeninducedbymachiningcoldworking,orwelding.
Solutionheattreatmentdonewithaluminumalloys.Consistsofheatingthemetalstothe
highesttemperaturewithoutmeltingandholdingthemetalsatthattemperaturelongenoughto
produceasolidsolutionofthehardeningcomponentsinthealloy.Thisisfollowedbyrapid
quenchingtoretaintheproducedcondition.
Hardeninginvolvesheatingthemetaltoatemperatureabovethecriticalrangeandthen
quenchingThecoolingratewilldeterminehardness.
Temperingsteelisusuallytoobrittleforuseafterquenching.Temperingrestoressomeofthe
ductilityandtoughnessofsteelatthesacrificeofhardnessorstrength.Theprocessis
accomplishedbyheatingthehardenedsteeltoaspecificpointbelowthecriticaltemperature,
holdingitatthattemperatureforaspecifictime,andthencoolingmaterialinacontrolledarea.
NonmetallicMaterials
Teflon,nylon,carbon,rubber,Bakelite,andahostofplasticmaterialsareusedinthegasturbine
enginemainlyassealingandinsulationmaterials.Forexample,nylonandTeflonareusedtoinsulate
andprotecttheshieldedelectricalwiringlocatedontheoutsideoftheengine.Teflonisalsousedon
theJ79F4Phantomengineforthesealingthevariablestatorvaneactuators.Carbonisusedlargely
insidetheengineintheformofcarbonrubbingseals.Someofthese"face"carbonrubbingsealsmust
beflattowithintwoheliumlightbands,orapproximately23millionthsofaninch.Rubberand
rubberizedfabricmaterialsmakeupthesealingedgeofthefiresealwhichdividesthehotandcold
sectionsoftheenginewhenmountedinthenacelle.Syntheticrubberisusedextensivelythroughout
theengineintheformofOringsorothershapedseals.
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FUELSYSTEM
CHAPTER4
FUELSYSTEM
Thefuelsystemforgasturbineandreciprocatingenginesisthesame.Itdeliverstotheenginefuel
meteringsystemauniformflowofcleanfuelattheproperpressureandinthenecessaryquantityto
operatetheengine.Despitewidelyvaryingatmosphericconditions,thefuelsupplymustbeadequate
andcontinuoustomeetthedemandsoftheengineduringflight.
DESCRIPTION
Thefuelsystemisoneofthemorecomplexaspectsofagasturbineengine.Thevarietyofmethods
usedtomeetturbineenginefuelrequirementsmakesreciprocatingenginecarburationseemsimpleby
comparison.
Thrust
Itmustbepossibletoincreaseordecreasethepoweratwilltoobtainthethrustrequiredforany
operatingcondition.Inturbinepoweredaircraft,thiscontrolisprovidedbyvaryingtheflowoffuelto
thecombustionchambers.However,turbopropandturboshaftaircraftalsousevariablepitch
propellersorhelicopterrotorsthus,theselectionofthrustissharedbytwocontrollablevariables,fuel
flowandpropellerbladeorrotorbladepitch.
FuelSupply
Thefuelsupplymustbeadjustedautomaticallytocorrectforchangesinambienttemperatureor
pressure.Anexcessivefuelsupplyinrelationtomassairflowthroughtheenginecancausethe
limitingtemperatureoftheturbinebladestobeexceeded.Itcanproducecompressorstallandsurge.
FuelDelivery
Thefuelsystemmustdeliverfueltothecombustionchambersintherightquantityandintheright
conditionforsatisfactorycombustion.Fuelnozzlesformpartofthesystemandatomizeorvaporize
thefuelsothatittiffigniteandburnefficiently.Thefuelsystemmustalsosupplyfuelsothatthe
enginecaneasilybestartedonthegroundandintheair.Thismeansfuelmustbeinjectedintothe
combustionchambersinacombustibleconditionwhentheengineisbeingturnedoverslowlybythe
startingsystem.Combustionmustbesustainedwhiletheengineisacceleratingtoitsnormalrunning
speed.
Acceleration
Anothercriticalconditiontowhichthefuelsystemmustrespondoccursduringaquickacceleration.
Whentheengineisaccelerated,energymustbefurnishedtotheturbineinexcessofthatnecessaryto
maintainaconstantRPM.However,ifthefuelflowincreasestoorapidly,anoverrichmixturemaybe
producedcausingasurge.
FuelControl
Turbojet,turbofan,turboprop,andturboshaftenginesareequippedwithafuelcontrolunitwhich
automaticallysatisfiestherequirementsoftheengine.Althoughthebasicrequirementsapply
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generallytoallgasturbineengines,thewayinwhichindividualfuelcontrolsmeettheseneedscannot
beconvenientlygeneralized.Eachfuelcontrolmanufacturerhasitsownwayofmeetingtheengine
demands.
TURBINEENGINEFUELSYSTEMCOMPONENTS
MainFuelPumps,EngineDriven
Mainfuelpumpsdeliveracontinuoussupplyoffuelattheproperpressureduringoperationofthe
aircraftengine.Enginedrivenfuelpumpsmustbeabletodeliverthemaximumflowneededathigh
pressuretoobtainsatisfactorynozzlesprayandaccuratefuelregulation.
Fuelpumpsforturbojetenginesaregenerallypositivedisplacementgearorpistontypes.Theterm
"positivedisplacement"meansthatthegearorpistonwillsupplyafixedquantityoffueltotheengine
foreveryrevolutionofthepumpgearsorforeachstrokeofthepiston.
Thesefuelpumpsmaybedividedintotwodistinctsystemcategoriesconstantdisplacementand
variabledisplacement.Theirusedependsonthesystemusedtoregulatetheflowoffuel.Thismaybe
apressurereliefvalve(barometricunit)forconstantdisplacement(gear)pumporamethodfor
regulatingpumpoutputinthevariabledisplacement(piston)pumps.
ConstantDisplacementPump
Geartypepumpshaveapproximatelystraightlineflowcharacteristics,whereasfuelrequirements
fluctuatewithflightorambientairconditions.Apumpofadequatecapacityatallengineoperating
conditionswillhaveexcesscapacityovermostoftherangeofoperation.Thisisthecharacteristic
whichrequirestheuseofapressurereliefvalvefordisposingofexcessfuel.Theimpeller,whichis
drivenatagreaterspeedthanthehighpressureelements,increasesthefuelpressurefrom15to45
psi,dependingonenginespeed.
Thisfuelisdischargedfromtheboostelement(impeller)tothetwohighpressuregearelements.Each
oftheseelementsdischargesfuelthroughacheckvalvetoacommondischargeport.Highpressure
elementsdeliverapproximately51gallonsperminuteatadischargepressureof850psig.
Shearsectionsareincorporatedinthedrivesystemsofeachelement.Ifoneelementfails,theother
elementcontinuestooperate.Checkvalvespreventcirculationthroughtheinoperativeelement.One
elementcansupplyenoughfueltomaintainmoderateaircraftspeeds.
Areliefvalveisincorporatedinthedischargeportofthepump.Thisvalveopensatapproximately
900psiandiscapableofbypassingthetotalflowat960psi.Excessfuelisrecirculated.Thebypass
fuelisroutedtotheinletsideofthetwohighpressureelements.
VariableDisplacementPump
Thevariabledisplacementpumpsystemdiffersfromtheconstantdisplacementpumpsystem.Pump
displacementischangedtomeetvaryingfuelflowrequirementsthatis,theamountoffueldischarged
fromthepumpofvariableflow,theapplicablefuelcontrolunitcanautomaticallyandaccurately
regulatethepumppressureanddeliverytotheengine.
Wherevariabledisplacementpumpsareinstalled,twosimilarpumpsareprovidedandconnectedin
parallel.Eachpumpcancarrytheloadiftheotherfailsduringnormalparalleloperations.Attimes
onepumpmaybeinsufficienttomeetpowerrequirements.Pumpduplicationincreasessafetyin
operation,especiallyduringtakeoffandlanding.
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Thepositivedisplacement,variablestroketypepumpincorporatesarotor,piston,maximumspeed
governor,andreliefvalvemechanism.
FuelFilters
Allgasturbineengineshaveseveralfuelfiltersatvariouspointsalongthesystem.Itiscommon
practicetoinstallatleastonefilterbeforethefuelpumpandoneonthehighpressuresideofthe
pump.Inmostcasesthefilterwillincorporateareliefvalvesettoopenataspecifiedpressure
differentialtoprovideabypassforfuelwhenfiltercontaminationbecomesexcessive.
PaperCartridge.Thisfilterisusuallyusedonthelowpressuresideofthepump(Figure41).It
incorporatesareplaceablepaperfilterelementwhichiscapableoffilteringoutparticleslargerthan50
to100microns(thesizeofahumanhair).(Onemicronequals0.000039inch,or25,400microns
equaloneinch.)Thecartridgeprotectsthefuelpumpfromdamageduetofuelcontamination.
ScreenDisc.Thisdisc(Figure42)islocatedontheoutletsideofthepump.Thisfilteriscomposed
ofastackofremovablefinewiremeshscreendiscswhichmustbedisassembledandcleaned
periodicallyinanapprovedsolvent.
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Screen.Thisscreenisgenerallyusedasalowpressurefuelfilter.Someofthesefilterscreensare
constructedofsinterbondedstainlesssteelwireclothandarecapableoffilteringoutparticleslarger
than40microns(Figure43).
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Inadditiontothemainlinefilters,mostfuelsystemswillincorporateseveralotherfilteringelements.
Theymaybelocatedinthefueltank,fuelcontrol,fuelnozzles,andanyotherplacedeemeddesirable
bythedesigner.
PressurizingandDrain(Dump)Valves
Thepressurizinganddrainvalvepreventsflowtothefuelnozzlesuntilsufficientpressureisreached
inthemainfuelcontrol.Oncepressureisattained,theservoassembliescomputethefuelflow
schedules.Italsodrainsthefuelmanifoldatengineshutdowntopreventpostshutdownfires.Butit
keepstheupstreamportionofthesureanddeliverytotheengine.systemprimedtopermitfaster
starts.
FlowDivider.Thepressurizinganddumpvalveusedonsomeengineshasasomewhatdifferent
function.Inadditiontothedrainingordumpingfunction,thisunitalsoservesasaflowdivider.Atthe
beginningofanenginestart,thefuelcontrolsuppliesapressuresignaltothepressurizinganddump
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valve.Thiscausesthevalvetoclosethemanifolddrainandopenapassageforfuelflowtothe
engine.Onengineshutdown,fuelflowiscutoffimmediatelybyavalveinthefuelcontrol.The
pressuresignaldrops,thedumpvalveopens,andfueldrainsfromthemanifold.Theflowdivider
allowsfueltoflowtotheprimaryandsecondarymanifoldsdependingonfuelpressure.(SeeFigure4
3.)
PressureOperatedValve.Somemanufacturers,suchasAllisonandLycoming,installapressure
operatedvalveinthecombustionchambersection.Whenthepressureintheburnersdropsbelowa
specifiedminimum,usuallyafewpoundspersquareinch,thisvalvewillopenanddrainanyresidual
fuelremainingafterafalsestartornormalshutdown.(RefertoFigure44toseewherethisdrain
valvefitsintothesystem.)
FuelHeater
Gasturbineenginefuelsystemsareverysusceptibletotheformationoficeinthefuelfilters.When
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thefuelintheaircraftfueltankscoolsto32Forbelow,residualwaterinthefueltendstofreeze
whenitcontactsthefilterscreen.
Afuelheateroperatesasaheatexchangertowarmthefuel.Theheatercanuseenginebleedair,an
airtoliquidexchanger,oranenginelubricatingoil,aliquidtoliquidexchanger,asasourceofheat.
Afuelheaterprotectstheenginefuelsystemfromiceformation.However,shouldiceform,theheater
canalsobeusedtothawiceonthefuelscreen.
Insomeinstallationsthefuelfilterisfittedwithapressuredropwarningswitchwhichilluminatesa
warninglightonthecockpitinstrumentpanel.Ificebeginstocollectonthefiltersurface,thepressure
acrossthefilterwillslowlydecrease.Whenthepressurereachesapredeterminedvalue,thewarning
lightflasheson.
Fueldeicingsystemsaredesignedtobeusedintermittently.Thesystemmaybecontrolledmanually
byaswitchinthecockpitorautomaticallyusingathermostaticsensingelementinthefuelheaterto
openorclosetheairoroilshutoffvalve.AnautomaticfuelheaterisillustratedinFigure45.
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FuelNozzles
Onmostgasturbineengines,fuelisintroducedintothecombustionchamberthroughafuelnozzle.
Thisnozzlecreatesahighlyatomized,accuratelyshapedsprayoffuelforrapidmixingand
combustionwiththeprimaryairstreamundervaryingconditionsoffuelandairflow.Mostenginesuse
eitherthesingle(simplex)orthedual(duplex)nozzle.
SimplexNozzleFigure46(A)illustratesatypicalsimplexnozzle.Itschiefdisadvantageisthatitis
unabletoprovideasatisfactoryspraypatterninbiggerenginesbecauseofthelargechangesinfuel
pressuresandairflows.
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DuplexNozzle.Thechiefadvantageoftheduplexnozzleisitsabilitytoprovidegoodfuel
atomizationandproperspraypatternatallratesoffueldeliveryandairflow.AtstartingandlowRPM
andatlowairflow,thesprayangleneedstobefairlywidetoincreasethechancesofignitionandgood
mixingoffuelandair.AthigherRPMandairflow,anarrowpatternisrequiredtokeeptheflameof
combustionawayfromthewallsofthecombustionchamber(Figure46[B]).Thesmallfuelflow
usedinidlingisbrokenupintoafinesprayafterbeingforcedthroughasmalloutletformedbythe
primaryholes.ThesecondaryholesarelargerbutstillprovideafinesprayathigherRPMbecauseof
thehigherfuelpressure.
Fortheduplexnozzletofunction,theremustbeadevicetoseparatethefuelintolow(primary)and
high(secondary)pressuresupplies.Thisflowdividermaybeincorporatedineachnozzle,aswiththe
singleentryduplextype(Figure46[C]),orasingleflowdividermaybeusedwiththeentiresystem
(Figure46[D]).
Singleentryduplexnozzlesincorporatinganinternalflowdividerrequireonlyasinglefuelmanifold
(Figure47).Dualentryfuelnozzlesrequireadoublefuelmanifold.Somedualfuelmanifoldsmay
notbeapparentassuch.
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Theflowdivider,whetherselfcontainedineachnozzleorinstalledinthemanifold,isusuallya
springloadedvalvesettoopenataspecificfuelpressure.Whenthepressureisbelowthisvalue,the
flowdividerdirectsfueltotheprimarymanifoldornozzleorifice.Pressuresabovethisvaluecause
thevalvetoopen,andfuelisallowedtoflowinbothmanifoldsornozzleorifices.
Mostmodernnozzleshavetheirpassagesdrilledatanangle.Thefuelisdischargedwithaswirling
motiontoprovidelowaxialairvelocityandhighflamespeed.Inaddition,anairshroudsurrounding
thenozzlecoolsthenozzletip.Italsoimprovescombustionbyretardingtheaccumulationofcarbon
depositsontheface.Theshroudalsoprovidessomeairforcombustionandhelpstocontaintheflame
inthecenteroftheliner(Figure48).
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Extremecaremustbeexercisedwhencleaning,repairing,orhandlingthenozzles.Evenfingerprints
onthemeteringpartsmayproduceafuelflowwhichisoutoftolerance.
FuelShutoffValves
Theenginefuelshutoffvalveisinstalledinthemainfuelsupplylineortankoutlettotheengine.Itis
controlledfromthepilot'scompartment.Afuelshutoffvalveisusuallyinstalledbetweenthefuel
controlunitandthefuelnozzles.Whenthethrottleisplacedintheclosedposition,thisensures
positiveshutoffoffueltotheengine.
T700/701FUELSYSTEM
Thefuelsystemconsistsofthefuelboostpump,fuelfilter,hydromechanicalunit(HMU),and
overspeedanddrainvalve.IntegraltotheHMUarethehighpressurevanepump,variablegeometry
(VG)actuator,andcompressorinlettemperaturesensor.Thesefuelsystemcomponentsaremounted
ontheaccessorygearbox(AGB)andorientedasshowninFigure49.Ata100percentgasgenerator
speed(Ng)of44,700RPM,thefuelboostpumpisdrivenat10,678RPMandtheHMUat9947RPM.
ThisfueloilheatexchangerislocatedinthemeteredfuelflowpathtotheenginebetweentheHMU
dischargeandtheoverspeedanddrainvalveinlet.ExceptforoneexternallinebetweentheHMU
discharge(meteredfuel)andthefueloilheatexchangerinletpassage,allthefueltransferisthrough
coredpassageswithinAGB.Thisincludestheboostpumpinletflange(engineaircraftinterface)to
theoverspeedanddrainvalvewherethefueldischargesintotheprimerandthemainmanifolds.
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AschematicdiagramofthefuelsystemcomponentarrangementisshowninFigure410.Anaircraft
fuelsystemisdepictedtoshowtheoverallaircraftenginefuelhandlingsystems.
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Requirements
Theprimaryrequirementsofthefuelsystemare
Tocontrolaccurateandstableenginespeedforsteadystateoperationsandtoprovidetransient
controltoachieverapidpowerchanges.Thissystempumps,filters,andmetersfuelinresponse
topoweravailablespindle(PAS)position,loaddemandspindle(LDS)position,sensedengine
variables,andtorquemotorinputfromtheelectricalcontrolunit.
Topositionthecompressorvariablestatorvanesthroughouttheengineoperatingrangeto
achievetherequiredairflowandstallmarginperformancebythecompressor.
Toprovideascheduleforstartingbleedvalve.
Toprovideautomaticstartschedulesfromsealevelto20,000feetaltitude.
Toprotecttheengineagainstdestructivegasgeneratorandpowerturbineoverspeed.
Theserequirementsmustbemetoverthefullengineoperatingenvelopeandenvironment.
FuelBoostPump
ThefuelboostpumpismountedontheAGBforwardside(Figure411).Itisdesigned
Toprovidereliablesuctionfeedfromtheaircraftfuelboostpumptotheengine.
Tominimizevulnerabilityandfirehazardbycontinuousoperationwithfuelpressureinthe
linesfromtanktoengineatapressurelessthanatmospheric.
Toprovidedischargepressureforhighpressurevanepumpminimuminletpressure
requirements.
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At100percentNg(44,700RPM)thefuelboostpumpoperatesat10,678RPM.Pumpdischarge
pressurerangesfrom45to90psiatmaximumcontinuousspeedand20psiminimumatgroundidle
speed.
PumpInlet
Thepumpinletistheengineairframefuelinterface.Thepumpismechanicallydesignedasa
cantileveredpumpingelementonarigidshaftrunningintwooillubricatedsleevebearings.Oilis
suppliedfromtheengineoilsystemthroughafaceportmatingwithgearboxforbearinglubrication.
Oilandfuelareseparatedbytwodynamiccarbonsealswithacenterventtotheengineoverboard
drainmanifold.Shaftsplinesarelubricatedbyoilmistwhichispumpedthroughthesplintsbyradial
pumpingholesinthepumpquillshaftandthematingenginegearboxshaft.
PumpElements
Thepumpingelementsareanejectororjetpump,amixedflowcentrifugalinducer,andaradialflow
impellerwithaflowpathfromimpellerdischargetoprovideejectorpumpmotiveflow.Thisbypass
flowisapproximatelyequaltotwicemaximumengineflowatpumpratedspeed.
FuelFilter
RefertoFigures412and413andreferbackto41.Thefuelfilterprovides30micronabsolute
filtrationforenginefuelpriortoenteringthehighpressurevalvepumpintheHMU.Afterpassing
throughacoreintheaccessorygearbox,enginefuelflowstothefilterthroughitsinletportfromthe
engineboostpumpdischarge.Theflowthenisdirectedacrossthe30micronpleated,barriertype
filterelement(outsidetoinsidedirection),outthedischargeportthroughanothergearboxcore,andto
theHMUvanepumpinlet.
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Thefueldifferentialpressureacrosstheelementissensedacrossamagnetassemblypistononboth
theimpendingandactualbypassindicators.At810psiofpressuredifferential,theimpendingbutton
pistonassemblymoves,carryingthemagnetwithit.Asthemagnetoftheimpendingindicatormoves
awayfromthebutton,themagneticfieldholdingtheredbuttonintheinwardpositionisreduced,
allowingthebuttontopopoutaidedbyaspring.
Theelectricalfilterbypasssensor(oractualbypassindicator)isactivatedbyapressuresignalasthe
bypassvalveopensat1822psidifferentialpressure.However,inthiscasethereducedmagneticfield
allowsthebuttonreturnspringinsidethemicroswitchtoactuatetheswitchbuttonthroughtheaction
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ofthepivotedstitchleverarm.Thisprovidesacockpitindicationoffilterbypass.
Impendingindicatormechanismsarelockedwhenthewireandhalfballelementandthemagnet
pistonassemblymovetowardsthecenterofthefilter.Thiscausesthehalfballtodropandcatchon
theedgeoftheramp.Thislatchingpreventsthemagnetpistonassemblyfromreturningtoitsoriginal
position.Intheimpendingbypassposition,thebuttoncanbepushedinitsrecessedpositionbutwill
notremainsincethemagnethasnotreturnedtoprovidethenecessarymagneticfield.Thefilter
bypasssensordoesnotlatch.
Theimpendingbypassbuttoncannotberesetuntilthefilterelementandbowlassemblyareremoved
andtheresetpistonpushedupwards.Theresetpistonupperlandthentripsthehalfsphericalballat
theendofthelockingwire,allowingthespringloadedpistontoreturnthemagnetpistonassemblyto
itsoriginalposition.
Thefilterbypassvalveisapoppettype.Asthefilterdifferentialpressurereaches1822psi,the
bypassvalveopens,andthesensorisactivatedforremoteindicationoffilterbypassing.Thefilter
elementisdisposablewhenloaded.
HydromechanicalUnit(HMU)
TheHMUismountedontheaftcenteroftheAGB(Figure414).Itprovidesfuelpumping,fuel
meteringfuelflowcomputation,fuelpressurization,andfuelshutoff.Italsoprovidesgasgenerator
speedcontrol,compressorVGschedulingandactuation,andantiicingandstartingbleedvalve
actuation.TheunitrespondstoPASinputforfuelshutoff,start,groundidle,uptomaximum
permissiblegasgeneratorspeed,vaporventing,andelectricalcontrolunitoverridecapability.The
HMUalsorespondstoanexternallysuppliedloaddemandinputviatheLDSwhichisproportionalto
thepowerabsorberload.Thisinitiallyanddirectlycoordinatesgasgeneratorspeedandpowerto
closelyapproximatethepowerrequiredfortherotororshaftpowerabsorber.TheHMUthen
respondstoinputfromanelectricalcontrolunit(ECU)viatheHMUtorquemotor.Thistrimsgas
generatorspeedasdirectedforbothpowerturbinespeedcontrolandturbinetemperaturelimitingfor
moreexactloadsharecontrol.IntheeventofanECUfailure,theHMUhasthecapabilityto
mechanicallydeactivatetheECU.Italsoventstheunitcasetotheoverboarddrainintheeventof
excessiveairorvaporattheinletbecauseofovertravelinthePAS.TheHMUrespondstosensed
engineparameters(T2,P3andN3)whichinfluencefuelflowandVGposition.
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TheHMUprovidesthreemajorenginefunctions:fuelpumping,fuelmetering,andVGpositioning.
FuelPumpingSystem(HighPressure).ThemainfuelpumpishousedwithintheHMU.Itisavane
type,pressurebalancedpumpwhichisselfpriming,contaminationresistant,andinterchangeable(at
depotlevelmaintenance).Thegearboxdrivesthepumpsplineat9947RPMat100percentNg.The
oppositeendofthedriveshaftservesastherotationalinputtotheHMU.Thevanepumpdesignwas
specificallydevelopedwithtungstencarbidevanes,pressureplates,andcamringforcontamination
resistance.
Thevaneinletpressureisinternallyboostedaboveengineboostdischargepressurebyafuelinjector
andinjectorbypassvalve.Thisensurespositivechargingofthevaneelementunderallnormal
operatingconditionsandallowslimitedoperationwithafailedengineboostpump.Theinjector
bypassvalvemaintainsadifferentailpressureacrosstheinjectorof12.5135psi.Thisresultsina
vanepumpinnletpressureupto30psiaboveboostpumpdischarge.
Aspringloaded,highpressurereliefvalveonthevanepumpdischargepreventssystem
overpressurizationbylimitingvanepumpdifferentialpressureto832psi.
FuelMeteringSystem.TheHMUfuelmeteringsystemcontrolsfuelflowtotheengine.The
componentsinthissystemarethe
Highpressurefuelpump.
Servosupplyfilter.
Meteringvalve.
Pressureregulatingvalve.
Shutoffvalve.
Minimumpressurevalve.
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Highpressurefuelfromthepumppassesaroundtheoutsideoftheservosupplywashfilterandgoes
tothemeteringvalve.Themeteringvalve,inconductionwiththepressureregulatingvalve,meters
requiredengineflowproportionallytothemeteringvalveareaandbypassesexcessfuelthroughthe
PRVbacktothepumpinlet.
VariableGeometryPositioningSystem.AstatorvaneactuatorisanintegralpartoftheHMU.It
providespositioningofthevariablestatorvanesandtheantiiceandthestartbleedvalveforefficient
engineoperationthroughouttheenginespeed(Ng)range.AservopistonwithintheHMUprovidesan
externaloutput(forceandposition)tosettheengineVGasafunctionofNgandT2.Thisscheduleis
contouredontheNgspeedservo3Dcam.Motionoftheschedulefollowerlevermovesalinkpivoted
ontheactuatorpiston.Thisactionstrokesadoubleacting,springloaded,rotatingpilotvalve.The
valvethenprovideshighandlowfuelpressuresignalstooppositesidesfortheVGactuatorpiston.
Motionoftheactuatorreturnsthepilotvalvetoanullposition,whichcorrespondstotheinput
positionbeingscheduled.Theactuatorprovidesminimumforceoutputof280poundsandis
positionedasafunctionofcorrectedspeed.
OverspeedandDrainValve.TheT7GE701valveEngineShutdowncontrolsthesequencingoffuel
betweenthemainmanifoldandtheprimermanifold(Figure415).Thevalvealsoprovidesshutoff,
drain,primermanifoldpurgefunctions,andNpoverspeedprotection.Theassemblyconsistsofthe
followingcomponents:
Shutoffanddrainvalve.
Pressurizingvalve.
Washflowfilter.
Bypassvalve(Npoverspeed).
Fuelservosolenoidvalve(Npoverspend).
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EngineStart
Withtheengineshutdown,thepressureintheoverspeedanddrainvalveisequaltoambientpressure,
andtheinletandpressurizingvalveisspringloadedclosed.Whentheengineiscrankedoverandthe
PASisadvancedtothestopcockintheHMU,theHMUdelivers,meteredflowtotheoverspeeddrain
valveinlet.Thismeteredflowpassesthroughawashflowfilter,andlinepressurebuildsupuntilthe
inletandpressurizingvalveopens.Fuelboostpressureisdirectedtothetopofaselectorvalve.
HigherpressureWfpassesthroughtheopenselectorvalveandflowstothe12fuelinjectorsfor
enginelightoffandnormaloperation.
EngineShutdown
WhenthePASismovedtotheOFFposition,theHMUisstopcocked,fuelflowtotheoverspeedand
drainvalveisstopped,andtheinletandpressurizationvalveisforceddownbyspringaction.This
opensthemainfuellineintheoverspeedanddrainvalvetooverboarddrainpressure.TheresidualP3
pressureinthecombusterforcesthefuelinjectorsandmainmanifoldbackthroughtheoverspeedand
drainvalveandouttheoverboarddrainline.
PowerTurbine(Ng)OverspeedProtection
Theturbineoverspeedfunctionisdesignedtodivertfuelflowfromthecombustorandflameoutthe
enginetoprotectagainstdestructiveNpoverspeed(Figure416).WhenNpreaches25,000RPM
(119.6percent),thesolenoidvalveintheODVisenergizedandopensaballvalve.Thiscausesa
bleedoffofequalizingfuelpressureonthebottompartoftheselectorvalve.ThehighpressureW4
causestheselectrovalvetomovedownandallW4tobypassbacktotheHMUinlet.The
instantaneouslossofW4tothecombustorcausestheenginetoflameout.
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FuelInjectors
Twelvefuelinjectors,installedinthemidframe,receivefuelfromthemainfuelmanifoldandsupply
ittothecombustionlinerswirlcup(swirler)subassemblies(Figure417).Theswirlersconsistof
counterrotatingflowprimaryandsecondaryvaneswithventurisleevesbetweenthetworadialinflow
swirlervanes.Fuelfromtheinjectorisforcedintothesesleeves,andthecounterrotatingflowcreates
shearlayerswhichbreakupthefuelfilmintofinelyatomizedsprays.
Theinjectorisasimplexnozzlewithasinglespinchamberfedbytwospinholes.Theswirledfuel
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fromthespinholesexitsthroughanorificeanddischargesontoa30primarycone.Thisconeflares
outwardattheexit.Thecontouredexitprovidesagoodqualityfuelsprayatverylowfuelpressurein
thestartingregime.Theprimaryconeishousedinanairshroudwhichhassixairholes.Thesesixair
holesfeedairtoaugmentstheatomizationofthefuel.Thishydraulicdesignissimplecontainsno
valves,flowdividers,orsecondaryorificesandispurgedbycompressordischargeairduring
shutdowntopreventplugging.
Theinjectorhasamilitarystandardfittingattheinletwithalastchance,0.009inchdiametermesh
screentoprotecttheorificespinslots.Alocatingpininthemountingflangeassurescorrect
orientationoftheinjectorwithinthemidframecasing.Itisnotnecessarytoremovetheinjectors
beforeremovingorreplacingthecombustionliner.
FUELCONTROLUNIT
Types
Modernfuelcontrolscanbedividedintotwobasicgroups:hydromechanicalandelectronic.
Hydromechanicalcontrolsareusedmostoften.Fuelcontrolsareextremelycomplexdevices
composedofspeedgovernors,servosystemsandfeedbackloops,valves,meteringsystemsand
varioussensingmechanisms.Electronicfuelcontrolscontainthermocouples,amplifiers,relays,
electricalservosystemswitches,andsolenoids.Thediscussionoffuelcontroltheorywilladdress
mainlythehydromechanicaltype.Thesimplestcontrolisaplainmeteringvalvetoregulatefuelflow
totheengine.Thistypeofcontrolcouldbeinstalledonanengineusedforthrustorgasgeneration.
Fuelcontrolsmaysensesomeorallofthefollowingengineoperatingvariables:
Pilotsdemands.
Compressorinlettemperature.
Compressordischargepressure.
Burnerpressure.
Compressorinletpressure.
RPM.
Turbinetemperature.
Somerefinementsmightincludea
Pumptopressurizethefuel.
Shutoffvalvetostopfuelflow.
Reliefvalvetoprotectthecontrolwhentheshutoffvalveisclosed.
Minimumfuelcontroladjustmenttopreventcompletestoppageoffuelbythemeteringvalve.
TurbopropandTurboshaftEngineFuelControls
Likefuelcontrolsforturbojetandturbofanengines,thefuelcontrolforaturboproporaturboshaft
enginereceivesasignalfromthepilotforagivenlevelofpower.Thecontrolthentakescertain
variablesintoconsideration.Itadjuststheenginefuelflowtoprovidethedesiredpowerwithout
exceedingtheRPMandturbineinlettemperaturelimitationsoftheengine.Buttheturbopropor
turboshaftenginecontrolsystemhasanadditionaljobtodothatisnotsharedbyitsturbojetand
turbofancounterparts.Itmustcontrolthespeedofthepropellerorthefreeturbine,anditusually
governsthepitchangleofthepropellerblades.
Manyturbopropandturboshaftenginesinproductiontodayarethefreeturbinetype.Enginesofthis
kindactprincipallyasgasgeneratorstofurnishhighvelocitygasesthatdriveafreelyrotatingturbine
mountedintheexhaustgasstream.Thefreeturbineturnsthepropellerthroughasystemofreduction
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gears.Iftheengineisaturboshaftmodel,thefreeturbinerotates(alsothroughreductiongears)a
helicopterrotororpowersamachine.TheGeneralElectricT700andtheLycomingT55L712fuel
controlsystemfollow.
T700CONTROLSYSTEM
Theenginecontrolsystemincorporatesallcontrolunitsnecessaryforcompletecontroloftheengine.
Thesystemprovidesforthemorecommonfunctionsoffuelhandling,computation,compressorbleed
andVGcontrol,powermodulationforrotorspeedcontrol,andoverspeedprotection.Thesystemalso
incorporatescontrolfeaturesfortorquematchingofmultipleengineinstallationsandovertemperature
protection.TheT700controlsystemwasdesignedforsimpleoperationrequiringalowlevelofpilot
attention.Thesystemperformsmanyofthecontrollingfunctionsformerlyperformedbythepilot.
Thishasbeendonebyproviding
Isochronouspowerturbineandhelicopterrotor(Np/Nr)governing.
Automaticloadsharing.
Automaticlimitingofpowerturbineinlettemperature.
Rapidenginetransientresponsethroughcollectivecompensation.
Automaticstarting.
Contingencypower.
Basicsystemoperationisgovernedthroughtheinteractionoftheelectricalandhydromechanical
controlunits.Ingeneral,theHMUprovidesforgasgeneratorcontrolintheareasofacceleration
limiting,stallandflameoutprotection,gasgeneratorspeedlimitingrapidresponsetopowerdemands,
andVGactuation.TheECUtrimstheHMUtosatisfytherequirementsoftheloadtomaintainrotor
speed,regulateloadsharing,andlimitenginepowerturbineinlettemperature.
ComponentArrangementandInterconnection
Meteringoffueltotheengineandbasicenginecontrolcomputationsareperformedinthe
hydromechanicalcontrolunit(Figure418).Theelectricalandhydromechanicalcontrolunits
computethefuelquantitytosatisfypowerrequirementsoftheengine.Thefuelandcontrolsystem
containsthefollowingcomponents:
Hydromechanicalcontrolunitwhichincludesa9947RPM(at100percentofNg)highpressure
vanepumppackageandaclosedloopVGservoacutator.Thebasicunitmeterstherequired
fueltotheengineasafunctionofNg,T2,P3,anelectricaltrimmingsignalfromtheengine
mountedelectricalcontrolunit,andcockpitinputsofPASandLDS.
Electricalcontrolunitwhichresetsthehydromechanicalcontrolunitwithinacceptableengine
limitstomaintainisochronousNpgoverningwhileautomaticallylimitingTGT.Theunit
exchangestorquesignalstoprovideautomaticloadsharingformultiengineuse.TheECU
provides
AseparatesignaltotheoverspeedanddrainvalveforNPoverspeedprotection.
Therequiredsignalstoanenginemountedrecordertoprovidearecordofengine
operationalhistory.
Thedesiredcockpitsignalsneededforproperengineoperation.
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FortheT700GE701/701Aenginesinaoneengineinoperative(OEI)condition,theautomatic
contingencypowerswitch,locatedintheECU,resetsthetemperaturelimitamplifiertoallowfor
morepowerisrequiredfortheoperatingengine.
Figure419liststhefunctionalsplitbetweenthetwounitsmentionedabove.
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Fullyintegratedoperationoftheengineresultsfromthreeinputs:
Poweravailablespindle.Thisinputhasafunctionsimilartothethrottleorpowerleverofother
enginecontrols.Itmechanicallystopcocksfuelandsetspermissiblegasgeneratorspeedsfor
operatingconditionsfromgroundidlethroughintermediatepower.Overtravelbeyond120to
130actuatesanelectricalunitinterfacelockout,usedintheeventofanelectricalunitfailure.It
ventsthehydromechanicaluniteasetooverboarddraintofacilitateprimingofthefuelsystem.
Loaddemandspindle.Thisinputisafunctionofcollectivepitch.Itprovidescollective
compensationreducerotortransientdroop.
Rotorspeedreference.Acockpitmountedelectricpotentiometersetsdesiredpowerturbine
speed.
HydromechanicalUnitOperation
TheHMUoperatesasaconventionalgasgeneratorpowercontrolwhenthereisnoinputtothetorque
motorandwiththeloaddemandspindlesetformaximumload(Figure420).Engineschedulessuch
asaccelerationfuelflowandcompressorVGposition,arecontrolledbyNgandT2.Theacceleration
(orstall)limitisimposedbyamaximumcanscheduleofWf/P3versusNgandT2.Aminimumflow
schedulecontrolsenginedeceleration.Maximumandminimummeteringvalvestopsprovideabsolute
fuelflowlimits.AnintermediatetoppinglinecontrolsmaximumNgspeed.Thetoppinglinealso
limitsexcessiveT4.5ineventofanelectricalT4.5controlsystemfailure.Sincethesefeaturesare
incorporatedintheHMU,anypoweravailablespindlemotionwillresultinsafeengineoperationand
willnotcauseenginedamage.Exceptforintentionalstopcockingofthecontrol,noinadvertent
shutdownswilloccurfromPASmotion.
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AloaddemandsignalisintroducedtotheHMUthroughtheLDS.WhentheLDSisreducedforits
maximumsettingwithareductionofaircraftrotorcollectivepitchsettingthedesiredNgisresetdown
fromtheprevailingPASsettingtoprovideimmediateandaccurategasgeneratorresponse.Thisnew
settingistrimmedbytheECUtosatisfytheNpandloadcontrolfunctionsestablishedbytheECU.
ThePASsetsamaximumavailablegasgeneratorspeed.Thepilotusuallysetsthis120PASangle
allowingthegasgeneratorspeedtoreachavaluewhichgivesintermediatepower.Throughthis
collectivepitchsetting,thepilotpositionstheLDStoadjustavailableNgtopowerlevel
approximatelyequaltotherotorloaddemandpower.Theactuallevelofhorsepowerat120PAS
anglewillbemorethanrequiredbythehelicopter.
Thisisintentionallydonefortworeasons:
Failsafetohighpower.Byplacingtheschedulehigh,thetorquemotorisdesignedtoreduce
thescheduletothedesiredlevelwhenitisenergized.Becauselossoftorquemotorcurrent
causesthescheduletoreturntothehighestlevel,thisprovidesfailureprotectiontoahigh
power.Aschedulethatisbiasedhighduetoelectricalfailuredoesnotcausepowerlimiting.In
theeventofanelectricalsystemfailure,itcanbemanuallyretardedtoamoredesirablelevel
usingthePAS.WithallengineprotectionfunctionsintheHMU,noenginedamageorstallcan
occurduringorfollowinganylossofelectricalsignaltothetorquemotor.
Poweravailablewithoneengineout.Thescheduleisplacedhighenoughthat,intheeventof
failureofoneengine,theremainingengine'sgasgeneratorcanincreasepowerenough
(automaticcontingencypower)tocarrytheloadatthegivenLDS(collectivepitch)setting.
Withoutthisarrangementofschedules,asingleenginefailurecouldnotbecompensatedforby
theremainingengineandwouldresultinasignificantlossofavailablepower.
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ElectricalControlUnitOperation
TheECU,poweredfromanenginemountedalternator(Figures421,422)
ComparesactualNptoareferenceNptocomputeaspeederrorinputsignalforuseinelectrical
controlcomputation.
Comparesactualtorqueoftheenginetotorqueoftheotherengineforloadsharing.Ifthe
enginetorque(Q1)islessthanthatoftheotherengine(Q2),suppliesatorqueerrorsignaltothe
computer.NoerrorsignalappearsifQ1isgreaterthenQ2.Thisarrangement(frequently
referredtoasamatchthemaximumprinciple)preventstheloadsharingcircuitfromcausinga
goodenginetoreducepowertomatchapowerlimitedengine.Thetorqueerrorsignalisadded
totheNpspeedreferencesignalandcanincreaseupto3percentovertheselectedNp.
ComparesmeasuredengineTGTtoafixedreferenceTGT.When(andonlywhen)temperature
isabovethereference,developsasignaltoreducefuelflowtocorrecttheovertemperature.
Comparesthecombinedspeederrorandloadsharingsignaltotheovertemperaturesignalin
theselectorcircuitoftheECU.SelectsthesignalcallingforthelowestNgandpassesittothe
HMUtoreducegasgeneratorpowerasrequired.
SendsanelectricaloutputfromtheselectordrivestoatorquemotorintheHMU.Thetorque
motorcanshifttheloaddemandscheduledasifthePASweremovedinareducedpower
demanddirection.ThetorquemotorcanretardNgnofurtherthangroundidleandcanonly
allowpowertoincreasetothePASsetting.TheECUmaybeoverriddenatanytimeby
advancingPASbeyondthenormal(120)flightpositiontothe130stop.PASmaythenbe
retardedtotrimtheenginemanually.NotethatthishasnoeffectontheNpoverspeedsystem,
whichremainsfullyoperational.
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TakeoffandClimb
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Beforetakeoff,thePASleverisadvancedfromgroundidleto120,whichisthenormalflight
position.Thisallowstherotorheadtoaccelerateto100percentNp/Nrwiththecollectivestillinflat
pitch.NgwillriseasthePASisadvancedbutwillcutbackaftertheNpgoverningspeedof100
percentisreached.(Npgoverningcanbeselectedat95101percent,but100percentisconsidered
standard.)
Totakeoff,collectivepitchisincreased,increasingthetorqueloadonthepowerturbine.
Simultaneously,theLDSrotates,callingforanincreaseingasgeneratorspeedtokeepNp/Nrfrom
fallingbelow100percent.TheECUsofeachengineperformafinetrimoffuelflowtomatchtorques
andtrimNp/Nrto100percent.
AsNgincreases,theHMUschedulesthebleedvalveclosedandthevariablestatorsopentoincrease
airflowthroughthecombustorandturbine.
Ifcollectivepitchisincreasedtoaveryhighangle,TGTmayapproachthetemperaturelimiting
value.Whenthisoccurs,theECUpreventsanyfurtherincreaseinfueltotheengine.Iftorqueloadis
increasedfurther,Np/Nrwilldroopbelow100percentbecausepowerturbinegoverningmustbe
sacrificedtoprotecttheengineagainstovertemperature.
CruiseandDescent
Attheendoftheclimbsegment,lessrotorliftisrequiredandcollectivepitchisrecked.TheLDS
rotatestoreducefuelflowandNgthevariablestatorswillcloseslightlytooptimizepartpowerfuel
consumptionandpreservestallmargin.
Again,ECUstrimfuelflow.Uponenteringadescent,thesamesequenceofeventsreducesNgtothe
pointthatthebleedvalvemaybeopened.Ifthecollectivepitchisfullylowered,autorotation(power
offdescent)isreached,andthetorquedropstozerooverrunningclutchesintheairframe
transmissionprecludeanegativetorquesituation.Oncetheenginesareuncoupledfromtherotor,Nr
isfreetoaccelerateabove100percentandbothengineswillcontinuetogovernNpat100percent.Nr
andNprotorspeedsareheldinreservetopickuptherotorloadwhencollectiveisagainincreased.
Thiscondition(100percentNpzerotorque)isknownasflightidle.
T55L11E/T55L712FUELCONTROLSYSTEM
ThefuelcontrolfortheLycomingT55L712freepowerturbineengineisahydromechanicaltype
designatedbyHamiltonStandardastheJFC3122.Itconsistsofthefollowingmainunits:
Singleelementfuelpump.
Gasproducerspeedgovernor.
Powerturbinespeedgovernor.
Accelerationanddecelerationcontrol.
Airbleedsignalmechanism.
Maximumflowlimiter.
Fuelshutoffvalve.
Temperaturecompensator.
Figure423schematicallydescribesthefuelcontrolsystem.Fuelcontrolcanbedividedona
functionalbasisintotwosections:theflowcontrolsection,consistingofthevalvingwhichmeters
enginefuelflow,andthecomputersection.Thecomputersectionincludestheelementswhich
schedulepositionoftheflowcontrolsectionmeteringvalvesasafunctionofthecontrolinputsignals.
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Thecomputersectionalsosignalstheclosureofthecompressorbleedvalve.
Figure423.FuelControlSchematic(T55L11C/11D/11E/T55L712)
Editor'sNote:ThisgraphicisnotviewableinHTMLformat.Check"Download
Document"attopofthisfileforanalternateformatorobtainaprintedcopyofthe
document.
Thiscomputeroperatesprimarilyonfourengineparametersgasproducerspeed(Ng),powerturbine
speed(Np),compressordischargetotalpressure(Pt3),andcompressorinlettotaltemperature(Tt2)
foragivenpowerleverpositionandpowerturbinespeedsettingleverposition.Theratioofengine
fuelflowtocompressordischargetotalpressureisthemanipulatedvariableusedtocontrolengine
poweroutput.ThisvariableisbiasedbyTt2duringaccelerationandNgtopping.
Thepositionoftheenginefuelflowmeteringvalveisestablishedbyamultiplicationoftwopositions
representingcompressordischargepressure(P3)andfuelflow(Wf).The(Wf)enginefuelflowis
madeproportionaltothemeteringvalvepositionbymaintainingaconstantdifferentialpressure
acrossthevalveflowarea,whichvarieslinearlywithvalveposition.Thisconstantpressurein
maintainedbythepressureregulatingvalve.Thisvalveispositionedasnecessarytomaintaina40psi
differentialacrossthemeteringarea.Toaccomplishthis,allpumpoutputnotrequiredtooperate
servosandsupplyengineflowrequirementsisbypassedbacktothepumpinlet.
TheP3servo(motor)ispositionedbydirectingcompressordischarge(P3)toabellows,which
positionstheservodirectlyproportionaltoP3airpressure.TheservoisconnectedtotheP3ramp,
whichmovesproportionaltoservoinputs.Therampworksdirectlyagainsttheratioservoandinturn
positionsthemeteringvalve.
Theratioservomaybepositionedbyanyoneoffourinputs:theNpgoverninglinkage,theNg
governinglinkage,accelerationlimitinglinkage,orthemaximumflowlimiter.Theinputs,which
schedulethelowestfuelflow,determinethepositionofthemeteringvalve.Theratioservoandthe
Ngservoprovideaninputtothecompressorbleedairsignalmechanism.
TheNpgovernorlinkageinputtotheratioservoiscontrolledbytheNpservopistonwhoseposition
isestablishedbyaflyballoperatedpilotvalve.Itfunctionsasadrooptypegovernor,limitingfuel
flowproportionaltospeedoveritsoperatingrange,whichissetbythepowerturbinespeedsetting
leverposition.TheNpgoverninglinkageinputtotheratioservoisbiasedbyNgspeedsuchthatNp
governingdrooplinepositionincreasesinspeedasNgspeeddecreases.
TheNggoverninglinkageinputtotheratioservoiscontrolledbytheNgservopistonwhoseposition
isestablishedinthesamemannerastheNpservo.Itfunctionsasadrooptypegovernor,limitingthe
ratioservoinverselyproportionaltoNgspeedoveritsoperatingrange.Itsoperatingrange(ground
idletomaximumspeed)isestablishedbythepowerandshutoffleverposition.Thislinkageisalso
biasedbyT2throughthespeedresetlinkage.
Theaccelerationlimitinglinkageinputtotheratioservoiscontrolledbyacontouronthe3Dcam.
The3DcamispositionedlongitudinallybytheNgservopistonandrotatedbytheT2servopiston.
ThisprovidesauniquecampositionedforeachsetofNGspeedsandT2conditions.Theacceleration
findingcamcontourschedulesthemaximumallowablefueloflowP3ratioateachspeedand
temperaturesetting.The3Dcamalsopositionsthespeedresetlinkagethroughthespeedresetcontour
andprovidesaninputtothebleedairsignalmechanism.
ThepositionoftheT2servoisestablishedbytheliquidfilledbellowswhichpositionstheservo
directlyproportionaltothecompressorinlettemperature.
Themaximumflowlimiterinputtotheratioservolimitstheengineshafttorquebylimitingfuelflow.
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Thisisdonebypositioningtheratioservoasnecessarytoreducefuelflowatasafevalue.
Thecontrolcomputersectionalsoprovidesapneumaticsignaltothebleedairacutatorwhichisused
toopenorclosethebledairduringappropriatephasesofengineoperation.
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CHAPTER5
LUBRICATINGSYSTEMS
Althoughtheoilsystemofthemoderngasturbineengineisvariedindesignandplumbingmosthave
unitswhichperformsimilarfunctions.Inmostcasesapressurepumporsystemfurnishesoiltothe
enginetobelubricatedandcooled.Ascavengingsystemreturnstheoiltothetankforreuse.The
problemofoverheatingismoresevereaftertheenginehasstoppedthanwhileitisrunning.Oilflow
whichwouldnormallyhavecooledthebearingshasstopped.Heatstoredintheturbinewheelwill
raisethebearingtemperaturemuchhigherthanthatreachedduringoperation.Mostsystemswill
includeaheatexchanger(airorfuel)tocooltheoil.Manyaredesignedwithpressurizedsumps.
Someincorporateapressurizedoiltank.Thisensuresaconstantheadpressuretothepressure
lubricationpumptopreventpumpcavitationathighaltitude.
Oilconsumptioninagasturbineengineislowcomparedtothatinareciprocatingengineofequal
power.Oilconsumptionontheturbineengineisaffectedbytheefficiencyoftheseals.However,oil
canbelostthroughinternalleakageandonsomeenginesbymalfunctionofthepressurizingor
ventingsystem.Oilscalingisveryimportantinajetengine.Anywettingofthebladesorvanesbyoil
vaporwillencouragetheaccumulationofdustanddirt.Adirtybladeorvanerepresentshighfriction
toairflow.Thisdecreasesengineefficiency,andresultsinanoticeabledecreaseinthrustorincrease
infuelconsumption.Sinceoilconsumptionissolow,oiltankscanbemaderelativelysmall.This
causesadecreaseinweightandstorageproblems.Tanksmayhavecapacitiesrangingfroml/2to8
gallons.Systempressuresmayvaryfrom15psigatidleto200psigduringcoldstarts.Normal
operatingpressuresandbulktemperaturesareabout50to100psigand200oF,respectively.
GENERAL
Ingeneral,thepartstobelubricatedandcooledincludethemainbearingsandaccessorydrivegears
andthepropellergearingintheturboprop.Thisrepresentsagainingasturbineenginelubrication
simplicityoverthecomplexoilsystemofthereciprocatingengine.Themainrotatingunitcanbe
carriedbyonlyafewbearings.Inapistonpowerplanttherearehundredsmoremovingpartstobe
lubricated.Onsometurbineenginestheoilmayalsobeused
Tooperatetheservomechanismofsomefuelcontrols.
Tocontrolthepositionofthevariableareaexhaustnozzlevanes.
Tooperatethethrustreverser.
Becauseeachbearingintheenginereceivesitsoilfromameteredorcalibratedorifice,thesystemis
generallyknownasthecalibratedtype.Withafewexceptionsthelubricatingsystemusedonthe
modemturbineengineisofthedrysumpvariety.However,someturbineenginesareequippedwitha
combinationdryandwettypelubricationsystem.Wetsumpenginesstorethelubricatingoilinthe
engineproper.Drysumpenginesutilizeanexternaltankusuallymountedonorneartheengine.
Althoughthischapteraddressesdrysumpsystems,anexampleofthewetsumpdesigncanbeseenin
theSolarInternationalT62engine.Inthisenginetheoilreservoirisanintegralpartoftheaccessory
drivegearcase.Anexampleofacombinationdryandwetsumplubricationcanbefoundinthe
LycomingT55seriesengines.
TURBINEENGINEDRYSUMPLUBRICATION
Inaturbinedrysumplubricationsystem,theoilsupplyiscarriedinatankmountedexternallyonor
neartheengine.Withthistypeofsystem,alargeroilsupplycanbecarriedandtheoiltemperature
canbecontrolledAnoilcoolerusuallyisincludedinadrysumpoilsystem(Figure5l).Thiscooler
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LUBRICATINGSYSTEMS
maybeaircooledorfuelcooled.Thedrysumpoilsystemallowstheaxialflowenginestoretain
theircomparativelysmalldiameter.Thisisdonebydesigningtheoiltankandtheoilcoolerto
conformtothedesignoftheengine.
Thefollowingcomponentdescriptionsincludemostofthosefoundinthevariousturbinelubrication
systems.However,notallofthesecomponentswillbefoundinanyonesystem.
Thedrysumpsystemsuseanoiltankwhichcontainsmostoftheoilsupply.However,asmallsump
usuallyisincludedontheenginetoholdasupplyofoilforanemergencysystem.Thedrysump
systemusuallycontains
Oilpump.
Scavengeandpressureinletstrainers.
Scavengereturnconnection.
Pressureoutletports.
Oilfilter.
Mountingbossesfortheoilpressuretransmitter.
Temperaturebulbconnections.
AtypicaloiltankisshowninFigure52.Itisdesignedtofurnishaconstantsupplyofoiltothe
engine.Thisisdonebyaswiveloutletassemblymountedinsidethetankahorizontalbafflemounted
inthecenterofthetank,twoflappercheckvalvesmountedonthebaffle,andapositiveventsystem.
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Theswiveloutletfittingiscontrolledbyaweightedend,whichisfreetoswingbelowthebaffle.The
flappervalvesinthebafflearenormallyopen.Theycloseonlywhentheoilinthebottomofthetank
rushestothetopofthetankduringdeceleration.Thistrapstheoilinthebottomofthetankwhereitis
pickedupbytheswivelfittingAsumpdrainislocatedinthebottomofthetank.Theairspaceis
ventedatalltimes.
Alloiltankshaveexpansionspace.Thisallowsforoilexpansionafterheatisabsorbedfromthe
bearingsandgearsandaftertheoilfoamsaftercirculatingthroughthesystem.Sometanksalso
incorporateadeaeratortray.Thetrayseparatesairfromtheoilreturnedtothetopofthetankbythe
scavengersystem.Usuallythesedeaeratorsarethe"can"typeinwhichoilentersatangent.Theair
releasediscarriedoutthroughtheventsysteminthetopofthetank.Inmostoiltanksapressure
buildupisdesiredwithinthetank.Thisassuresapositiveflowofoiltotheoilpumpinlet.This
pressurebuildupismadepossiblebyrunningtheventlinethroughanadjustablecheckreliefvalve.
Thecheckreliefvalvenormallyissettorelieveatabout4psipressureontheoilpumpinlet.
Thereislittleneedforanoildilutionsystem.Iftheairtemperatureisabnorrnallylow,theoilmaybe
changedtoalightergrade.Someenginesmayprovidefortheinstallationofanimmersiontypeoil
heater.
TURBINEENGINEWETSUMPLUBRICATION
Insomeenginesthelubricationsystemisthewetsumptype.Becauseonlyafewmodelsof
centrifugalflowenginesareinoperation,therearefewenginesusingawetsumptypeofoilsystem.
Thecomponentsofawetsumpsystemaresimilartomanyofadrysumpsystem.Theoilreservoir
locationisthemajordifference.
Thereservoirforthewetsumpoilsystemmaybetheaccessorygearcase,whichconsistsofthe
accessorygearcasingandthefrontcompressorbearingsupportcasing.Oritmaybeasumpmounted
onthebottomoftheaccessorycase.Regardlessofconfigurationreservoirsforwetsumpsystemsare
anintegralpartoftheengineandcontainthebulkoftheengineoilsupply.
Thefollowingcomponentsareincludedinthewetsumpreservoir:
Abayonettypegageindicatestheoillevelinthesump.
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Twoormorefingerstrainers(filters)areinsertedintheaccessorycaseforstrainingpressure
andscavengedoilbeforeitleavesorentersthesump.Thesestrainersaidthemainoilstrainer.
Aventorbreatherequalizespressurewithintheaccessorycasing.
Amagneticdrainplugmaybeprovidedtodraintheoilandtotrapanyferrousmetalparticlesin
theoil.Thisplugshouldalwaysbeexaminedcloselyduringinspections.Thepresenceofmetal
particlesmayindicategearorbearingfailure.
Atemperaturebulbandanoilpressurefittingmaybeprovided.
Thissystemistypicalofallenginesusingawetsumplubricationsystem.Thebearinganddrivegears
intheaccessorydrivecasingarelubricatedbyasplashsystem.Theoilfortheremainingpointsof
lubricationleavesthepumpunderpressure.Itpassesthroughafiltertojetnozzlesthatdirecttheoil
intotherotorbearingsandcouplings.Mostwetsumppressuresystemsarevariablepressuresystems
inwhichthepumpoutletpressuredependsontheengineRPM.
Thescavengedoilisreturnedtothereservoir(sump)bygravityandpumpsuction.Oilfromthefront
compressorbearingintheaccessorydrivecouplingshaftdrainsdirectlyintothereservoir.Oilfrom
theturbinecouplingandtheremainingrotorshaftbearingsdrainsintoasump.Theoilisthenpumped
bythescavengeelementthroughafingerscreenintothereservoir.
OILSYSTEMCOMPONENTS
Theoilsystemcomponentsusedongasturbineenginesare
Tanks.
Pressurepumps.
Scavengerpumps.
Filters.
Oilcoolers.
Reliefvalves.
Breathersandpressurizingcomponents.
Pressureandtemperaturegageslights.
Temperatureregulatingvalves.
Oiljetnozzle.
Fittings,valves,andplumbing.
Chipdetectors.
Notalloftheunitswillbefoundintheoilsystemofanyoneengine.Butamajorityofthepartslisted
willbefoundinmostengines.
OilTanks
Tankscanbeeitheranairframeorenginemanufacturersuppliedunit.Usuallyconstructedofwelded
sheetaluminumorsteel,itprovidesastorageplacefortheoil.Inmostenginesthetankispressurized
toensureaconstantsupplyofoiltothepressurepump.Thetankcancontain
Ventingsystem.
Deaeratortoseparateentrainedairfromtheoil.
Oilleveltransmitterordipstick.
Rigidorflexibleoilpickup.
Coarsemeshscreens.
Variousoilandairinletsandoutlets.
PressurePumps
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BothgearandGerotortypepumpsareusedinthelubricatingsystemoftheturbineengine.Thegear
typepumpconsistsofadrivingandadrivengear.Theengineaccessorysectiondrivestherotationof
thepump.Rotationcausestheoiltopassaroundtheoutsideofthegearsinpocketsformedbythegear
teethandthepumpcasing.ThepressuredevelopedisproportionaltoengineRPMuptothetimethe
reliefvalveopens.Afterthatanyfurtherincreaseinenginespeedwillnotresultinanoilpressure
increase.Thereliefvalvemaybelocatedinthepumphousingorelsewhereinthepressuresystemfor
bothtypesofpumps.
TheGerotorpumphastwomovingparts:aninnertoothedelementmeshingwithanoutertoothed
element.Theinnerelementhasonelesstooththantheouter.Themissingtoothprovidesachamberto
movethefluidfromtheintaketothedischargeport.Bothelementsaremountedeccentricallytoone
anotheronthesameshaft.
ScavengerPumps
Thesepumpsaresimilartothepressurepumpsbuthaveamuchlargertotalcapacity.Anengineis
generallyprovidedwithseveralscavengerpumpstodrainoilfromvariouspartsoftheengine.Often
oneortwoofthescavengerelementsareincorporatedinthesamehousingasthepressurepump
(Figure53).Differentcapacitiescanbeprovidedforeachsystemdespitethecommondrivingshaft
speed.Thisisaccomplishedbyvaryingthediameterorthicknessofthegearstovarythevolumeof
thetoothchamber.Avanetypepumpmaysometimesbeused.
OilFiltersandScreensorStrainers
Topreventforeignmatterfromreachinginternalpartsoftheengine,filtersandscreensorstainersare
providedintheenginelubricatingsystem.Thethreebasictypesofoilfiltersforthejetenginearethe
cartridgescreendiscandscreen(Figures54,55and56).Thecartridgefilterismostcommonly
usedandmustbereplacedperiodically.Theothertwocanbecleanedandreused.Inthescreendisc
filterthereareaseriesofcircularscreentypefilters.Eachfilteriscomprisedoftwolayersofmesh
formingachamberbetweenmeshlayers.Thefiltersaremountedonacommontubeandarrangedto
provideaspacebetweeneachcircularelement.Lubeoilpassesthroughthecircularmeshelements
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andintothechamberbetweenthetwolayersofmesh.Thischamberisportedtothecenterofa
commontubewhichdirectsoiloutofthefilter.Screensorstrainersareplacedatpressureoilinletsto
bearingsintheengine.Thisaidsinpreventingforeignmatterfromreachingthebearings.
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Toallowforoilflowintheeventoffilterblockage,allfiltersincorporateabypassorreliefvalveas
partofthefilterorintheoilpassages.Whenthepressuredifferentialreachesaspecifiedvalue(about
15to20psi),thevalveopensandallowsoiltobypassthefilter.Somefiltersincorporateacheck
valve.ThispreventsreversefloworflowthroughthesystemwhentheengineisstoppedFiltering
characteristicsvary,butmostfilterswillstopparticlesofapproximately50microns.
MagneticChipDetector
Oneormoremagneticchipdetectorsareinstalledongasturbineengines.Theyareusedtodetectand
attractferrousmaterial(metalwithironasitsbasicelement)whichmaycomefrominsidetheengine.
Thisferrousmaterialbuildsupuntilitbridgesagap.Wheneverthereisarequirement,thechip
detectorsmaybecollectedandanalyzedtodeterminetheconditionoftheengine.Mostenginesutilize
anelectricalchipdetector,locatedinthescavengerpumphousingorintheaccessorygearbox.Should
theengineoilbecomecontaminatedwithmetalparticles,thedetectorwillcatchsomeofthem.This
causesthewarninglightonthecautionpaneltocomeon.
Tubing,Hose,andFittings
Tubing,hose,andfittingsareusedthroughoutthelubricatingsystem.Theirpurposeistoconnect
apartintoasystemortoconnectoneparttoanothertocompleteasystem.
OilPressureIndicatingSystem
Inatypicalengineoilpressureindicatingsystemtheindicatorreceivesinletoilpressureindications
fromtheoilpressuretransmitterandprovidesreadingsinpoundspersquareinchElectricalpowerfor
oilpressureindicatorandtransmitteroperationissuppliedbythe28voltACsystem.
OilPressureLowCautionLight
Mostgasturbineenginelubricatingsystemsincorporateanengineoilpressurelowcautionlight
warningdeviceintothesystemforsafetypurposes.Thelightisconnectedtoalowpressureswitch.
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Whenpressuredropsbelowasafelimit,theswitchclosesanelectricalcircuitcausingthecaution
lighttoburn.Powerissuppliedbythe28voltDCsystem.
OilTemperatureIndicatingSystem
Inatypicalengineoiltemperatureindicatingsystem,theindicatorisconnectedtoandreceives
temperatureindicationsfromanelectricalresistancetypethermocoupleorthermobulb.Theseare
locatedinthepressurepumpoilinletsidetotheengine.Powertooperatethiscircuitissuppliedby
the28voltDCsystem.
OilCoolers
Theoilcoolerisusedtoreduceoiltemperaturebytransmittingheatfromtheoiltoanotherfluid
usuallyfuel.Sincethefuelflowthroughthecoolerismuchgreaterthantheoilflow,thefuelisableto
absorbaconsiderableamountofheat.Thisreducesthesizeandweightofthecooler.Thermostaticor
pressuresensitivevalvescontroltheoiltemperaturebydeterminingwhethertheoilpassesthroughor
bypassesthecooler.Oilcoolersarealsocooledbyairforcedthroughthembyablower/fan.
BreathersandPressurizingSystems
Internaloilleakageiskepttoaminimumbypressurizingthebearingsumpareaswithairthatisbled
offthecompressor(Figure57).Theairflowintothesumpminimizesoilleakageacrossthesealsin
thereversedirection.
TheoilscavengepumpsexceedthecapacityofthelubricationpressurepumpTheyarecapableof
handlingconsiderablymoreoilthanactuallyexistsinthebearingsumpsandgearboxes.Becausethe
pumpsareaconstantdisplacementtype,theymakeupforthelackofoilbypumpingairfromthe
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sumps.Largequantitiesofairaredeliveredtotheoiltank.Sumpandtankpressuresaremaintained
closetooneanotherbyalinewhichconnectsthetwo.Ifthesumppressureexceedsthetankpressure,
thesumpventcheckvalveopens,allowingtheexcesssumpairtoentertheoiltank.Thevalveallows
flowonlyintothetankoilortankvaporscannotbackupintothesumpareas.Tankpressureis
maintainedlittleaboveambient.
Thescavengepumpsandsumpventcheckvalvefunctionsresultinrelativelylowairpressureinthe
sumpsandgearboxes.Theselowinternalsumppressuresallowairtoflowacrosstheoilsealsintothe
sumps.Thisairflowminimizeslubeoilleakageacrosstheseals.Forthisreasonitisnecessaryto
maintainsumppressureslowenoughtoensuresealairleakageintothesumps.Undersome
conditions,theabilityofthescavengepumpstopumpairformsapressurelowenoughtocavitatethe
pumpsorcausethesumptocollapse.Underotherconditions,toomuchaircanenterthesump
throughwornseals.
Ifthesealleakageisnotsufficienttomaintainproperinternalpressure,checkvalvesinthesumpand
tankpressurizingvalvesopenandallowambientairtoenterthesystem.Inadequateinternalsumpand
gearboxpressuremaybecausedbysealleakage.Ifthatoccurs,airflowsfromthesumps,throughthe
sumpventcheckvalve,theoiltank,thetankandsumppressurizingvalvestotheatmosphere.Tank
pressureisalwaysmaintainedafewpoundsaboveambientpressurebythesumpandtank
pressurizingvalve.
ThefollowingaddressestwotypesoflubricationsystemsusedintheArmytoday:theGeneral
ElectricT701turboshaftengineandtheInternational/SolarT62seriesengine.
TYPICALOILSYSTEMFORT701
ThelubricationsystemintheT700GE701enginedistributesoiltoalllubricatedparts(Figure58).
InemergenciesitsuppliesanairoilmisttothemainshaftbearingsintheAandBsumps.The
systemisaselfcontained,recirculatingdrysumpsystem.Itconsistsofthefollowingsubsystemsand
components:
Oilsupplyandscavengepump.
Sealpressurizationandsumpventing.
Emergencylubesystem.
Oilfiltrationandconditionmonitoring.
Tankandairoilcooler.
Oilcooler.
Oilpressuremonitoring.
Coldoilreliefandcoolerbypasvalves.
Chipdetector.
Integralaccessorygearbox
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LubeSupplySystem
Theoiltank,integralwiththemainframe,holdsapproximately7.3quartsofoil(Figure59).Thisisa
sufficientquantitytolubricatetherequiredenginepartswithoutanexternaloilsupply.Thetankis
filledusinga3inch,gravityfillportontherighthandside.Visualindicationofoillevelissupplied
byafluidlevelindicatorinstalledoneachsideofthetank.Acoarsepickupscreenlocatednearthe
tankbottomkeepssizabledebrisformenteringthelubesupplypumpinlet.Adrainplugislocatedat
thebottomofthetank.
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Oilfromthepickupscreenentersacastpassageinthemainframe.Itisthenconductedtothetopof
theenginetoapointbeneaththelubesupplypump.Ashortconnectortubetransferstheoilfromthe
mainframetotheaccessorygearboxpumpinletport.Theconnectortubecontainsadomed,coarse
debrisscreen.Thescreenkeepsforeignobjectsoutofthepassagewhentheaccessorymoduleisnot
installedonthemainframe.Oilflowsthroughtheconnectortubetothepumpinlet.Thereitentersthe
pumptangentiallyinalignmentwithpumprotationaldirection.
Thelubesupplypump,aGerotertypepumpingelementassembly,iscomprisedofaninnerandouter
element.Theelementassemblyislocatedadjacenttothedrivesplineendofthepump.Sixscavenge
elementsarealsolocatedintandemonthecommondriveshaft.Thestackofpumpelementsis
retainedinacasttubularhosinghavinganintegralendplate.Thecompletepumpslidesintoa
precisionboreinthegearboxcasing.Oilfromthesupplypumpflowstothelubefilterinletand
throughthefilter,a3micronfilterelement.Oilflowpassesfromoutsidetoinsideofthefilter
element.Itthenpassesthroughtheopenboreofthebypassvalveandintothegearboxoutletpassage.
Bypassvalveopeningoccurswhenfilterdifferentialpressureunseatsaspringloadedpoppetfromits
seat.Thefilterbowlcontainsanimpendingbypasswarningbuttonwhichwillprovideanindication
forfilterservicing.AnelectricalbypasssensorforcockpitindicationoffilterbypasstitsintoanAGB
bossadjacenttothelubefilter.Adifferentialpressureof6080psiacrossthefilterwillactuatethis
sensor.
Aspringloadedpoppettype,coldoilreliefvalveisincorporatedinthissystem.Thisvalveprevents
excessivesupplypressureduringcoldstartswhenhighoilviscositycreateshighlinepressures.
Crackingpressureissetfor120180psidandresetis115psidminimum.Whenopen,apartofthe
lubeflowisdischargedintotheAGBwherechurninginthegearswillassistinreducingwarmup
time.
Oilleavingthefilterbranchesinthreedirections.Itgoestothetooftheemergencyoilreservoirsin
theAandBsumps,theAGB,andCsumpjets.
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ScavengeSystem.Aftertheoilhaslubricatedandcooledtheparts,thescavengesystemreturnsitto
theoiltank(Figure510).Inaddition,fueloilandairoilcoolersandachipdetectorarelocatedinthe
scavengereturnpath.
ScavengeInletScreens.Eachscavengepumpinletisfittedwitharelativelycoarsescreen(Figure5
11).Thisscreenisdesignedtoprotectthepumpsfromforeignobjectdamageandtoprovideforfault
isolation.Scavengeoil(andair)enterstheboreofeachscreenaxiallyontheopeninnerend.Itexits
intoacastannuluswhichdischargesdirectlyintothescavengepumpinlet.
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Thesescreensmayberemovedforinspectionifchipgenerationissuspected
Scavengepumps.Sixscavengepumpsareinlinewiththelubesupplypumponacommonshaft
(Figure510).Positioningofthepumpelementsisdeterminedbythesefactors:
Thelubesupplyelementisplacedintheleastvulnerablelocationandisolatedfromscavenge
elementsatoneend.
TheBsumpelementisplacedattheotherendofthepumptohelpisolateitfromtheother
scavengeelements.Thiselementistheonlyonewithanelevatedinletpressure.
Pumpwindmillingexperienceonotherenginescavengepumpsshowsthatadjacentpumpstend
tocuteachotheroffduetointerelementleaksatverylowspeedTherefore,thetwoAsump
elementsareplacedadjacent,asarethethreeCsumpelements,toreducethepossibilityofboth
elementsinasumpbeinginoperativesimultaneously.
PortingsimplificationforthegearboxcoringdeterminesrelativepositionsofAsump,Bsump,
andCsumpelements.
ScavengeDischargePassage.Thecommondischargeofallsixscavengepumpsiscastintothe
gearboxatthetopofthepumpcavity.Topdischargefacilitatesprimingbyclearingairbubblesandby
wettingallpumpingelementsfromthedischargeoffirstpumpstoprime.Thedischargecavityis
taperedtoenlargeaseachpumpenterstheflowsteam.Thiskeepsdischargevelocityrelatively
constant.Italsotendstoavoidairtrapswhichcouldshortcircuitpumpingatwindmillingspeeds.
Thisdischargeplenumflowsintothecoretothechipdetector.Flowleavingthechipdetectorpasses
tothefueloilcoolerinserieswiththeairoilcooler.Topromotefasterwarmupandguardagainst
pluggedcoolers,abypassvalveisprovidedwhichbypassesbothcoolers.Airoilcoolingisanintegral
partofthemainframecasting.Scavengeoilentersamanifoldatthetanktop.Itthenflowsina
serpentinefashioninandoutthroughthehollowscrollvanesandboxsectionedhub.Airforthe
particleseparatorispulledacrossthevanesbythescavengeairblowerprovidingtheoilcooling
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process.Exitfromtheairoilcooleristhroughthreeholesatthetopofthetank.Theseoutletsdisperse
theoiloverthetanksurfacesonbothsidestosettleinthetank.TheoiltankventstotheAGB.
EmergencyOilSystem
TheT700GE701engineisdesignedtohavetwooiljetstoprovideeachmainbearingwithoilfor
lubricatingandcooling(Figure512).
Inadditiontobeingdesignedfornormalengineoperation,thesystemprovidesforoperationifthe
normaloilsupplyfromtheprimarysystemisinterrupted.TheAGBandCsumpcomponentscan
continuetooperateatleast6minuteswithresidualoilpresent.TheNo.4bearingintheBsumpand
thebearingsandgearsintheAsumpareprovidedwithemergencyairoilmistsystemslocatedin
eachsump.Theemergencyoilsystemformspartofthenormalfulltimelubricationsystemand
incorporatesonefullsetofmainbearingoiljetsoperatinginparallelwiththeprimaryjets.Thedual
jetsystemalsoprovidesredundancytominimizetheeffectofoiljetplugging.
Asmallreservoir,curvedtotittheAandBsumps,retainsasufficientamountofoiltoprovideair
oilmistwhennormallubricationisinterruptedThetotalsumpoilsupplyisfedintothereservoirat
thetop.Topfeedpreventsreservoirdrainageifthesupplylineisdamaged.Primaryoiljets,squeeze
filmdamper,anduncriticallubejetsareconnectedtoastandpipeatthetopofthetank.Secondaryor
emergencyjetsaresimilarlyconnectedtothelowestpointinthetank.
Secondaryjetsareonlylocatedatpointswherelubricationisvitalforshortdurationemergency
operation.Eachsecondaryoiljethasacompanionairjetorairsourcewhichflowsovertheendofthe
oiljetandimpingesonthelubricatedpart.Theairjetsaspirateoilmistwhennormaloilsupply
pressureislost.Theyarepressurizedfromthesealpressurizationcavitiesandoperatecontinuously
withnovalvingrequired.
ComponentDescription
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Theoilfilter(Figure513)consistsofthreesubassemblies:
Filterelement.
Bowlandimpendingbypassindicator.
Bypassvalveandinletscreen.
FilterElement.Mediausedinthisfilterarehightemperaturematerialscontainingorganicand
inorganicfibers.Thelayeredmediaarefacedonbothsideswithstainlesssteelmesh.Thismesh
providesmechanicalsupporttoresistcollapsewhenpressureloadsbecomehigh.Pleatingofthefaced
mediaaddssurfaceareaandmechanicalrigidity.Aperforatedsteeltubeintheborealsoaddsrigidity
andretainsthecircularshapeoftheelement.
Themediaandsupporttubeareepoxybondedtoformedsheetmetalandcaps.Theseendcaps
includeanOringgroovewhichsealsinlettooutletleakpathsateachend.
Filtrationlevelselectedis100percentofallparticlesthreemicronsorlargerandisdisposablewhen
saturatedwithdebris.Supportofthefilterelementisprovidedbythebypassvalveononeendandthe
impendingbypassindicatorontheother.Theindicatorendhasaspringloadedsleevewhichrestrains
thefilteraxially.
BowlandBypassIndicator.Analuminumbowlhousestheelementandcontainstheimpending
bypassindicatorattheend.Mountingishorizontaltofitthespaceavailableandprovidereadyaccess
forservicingImpendingbypassindicationisprovidedbyasmallunitwhichispartofthebowl
assembly.Theindicatorisinstalledfromtheinsideofthebowl.Itisretainedinplacewithanexternal
retainingring.Basicmechanicsofoperationareasfollows:
Differentpressurebetweenfilterinletandoutletactstomoveapistonagainstaspringat44to
60psi.
Pistoncontainsamagnetwhichnormallyattractsaredbuttonassemblyandholdsitseated
againstitsspring.Whenthepistonmoves,thebuttonisreleased.Itextends3/16inchtovisually
indicateanimpendingbypasscondition.
Buttonisphysicallyreattainedfromtrippingbyacoldlockoutbimetalliclatchiftemperatureis
lessthan100to130F.Thispreventsafalsetripduringcoldstarts.
Asthebuttonisreleased,asmallspringloadedballalsomovesoutofpositiontolatchthe
buttonandblockreset.Theinternalpistonassemblyautomaticallyresetsonshutdown
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however,theindicatorremainslatchedout.
Afterremovingthefilterelementandthebowlfromthegearbox,aspringloadedsleevearound
theindicatormovesaftandpullsthepistonassemblytoatrippedposition.Thiscausesthe
buttontotripifoperationisattemptedwithnofilterinthebowl.
Toreacttheindicator,thebowlisheldverticallysothebuttonlatchballcanrolloutofthe
latchedposition.Thebuttonisthenmanuallyreset.
Ifthebowlisreassembledwithnofilter,theindicatorwilltripwhenthetemperatureexceedsthe100
to130Flockoutlevel.Theinternallatchmechanismpreventsresettingthebuttonwithout
disassemblingthebowl.Resettingmustbedonewiththebowlremovedfromtheaccessorygearbox
andheldvertically,buttonup,toreleasethelatch.
OilFilterBypassSensor.Theoilfilterbypasssensorisadifferentialpressureswitchwhichsenses
filterinletminusoutletpressure.
Thesensorconsistsofaspringloadedpistonwhichmovesaftathighfilterdifferentialpressure(60to
80psi)andmagneticallyreleasesamicroswitchlever.Theswitchisinasealedcavityseparatedfrom
theoilandiswiredtoahermeticallysealedelectricalconnector.Theswitchconnects28VDCaircraft
powerwhentrippedandreopensthecircuitat15psiminimumdifferentialNolatchisusedinthe
sensorsoresettingisautomatic.Also,thereisnocoldlockout.Thepilotwillbeinformedoffilter
bypassingduringcoldstartwarmups.Sensortolerancerangeissetslightlybelowthetolerancerange
ofbypassvalvecrackingpressure.Therefore,bypassingwillnotoccurwithoutpilotwarning.The
impendingbypassindicatorwillshowneedtochangefilterelements.Thissensorprovidesbackup
warningifmaintenanceactionisnottaken.
LubricationandScavengePump.ThelubeandscavengepumpisaGerotortypepumpofcartridge
design,locatedontheforwardsideoftheaccessorygearbox(referbacktoFigure510).Itfitsintoa
precisionboreinthegearboxcasing.TheGerotortypepumpwaschosenbecauseofitswear
resistanceandefficiency.Gerotorelementsaresimilartomalegearinsideafemale(internal)gear
withonelesstoothontheinnermember.
TheinnerGerotorsarekeyedtothedriveshaft,andtheouterGerotorsarepocketedinindividual
eccentricrings.AStheassemblyrotates,oilisdrawnintoanexpandingcavitybetweenteethonone
side.Theoilisexpelledwhenthecavitycontractsapproximately180away.Inletanddischargeports
arecastintotheportplates.Theyareshapedandpositionedtofillandemptyatpropertimingfor
maximumvolumetricefficiencyandresistancetoinletcavitation.
Therearesevendifferentelementsinthepumpfromthesplineendforward.Theyarethelubesupply
element,Csumpcover,Csumpaft,Csumpforward,Asumpforward,Asumpaft,andBsump
Deltascavengeelements.
TheportplateeccentricringsandGerotorsareassembledintoasurroundingconcentricaluminum
tubularhousingThehousingmaintainsallelementsinproperalignment.Theoilsuctionand
dischargepassagesfromtheGerotorsarebroughtradiallythroughthehousing.Theymatchthe
appropriatelocationsofthematingpassagesintheenginegearboxcasing.Theentirestackofport
platesisretainedinthehousingwiththeretainingringsatthesplineend.Theoutermostendofthe
housinghasanintegrallycastcover.Thecoverboltholesarearrangedtoorientthepumpassemblyin
thegearboxhousingduringinstallation.
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ColdOilReliefValve.Thecoldoilreliefvalveprotectstheoilsupplysystemfromoverpressure
duringcoldstarts(referbacktoFigure59).Itisaconventionalpoppettypevalvewithacracking
pressureof120180psi.Valvetolerancesareheldsufficientlyclosetoachievethedesiredsacking
pressurewithoutadjustmentshimsorselectivefittingofparts.
ThevalveincludesaNo.1032threadedholeontheoutside.Thisallowsfortheuseofaboltasa
pullinghandleduringvalveremovalfromtheAGB.
OilCooler.Thefueloilcoolerisatubeandshelldesign(Figure514).Itcoolsthecombinedoutput
ofthescavengedischargeoilthatisportedthroughgearboxcoredpassagestothecooler.Thecooler
ismountedadjacenttothefuelboostpumpontheforwardsideofthegearbox.Oilandfuelporting
enteronthesameendviafaceportingtothegearbox.Fuelisusedasthecoolant.Itisprovidedtothe
coolerviatheboostpump,fuelfilter,andhydromechanicalcontrolunit.Acounterparallelflow,
miltipasscoolerdesignisusedtominimizepressuredropwhileobtainingmaximumcooler
effectiveness.Fuelflowsthroughthetubes,whiletheoilflowsoverthetubesresultinginthe
counterparallelflowarrangement.
OilCoolerBypassValve.Designoftheoilcoolerbypassvalveisidenticaltothecoldoilreliefvalve
withanexception(referbacktoFigure59).Alighterspringisutilizedtoobtainalowercracking
pressureof2228psi.Housingmodificationspreventinadvertentinterchangewiththecoldoilrelief
valve.
ChipDetector.Thechipdetectorinthecommonscavengelineistheenginediagnosticdevicemost
likelytoprovidefirstwarningofimpendingpartfailure(Figure515).
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Thechipdetectormagneticallyattractselectricallyconductiveferrouschips.Thechipsbridgethegap
betweenthedetector'selectrodesandcloseacircuitinserieswiththeaircraftcockpitindicator
(warninglight).Thechipdetectinggaphasamagneticfieldinducedintaperedposepiecesateach
endofacylindricalpermanentmagnet.Asingleferrouschip0.090inchinlengthorlongerwillbe
indicatedifmagneticallyattractedtobridgethepolepieces.Thelocalmangeticfieldisintenseatthe
gapandtendstoorientparticlesinthebridgingdirection.Smallerparticlestendtoformchainsuntil
thepolepiecesarebridged
Nonconductiveparticlesgreaterthan0.015incharetrappedinsidethescreenforvisualexamination.
Smallerparticleswillbefoundeitherinthelubetankorinthelubesupplyfilter.
ThedetectorhousingpushesintotheaccessorygearboxItisretainedbytwocaptiveboltsusedin
commonwithotheraccessories.Selflockinginsertsinthegearboxensureretentionoftheseboltsif
assemblytorqueisimproperlylow.
VentingSystem
ASump.TheAsumpcenterventhandlesairoilseparationandoverboardventingfromthesesources:
Asumpsealsandemergencyairsystem.
Scavengepumpedairfromthelubetank.
Accessorygearboxvent(noairsources).
Bsumpcenterventflowwhichpassesthroughtheintershaftseal.
Pathofthisventisintotheboreofthepowerturbineshaftandtorquereferencetubeandouttheaft
endoftheenginethroughtheCsumpcover.Thecentrifugalairoilseparatorventholesinthepower
turbineshaftarelocatedundertheforwardendofthehighspeedshaft.WindagefromPTOgear
locknutwrenchingslotsassistsinturningoilbackintothesump.Airfromthesumpandintershaft
sealflowsinwardradiallythroughtheseholesinthepowerturbineshaft.Theairmustflowforwardin
theannulusbetweenthepowerturbineshaftandthetorquereferencetube.Movementofairis
blockedbyastandoffringonthereferencetubeOD.Theforwardaxialpassageoftheaircentrifuges
oildropletsoutwardtotheboreofthepowerturbineshaft.Theyeitherflowbackintothesumpatthe
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centerventoratsmallweepholesforwardofthePTshaftspline.Driedairthenexitsthroughmultiple
rowsofholesinthereferencetubeandouttheaftCsumpcover.Someremainingoilinthisairis
spunintotheCSumpifithascondensedintransit.Anyadditionalaccumulatedoilisthenscavenged
throughtheCsumpcover.
BSump.AcenterventontheforwardsideoftheNo.4bearingaccommodatesairenteringthesumpat
thelabyrinthsealsateachendTworowsofsmallholesaredrilledinaradiallythickenedsectionof
theforwardsealrunner.Useofmanysmallholesincreasesthesurfaceareaofmetalincontactwith
exitingoildroplets.Thesesmallholesalsoreduceeffectivewindowareaforanydropletswhichmay
haveatrajectoryaimeddirectlyattheholes.Aftertheairisinsidetheseholes,itfollowsatortuous
paththroughadditionalrowsofholesintheturbineshaftandcompressorrearshaft.Theairthen
enterstheannulusbetweenthehighandlowspeedshafts.Indoingthis,remainingoilisspunback
intothesump.
About70percentofBsumpcenterventflowmovesforwardthroughtheboreofthecompressor
tieboltandintershaftseal.ItexitsattheAsumpcentervent.Oilweepholesareprovidedneartheaft
endofthecompressortiebolt.Theseweepholeskeepoiloutoftherotorbyreturningittothesump.
Arotorsealisprovidedheretokeepanyweepageoutofthesealair.Thisairflowkeepsthe
compressortieboltrelativelycoolanduniformlyclamped.
Theremaining30percentofBsumpcenterventairjoinstheinnerbalancepistonsealleakageflow.It
exitsaftunderthegasgeneratorturbinewheels.
CSump.CenterventingtheCsumpisapassagebetweentheaftendofthePTshaftandastationary
standpipebuiltintotheCsumpcover.Windageatthetorqueandspeedsensorteethandinthe
annulusbetweenthereferencetubeandthestandpipewillreturnoildropletstothesump.Weepholes
areprovidedthroughthereferencetube,shaft,andbearingspacertoallowoilfromCorAsumpsto
entertheCsump.CsumpcoverscavengingthroughtheCsumphousingremovesremainingoil
accumulationfromthecenterventingprocessduringlockedPTrotoroperationandnormaloperation.
OilTank.Afterbeingroutedthroughairoilcoolerpassagesintotheoiltank,airfromthescavenge
pumpsflowsdowntheradialdriveshaftpassage(AxisA)intotheAsump.Centerventingoccurs
afterairenterstheAsump.
AccessoryGearbox.TheaccessorygearboxisventedthroughtheAxisApadviathemainframeoil
tankandeventuallythroughtheAsump.TheAGB,tank,andAsumpessentiallyoperateatthesame
pressurelevelssincetheyareinterconnected.
LUBRICATIONSYSTEMFORT62
Thelubricationsystemconsistsof
Pump.
Internaloilpassages.
Oilfilterassembly.
Filterbypassreliefvalve.
Pressureswitch(mountedexternally).
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Oiljetring.
Sump.
Theoilfiltercavity,oilpassages,andoilsumparebuiltintothereductiondrivehousing.Twooil
separatorplatesareinstalledontheaccessorydrivegear.Lubricationsystemcapacityis3quartsand
isawetsumpsystem.
Oilisdrawnoutofthesumpintothepumphousing.Theoiliscarriedbetweenthepumpgearteeth
andpumphousingwall.Itisthenforcedthroughdrilledpassagestotheoilfilterhousing.
Oilunderpumppressureentersthebottomofthefilterhousingandpassesthroughthefilterelement
(fromoutsidetoinside).Itthenflowsoutthehousingthroughapassageinthefilterelementcap.A
reliefvalveinthefilterelementcapunseatsatadifferentialpressureof15to25psi.Thisallowsoilto
flowfromoutsidethefilterelement,throughapassageinthefilterelementcap,tothefilteroutlet
passage.Ifthefilterelementbecomesclogged,thevalvewillopenandallowoiltobypassthefilter
element.
Fromthefilter,oilisforcedintoapassagetothesystemreliefvalveandtofouroiljets.Theoiljet
ring,whichencirclesthehighspeedinputpinion,containsthreeofthesejets.Itspraysoiltothe
pointswherethehighspeedinputpinionmesheswiththethreeplanetarygears.Onejetdirectsa
spraybetweentheendoftheoutputshaftandthehighspeedpiniontocreateamistforlubricationof
therotorshaftbearings.Theremaininggearsandbearingsarelubricatedbyairoilmistcreatedwhen
oilstrikestheplanetarygearsandhighspeedpinion.
Systempressureismaintainedat15to25psibyasystemreliefvalve.Thevalveregulatespressureby
bypassingexcessivepressuredirectlyintothereductiondrivehousing.Thebypassedoilstrikesthe
insidesurfaceoftheairinlethousing,aidingincoolingtheoil.Bypassedoilreturnstothesumpby
gravityflowthroughanopeninginthebottomoftheplanetcarrier.
Thenormallyopencontactsofthelowoilpressureswitchcloseonincreasingoilpressureat5to7
psi.Whentheswitchcontactsclose,thelowoilpressurecircuitisdeenergized.Atratedenginespeed
adropinoilpressurebelow5to7psiwillopenthelowoilpressureswitchcontacts.Through
electricalcircuitry,thedropinoilpressurewillalsoclosethemainfuelsolenoidvalveandshutdown
theengine.
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CHAPTER6
IGNITIONSYSTEMS
Turbineengineignitionsystemsfallintotwogeneralclassifications.Theinductiontypeproduces
hightensionsparksbyconventionalinductioncoils.Thecapacitortypecausesignitionbyhigh
energyandveryhightemperaturesparksproducedbyacondenserdischarge.Athirdkindofignition
systemnotwidelyadoptedusesaglowplug.
DESCRIPTION
Igniterexcitercomponentsarecontainedinhermeticallysealedboxes.Withamalfunction,itis
necessarytoreplacetheentireexciter.Shieldedcableisemployedthroughoutthesystemtoprotect
againstabrasionandignitionsystemradiointerference.
Ignitionsystemsarenotonlyusedforenginestartingbutalsoforignitionstandbyprotection.Ignition
systemswouldbeusedtorelighttheengineifaninflightflameoutoccurredwhenoperatingunder
potentiallyunstableflightconditions.Turbineenginessometimestendtoflameoutbecauseofan
overrichfuelairratiocausedbyamomentaryfluctuationofairsupplyatthecompressorinlet.A
changeinairflowatthecompressorinletortheentrancetotheaircraftinletductmaycausea
conditionfuelcontrolcannotimmediatelycompensatefor.Flameoutresults.Flyinginturbulentair,
ingestionofabird,oringestionoficebrokenlooseattheengineinletmaycausesuchasituation.
Whenoneorbothoftheigniterplugsareoperating,theenginewillrelightautomaticallyafterfuel
controlcompensationtakesplaceortheinletconditioncorrectsitself.Thepilotmaynotbeawarethat
flameouthasoccurred.Whenignitionisusedasaprecautionagainstflameout,theprescribedignition
usetimelimitationsmustbeobserved.Thispreventsoverheatingtheignitionsystemcomponentsand
enhancesthelifespanoftheignitionsystem.
EARLYINDUCTIONTYPE
Earlyturbineengineignitionsystemsevolvedusingthetriedprinciplesdevelopedforthe
reciprocatingengine.Someoftheearlysystemsemployedavibratorandtransformercombination.
Thiswassimilartotheboostercoilsusedforstartingreciprocatingengines.Otherunitssubstituteda
smallelectricmotordrivencam.Thisprovidedthenecessarypulsatingmagneticfieldtotheprimary
coilofthetransformer.Severalvariationsappeared,allusingthesamebasicprinciple.Thisprinciple
washighvoltageinductionusingatransformertoreachthenecessaryvoltagecapableofcausingan
arcacrossthewidegapjetigniterplug.Aninterestingvariationofthistransformertypeignition
systemistheoppositepolaritysystem.Inthiscircuittwoelectrodesextendintothecombustion
chamber.Eachelectrodealternatelybecomeshighlypositivelyandnegativelycharged,causingavery
highpotentialdifferencetoexistacrosstheelectrodes.
MODERNCAPACITORTYPE
Thehighenergy,capacitortypeignitionsystemhasbeenuniversallyacceptedforgasturbineengines.
Itprovidesbothhighvoltageandexceptionallyhotsparkwhichcoversalargearea.Excellentchances
ofignitingthefuelairmixtureareassuredatreasonablyhighaltitudes.
Theterm"highenergy"isusedthroughoutthischaptertodescribethecapacitortypeignitionsystem.
Strictlyspeakingtheamountofenergyproducedisverysmall.Theintensesparkisobtainedby
expendingasmallamountofelectricenergyinaverysmallamountoftime.
Energyisthecapacityfordoingwork.Itcanbeexpressedastheproductoftheelectricalpower(watt)
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IGNITIONSYSTEMS
andtime.Gasturbineignitionsystemsareratedinjoules.Thejouleisalsoanexpressionofelectric
energy.Itisequaltotheamountofenergyexpendedinonesecondbyanelectriccurrentofone
amperethrougharesistanceofoneohm.Therelationshipbetweenthesetermscanbeexpressedby
theformula
W=1
t
wherew=watts(power)
j=joules
t=time(second)
Allotherfactorsbeingequal,thesparktemperatureisdeterminedbythepowerlevelreached.Ahigh
temperaturesparkresultsfromincreasingtheenergylevel(1)orshorteningtheduration(t)ofthe
spark.Increasingtheenergylevelresultsinaheavier,bulkierignitionunit.Energydeliveredtothe
sparkplugisabout30to40percentoftotalenergystoredinthecapacitor.Highererosionratesonthe
igniterplugelectrodesoccurbecauseofheavycurrentflowingforacomparativelylongtime.Much
ofthesparkiswastedsinceignitiontakesplaceinamatterofmicroseconds(microsec).Ontheother
hand,sinceheatislosttotheigniterplugelectrodesandthefuelairmixtureisnevercompletely
gaseous,thesparkdurationcannotbetooshort.
Therelationshipbetweenwattsandtimeisshowninthefollowingtable.Theexampleisfora4joule
ignitionunit(4joulesappearingattheplug).
TABLE.WATTSANDTIMERELATIONSHIP
TIME(SECOND)
1
0.01(hundredths)
0.001(thousandths)
0.0001(tenthousandths)
0.00001(hundredthousandths)
0.000001(millionths)
POWER(WATTS)
4
400
4,000
40,000
400,000
4,000,000
Inanactualcapacitordischargeignitionsystem,mostofthetotalenergyavailabletotheigniterplug
isdissipatedin10to100microsec(0.000010to0.000100seconds).Thesystemabovewouldactually
deliver80,000wattsifthesparkdurationwas50microsec.
W=1
t
=4
0.000050
=80,000
Toreview,thesparktemperature(afunctionofthewattsvalue)isthemostimportantcharacteristicof
anyignitionsystem.Allthreefactorswatts,energy,andtimemustbeconsideredbeforeany
ignitionsystemeffectivenesscanbedetermined
HIGHENERGYTYPE
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IGNITIONSYSTEMS
Ignitionsystemsforjetenginesaredividedintoinductionandcapacitordischargetypes.The
capacitordischargetypecanbefurtherdividedintotwobasiccategories:
HighvoltagecapacitorignitionsystemwithDCorACinput.
LowvoltagecapacitorignitionsystemwithDCorACinput.
HighVoltageCapacitorSystemDCinput(morethan5000VDCtotheplug)
Thissystemisatypicalturbojetenginesysteminusetoday.Thissystemcaninclude:twoexciter
units,twotransformers,twointermediateignitionleads,andtwohightensionleads.Dependingon
engineconfigurationadualignitionisprovidedontheenginebytwoseparatelymountedexcitersor
bytwincircuitsthroughouttheexciter.
Asoperationbegins,thepowersourcedelivers28VDC(maximum)inputtothesystem.Each
triggeringcircuitisconnectedtoasparkigniter.Theoperationdescribedheretakesplaceineach
individualcircuit.Exceptforthemechanicalfeaturesofthearmature,theoperationisessentiallythe
sameinbothunits.
Asasafetyfactor,theignitionsystemisactuallyadualsystemdesignedtofiretwoigniterplugs.
Beforetheelectricalenergyreachestheexciterunit,itpassesthroughafalter.Thisfilterprevents
noisevoltagefrombeinginducedintotheaircraftelectricalsystem.Thelowvoltageinputpower
operatesaDCmotor,whichdrivesonemultilobecamandonesinglelobecam.Atthesametime,
inputpowerissuppliedtoasetofbreakerpointsthatareactuatedbythemultilobecam.
Fromthebreakerpoints,arapidlyinterruptedcurrentisdeliveredtoanautomatictransformer.When
thebreakercloses,theflowofcurrentthroughtheprimarywindingofthetransformerestablishesa
magneticfieldWhenthebreakeropens,theflowofcurrentstops.Thecollapseofthefieldinducesa
voltageinthesecondarywindingofthetransformer.Thisvoltagecausesapukeofcurrenttoflowinto
thestoragecapacitor.Thevoltageflowsthroughtherectifier,whichlimitstheflowtoasingle
direction.Withrepeatedpulsesthestoragecapacitorassumesachargeuptoamaximumof4joules.
(Onejoulepersecondequals1watt.)
Thestoragecapacitorisconnectedtothesparkigniterthroughthetriggeringtransformeranda
contactor,normallyopen.Whenthechargeonthecapacitorbuildsup,thecontactorisclosedbythe
mechanicalactionofthesinglelobecam.Aportionofthechargeflowsthroughtheprimaryofthe
triggeringtransformerandthecapacitorconnectedinserieswithit.
Thiscurrentinducesahighvoltageinthesecondarywhichionizesthegapatthesparkigniter.When
thesparkigniterismadeconductive,thestoragecapacitordischargestheremainderofits
accumulatedenergy.Thisisdonetogetherwiththechargefromthecapacitorinserieswiththe
primaryofthetriggeringtransformer.
ThesparkrateatthesparkignitervariesinproportiontothevoltageoftheDCpowersupply,which
affectstheRPMofthemotor.However,sincebothcamsaregearedtothesameshaft,thestorage
capacitoralwaysaccumulatesitsstoreofenergyfromthesamenumberofpukesbeforedischarge.
Theemploymentofthehighfrequencytriggeringtransformer,withalowreactancesecondary
winding,holdsthedurationofthedischargetoaminimum.Thisconcentrationofmaximumenergyin
minimumtimeachievesanoptimumsparkforignition.Anoptimumsparkiscapableofblasting
carbondepositsandvaporizingglobulesoffuel.
Allhighvoltageinthetriggeringcircuitsiscompletelyisolatedfromtheprimarycircuits.The
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IGNITIONSYSTEMS
completeexciterishermeticallysealed,protectingallcomponentsfromadverseoperatingconditions
andeliminatingflashoverataltitudeduetopressurechange.Thisalsoensuresshieldingagainst
leakageofhighfrequencyvoltageinterferingwiththeradioreception.
Twoigniterplugsaremountedinthecombustionsectionoutercase.Thesparkignitersaregenerally
locatedintwodiametricallyoppositecombustionliners.Theignitersreceivetheelectricaloutputfrom
theignitionexciterunit.Theignitersdischargetheelectricaloutputfromtheignitionexciterunit.And
theydischargetheelectricenergyduringenginestartingtoignitethefuelairmixtureinthe
combustionliners.
Typicalspecificationsforthissystemareasfollows:
Inputvoltage:
Normal:24VDC
Operatinglimits:14to30VDC
Sparkrate:
4to8persecondateachplug,dependingon
inputvoltage
Designedtofire:
2igniterplugs
Accumulatedenergy:
3joules
Dutycycle:
2minutesON,3minutesOFF,
2minutesON,23minutesOFF
HighVoltageCapacitorSystemACInput
Powerissuppliedtotheunitinputconnectorfromthe115volt,400cyclesourceintheaircraft.
Powerisfirstledthroughafilterwhichblocksconductednoisevoltagefromfeedingbackintothe
airplaneelectricalsystem.Fromthefilter,thecircuitiscompletedthroughtheprimaryofthepower
transformertoground.
Inthesecondaryofthepowertransformer,analternatingvoltageisgeneratedatalevelapproximating
1700volts.Duringthefirsthalfcyclethisfollowsacircuitthroughthedoublercapacitorandrectifier
Atoground,leavingthecapacitorcharged.Duringthesecondhalfcyclewhenthepolarityreverses,
thiscircuitisblockedbyrectifierA.Theflowofthispukeisthroughgroundtothestoragecapacitor,
rectifierB,resistor,doublercapacitor,andbacktothepowertransformer.
Witheachpulsethestoragecapacitorassumesagreatercharge.Byvirtureoftheactionofthedoubler
capacitor,thechargeapproachesvoltageapproximatelytwicethatgeneratedinthepowertransformer.
WhenthisvoltagereachesthepredeterminedlevelcalibratedforthesparkgapinthedischargetubeX
(thecontrolgap),thegapbreaksdown.Thisallowsaportionoftheaccumulatedchargetoflow
throughtheprimaryofthehightensiontransformerandthetriggercapacitorinserieswithit.This
surgeofcurrentinducesaveryhighvoltageinthesecondaryofthehightensiontransformer.This
surgeisenoughtoionizethegapindischargetubeY.Thestoragecapacitorimmediatelydischarges
theremainderofitsaccumulatedenergythroughthesparkigniter.Thisproducesacapacitivesparkof
veryhighenergy.
Thebleederresistorsareprovidedtodissipatetheresidualchargeonthetriggercapacitor.Thisis
accomplishedbetweenthecompletionofonedischargeatthesparkigniterandthesuccessionofthe
nextcycle.
Typicalspecificationsforthissystemareasfollows:
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IGNITIONSYSTEMS
Inputvoltage:
Normal:115volts,400cycle
AC
Operatinglimits90to1241volts
Sparkrate:
Normal:1.50to275persec
Operatinglimits:0.75to5.00persecond
Designedtoignite:
Onesparkigniter
Accumulatedenergy:
14to17joules
Dutycycle:
LowVoltageCapacitorSystemDCInput(lessthan1000voltstotheplug)
Thebasisofoperationonwhichthelowvoltage,highenergyignitionsystemisbuiltistheself
ionizingfeatureoftheigniterplug.Inthehighvoltagesystemadoublesparkisproduced.Thefirst
partconsistsofahighvoltagecomponenttoionize(makeconductive)thegapbetweentheigniter
plugelectrodes.Thesecondhighenergy,lowvoltageportionfollows.Thelowvoltage,highenergy
sparkissimilarexceptthationizationiseffectedbytheselfionizingigniterplug.
Themainignitionunitchangestheamplitudeandthefrequencycharacteristicsofaircraftpowerinto
pulsatingDC.Todothis,thecomponentsintheignitionunitaregroupedinstagestofilter,amplify,
rectify,andstoreanelectriccharge.
Thesparkplugsusedintheignitionsystemaretheshuntedgaptype,whichareselfionizingand
designedforlowtension(relativelylowvoltage)applications.
Althoughthesparkplugfiresatrelativelylowvoltage,ahightemperaturesparkisobtainedfromthe
speedtheenergyisdischargedacrossthegap.Thesparkisofshortduration(40microsec),but
momentarilyexpendsagreatamountofpower.Tankcapacitordischargecurrentfromthemain
ignitionunitsurgestothesparkplugelectrodes.Thisbuildsapotentialbetweenthecenterelectrode
andgroundelectrode.Thesemiconductingmaterialshuntstheelectrodes.Whenthepotentialbetween
electrodesreachesapproximately800volts,itforcesenoughcurrentthroughthesemiconductorto
ionizetheairgapbetweentheelectrodes.Thefulltankcapacitorcurrentarcsinstantlyacrossthe
ionizedgap,emittingahighenergyspark.
COMBINATIONORDUALDUTY
Theoperationofthissystemwillnotbediscussedindetail.However,itismentionedtomakeyou
awareofthesystem.
Theignitionsystemincludesoneintermittentdutyexciter,onecontinuousdutyexciter,one
intermediatevoltagelead,andtwohightensionleads.Itisdesignedtotiretwosparkignitersduring
groundstarts.Thisisaccomplishedbythe20jouleintermittentdutyexciteroronesparkigniter
duringflightbythe4joulecontinuousdutyexciter.
Whenintermittentoperationisemployed,DCpowerissuppliedtotheinputoftheintermittentduty
exciterfromthe24voltaircraftelectricalsystem.Itisfirstpassedthrougharadionoisefilterto
preventhighfrequencyfeedback.Whencontinuousoperationisemployed,powerissuppliedtothe
inputofthecontinuousdutyexciterfromthe115volt,400cycleACsourceintheaircraft.
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IGNITIONSYSTEMS
ELECTRONIC
Thismodifiedcapacitytypesystemprovidesignitionforturbojetandturbopropengines.Itisrequired
onlyforstartingtheengine.Oncecombustionbeginstheflameiscontinuous.Figure61showsthe
componentsofatypicalelectronicignitionsystem.
Thesystemconsistsofadynamotor/regulator/filterassembly,anexciterunit,twohightension
transformerunits,twohightensionleads,andtwoigniterplugs.Thenecessaryinterconnectingcables,
leads,controlswitches,andassociatedequipmentforoperationareusedwiththesecomponents.
Thedynamotorisusedtostepupthedirectcurrentoftheaircraftbatteryortheexternalpowersupply
totheoperatingvoltageoftheexciterunit.Thisvoltageisusedtochargetwostoragecapacitors
whichstoretheenergyusedforignition.
Inthissystem,theenergyrequiredtotiretheigniterplugintheengineburnerisnotstoredinan
inductorcoilInstead,theenergyisstoredincapacitors.Eachdischargecircuitincorporatestwo
storagecapacitors.Botharelocatedintheexciterunit.Thevoltageacrossthesecapacitorsisstepped
upbytransformerunits.Attheinstantofigniterplugfiring,theresistanceofthegapislowered
sufficientlytopermitthelargercapacitortodischargeacrossthegap.Thedischargeofthesecond
capacitorisoflowvoltagebutveryhighenergy.Theresultisasparkofgreatheatintensity.Itis
capablenotonlyofignitingabnormalfuelmixturesbutalsoofburningawayanyforeigndepositson
theplugelectrodes.
Theexciterisadualunit,anditproducessparksateachofthetwoigniterplugs.Acontinuousseries
ofsparksisproduceduntiltheenginestarts.Thebatterycurrentisthencutoff.Theplugsdonottire
whiletheengineisoperating.
TURBINEENGINEIGNITERS
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IGNITIONSYSTEMS
Turbineengineigniterscomeinmanysizesandshapesdependingonwhattheirfunctionis.The
electrodesoftheplugsusedwithhighenergyignitionsystemsmustaccommodateamuchhigher
energycurrentthantheelectrodesofconventionalsparkplugs.Thehighenergycurrentcausesmore
rapidigniterelectrodeerosionthaninreciprocatingenginesparkplugs.Thisisnotaproblembecause
oftherelativelyshorttimeaturbineengineignitionsystemisinoperation.Thisisoneofthereasons
fornotoperatingthegasturbineignitionsystemanylongerthannecessary.Igniterpluggapsarelarge
incomparisonwiththoseofconventionalsparkplugs.Thegapsarelargebecausetheoperating
pressureatwhichtheplugisfiredismuchlowerthanthatofareciprocatingengine.
Mostigniterplugsareoftheannulargaptype.Constrainedgapsareusedinsomeengines.Normally,
toprovideaneffectivesparktheannulargapplugprojectsslightlyintothecombustionchamberliner.
Thesparkoftheconstrainedgapplugdoesnotcloselyfollowthefaceoftheplug.Instead,ittendsto
jumpanarcwhichcarriesitbeyondthefaceofthechamberliner.Theconstrainedgapplugneednot
projectintotheliner.Theresultisthattheelectrodeoperatesatacoolertemperaturethantheannular
gapplug.
Theturbojetignitionsystemisdesignedforseverealtitudeconditionscommontomilitaryoperation.
Itisrarelytaxedtoitsfullcapabilitybytransportuse.Flameoutismuchlesscommonthanitwas,and
flightrelightisnotnormallyrequiredoftheignitionsystem.Ignitionproblemsingeneralareminor
comparedtotheconstantattentionrequiredbythepistonenginesystem.Airborneignitionanalysis
equipmentisunnecessary.Sparkigniterplugreplacementisgreatlyminimized.Onlytwoplugsper
engineareused.
Thetrendstakingplaceinthegasturbineignitionareaare
UseofACpowerinputs,whicheliminatesthevibrator,amajorsourceoftrouble.
Useofsolidstaterectifiers.
Useoftwodischargetubes,whichpermitsthelevelofstoredenergypersparktobemore
consistentthroughoutthelifeoftheexciter.
Sealedunits.
Longertimebetweenoverhauls.
Theadventofshortrangejets,whichincreasedtheratioofignitionontimetoengineoperation
andledtodevelopmentofdualsystems.
TwotypesofignitionsystemsinArmyaircrafttodayareGeneralElectric'sT701andLycoming'sT
55L712
T701GENERALELECTRIC
TheignitionsystemisanACpowered,capacitordischarge,lowvoltagesystem.Itincludesadual
exciterunitmountedontherighthandsideandtwoigniterplugs(Figure62).Thesparkrateofeach
ignitioncircuitistwosparkspersecondminimumenergyattheigniterplugsisatleast0.25joules
perspark.Theexciterispoweredbyonewindingoftheenginealternatorandisconnectedtoitbythe
yellowharness.Theignitionsystemmustbeturnedoffafterstartingbyshortingthealternatoroutput.
Fornormalstartingtheaircraftignitioncircuitistiedinwiththeaircraftstartingsystemtode
energizetheignitionsystematthestarterordropoutspeed.
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IGNITIONSYSTEMS
Theigniterplugisahomogeneoussemiconductor,surfacegaptypesparkplugusingaircoolingof
thefiringtip(Figure63).Itprovidesaprojectedelectricaldischargeforlightoffofthecombustor.An
enginesetconsistsofigniterslocatedatthe4o'clockand8o'clockpositions.Theyaremountedinthe
midframeusingascrewinbossandextendinwardthroughtheouterpanelofthecombustionliner.
Theignitionsystemoperateswithamaximumoutputof7000volts.Tocreateasparkacrossthe
electrodegapwiththisvoltage,thegapsurfaceisasemiconductormaterial,homogeneousbutton
extendingintothetipoftheplug.Itis,therefore,capableofcopingwitherosionoveralongperiodof
operatingtime.Consistentwiththislonglifeobjective,thecenterelectrodeispuretungstenandthe
outerelectrodeistungstenalloy.Theseelectrodesarenickelplatedtopreventoxidation,aproblem
furtherminimizedbytipcooling.Compressordischargeairprovidescoolingairwhichentersthrough
sixholesaroundthetipbodyandexitsthroughtwelveholesatthetipend.
T55L712LYCOMING
Thehighpotentialignitionpulseisdevelopedbytheignitionexciter(Figure64).Adirectcurrentat
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IGNITIONSYSTEMS
28voltsisappliedtotheinputoftheexciter.Currentflowsthroughtheprimarytransformerwinding
thebiascoil,andthevibratorpointstogroundThisgeneratesmagneticlinesofforcewhichpermeate
thetransformerandbiascoilcores,attractthevibratorreedupward,andinterruptthecircuit.As
currentflowceases,thelinesofforcecollapse,andthereedfallsback.Thisclosesthecircuit.This
cyclerepeatsatarateproportionaltotheinputvoltage.Theresultantcurrentflowsinpulses,causing
magneticlinesofforcetobuildupandcollapsewitheachpulsation.Theselinesinducevoltageacross
thesecondary.Theyaretransformedtoahigherpotentialbyvirtueofanincreasednumberof
windingscomprisingthesecondary.Thediodesrectifythepulsatingcurrentbackintodirectcurrentto
chargethecapacitors.Thechargeonthecapacitorscontinuestobuildupatarateproportionaltoinput
voltageuntilapotentialof2500ACvoltsexists.Thecalibratedsparkgapsionizeatthisvoltage
creatinganelectricalpathforthetiringpulse.Thecapacitorsdischargethroughthispathintothelead
coilassemblyfordistributiontothesparkigniters.
Radiofrequencyenergyisgeneratedwithintheexciterduringnormaloperation.Aninductive
capacitivefilterhasbeenincorporatedattheinput.Thiswillpreventenergyfrombeingfedbackonto
the28voltinputline.Radiofrequencyinterferenceonthislinecoulddamagetheoperationofother
electricalaccessories.Thefilteristurnedtoradiofrequencies.Itdoesnotofferanyappreciable
oppositiontotheflowof28voltdirectcurrent.
Theignitionleadandcoilassemblyconstitutesthehighpotentialignitionwiring.Thisassembly
incorporatestwocoilsfedwithhighvoltagefromthetwooutputsoftheignitionexciter.Thecoil
assembliesfunctionassparksplittersdistributinghighvoltagetofourigniterplugs.Eachcoil
assemblyhasoneinputandtwooutputs.Thecoilwindingsformatransformerhavinga1:1ratio.Any
currentflowingthrougheitherwindingwillinduceavoltageacrosstheother.Evenashortenedigniter
plugwillnotshortoutthehighvoltageignitionsignal.Theentirewiringharnessisshieldedand
groundedatairframepotentialtosuppressradiationofradiofrequencyinterference.
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COOLINGSYSTEM
CHAPTER7
COOLINGSYSTEM
Theintenseheatgeneratedwhenfuelandairareburnedmandatesthatsomemeansofcoolingbe
providedforallinternalcombustionengines.Reciprocatingenginesarecooledeitherbypassingair
overfinsattachedtothecylindersorbypassingaliquidcoolantthroughjacketssurroundingthe
cylinders.Coolingismadeeasierbecausecombustionoccursonlyduringeveryfourthstrokeofa
fourstrokecycleengine.Incontrast,theburningprocessinagasturbineengineiscontinuous,and
nearlyallofthecoolingairmustpassthroughtheinsideoftheengine.Ifenoughairwereadmittedto
theenginetoprovideanidealairfuelratioof15:1,internaltemperatureswouldincreasetomorethan
4000F.Inpractice,alargeamountofairexceedingoftheidealratioisadmittedtotheengine.This
largesurplusofaircoolsthehotsectionsoftheenginetoacceptabletemperaturesrangingfrom1100
to1500F.
COOLINGOFENGINEOUTERCASE
Figure71illustratestheapproximateengineoutercase(skin)temperaturesencounteredinaproperly
cooleddualaxialcompressorturbojetengine.Becauseoftheeffectofcooling,thetemperaturesofthe
outsideofthecaseareconsiderablylessthanthoseencounteredinsidetheengine.Thehottestspot
occursoppositetheentrancetothefirststageoftheturbine.Althoughthegaseshavebeguntocoola
littleatthispoint,theconductivityofthemetalinthecasecarriestheheatdirectlytotheoutsideskin.
COOLINGOFCOMBUSTIONCHAMBERANDGASPRODUCER
Theairpassingthroughtheenginethecombustionchamberburnercansorliners.Thecansare
constructedtoinduceathin,fastmovingfilmofairoverboththeinnerandoutersurfacesofthecan
orliner.Canannulartypeburnersarefrequentlyprovidedwithacentertubetoleadcoolingairinto
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COOLINGSYSTEM
thecenteroftheburnertopromotehighcombustionefficiencyandrapiddilutionofthehot
combustiongaseswhileminimizingpressurelosses.Inalltypesofgasturbines,largeamountsof
relativelycoolairjoinandmixwiththeburnedgasesaftoftheburnerstocoolthehotgasesjust
beforetheyentertheturbines.Allstage1and2airfoilsintheGET701engineareinternallycooled
bymeansofcompressordischargeair(Figures72,73).Thestage1nozzleleadingedgeis
convectionandfilmcooledwiththeairexitingthroughashowerheadseriesofholesintheleading
edge.Aftoftheleadingedge,filmcoolingairexitsthroughconvexandconcavesidegillholesand
trailingedgeslots.Coolingairforthestage2nozzleisbledfromthecentrifugalimpellerexitand
pipedbackthroughthemidframetoenterthestage2nozzle.Itcoolsbyinternalconvection,exiting
bothbytrailingedgeholesandbyinnerbandholes.There,itcoolstheinterstageseal.Theturbine
bladesareconvectioncooledthroughradialholesinthedovetail.Airexitsthroughtipholes.The
stage1bladesalsoemploytrailingedgeholesforcooling.
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COOLINGSYSTEM
EXTERNALCOOLING
Coolingairinletsarefrequentlyprovidedaroundtheexterioroftheenginetopermitentranceofairto
cooltheturbinecase,thebearings,andtheturbinenozzle(Figure74).Insomeinstancesinternalair
isbledfromtheenginecompressorsectionandisventedtothebearingsandotherpartsoftheengine.
Airventedintoorfromtheengineisejectedintotheexhauststream.Whenanaccessorycaseis
mountedatthefrontoftheengine,itiscooledbyinletair.Whenlocatedonthesideoftheengine,the
caseiscooledbyoutsideairflowingaroundit.
Theengineexteriorandtheenginenacellearecooledbypassingairbetweenthecaseandtheshellof
thenacelle.Theenginecompartmentfrequentlyisdividedintotwosections.Theforwardsectionis
builtaroundtheengineairinletducttheaftsectionisbuiltaroundtheengine.Afumeproofsealis
providedbetweenthetwosections.Theadvantageofsuchanarrangementisthatfumesfrompossible
leaksinthefuelandoillinescontainedintheforwardsectioncannotbecomeignitedbycontactwith
thehotsectionsoftheengine.Inflightramairprovidesamplecoolingofthetwocompartments.On
thegroundaircirculationisprovidedbytheeffectofreducedpressureattherearoftheengine
compartmentproducedbygasesflowingfromtheexhaustnozzle.
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ACCESSORYSYSTEMS
CHAPTER8
ACCESSORYSYSTEMS
Accessoriesforgasturbineenginescanbedividedintotwocategories:thosedrivenbybleedairtaken
fromthecompressorsectionoftheenginethosedrivenmechanicallybyanaccessorydriveshaftand
gearboxconnecteddirectlytotheturbineshaft.Themechanicalconnectionfromtheturbineshaftmay
bethroughanenginemountedgearboxorthroughapowertakeoffshafttoaremotelymounted
gearbox.
BLEEDAIRDRIVENACCESSORIES
Gasturbinesareuniqueamongengines.Highpressureairisavailablefordrivingaircraftaccessories
byairmotorsorairturbines.Compressordischargeairathighpressureandtemperatureisbledfrom
theenginethroughportsprovided.Thisairisductedasasourceofpower.Itoperatestheair
conditioningunits,hydraulicpumps,thrustreverseractuators,andvariousmechanicalactuatorsinthe
airplane.Airforcockpitorcabinpressurizationisalsoprovidedbybleedairfromtheengine
compressor.Onmultienginedaircraftequippedwithpneumaticenginestarters,oneengineisusually
startedfromanauxiliarypowerunitoragroundairsource.Airfromthisoperatingengineisbled
throughasystemofductsintheaircraft,topowerthestartersoftheotherengines.
ThePrattandWhitneydualaxialcompressorturbineengineisanexamplethatusesbleedairto
operateaccessories.TheJT3DturbofanengineisusedonaircraftsuchastheBoeing707andB52
bomber.Thisenginealsousesamechanicalaccessorygearbox.Itusuallyhasthreeseparatebleedair
systems:highpressure,lowpressure,andoverboard.Thehighandlowpressuresystemsareusedto
driveaircraft,enginecomponents,andaccessories.Theoverboardisrequiredtoprecludecompressor
instability.
Compressorbleedairisalsousedtoantiicetheengineairinletguidevanesand,frequently,partsof
theairinletduct.Lowpressureairhasapressureofapproximately50psiandatemperatureofmore
than300F.Thislowpressureairistakenfrombleedairpartscompressormidsectionbetweenthe
lowandhighpressurecompressors.Highpressurebleedairhasapressureofabout160psianda
temperatureofmorethan650Fwhenoperatingnearsealevel.Thisairistakenfromtherearofthe
highpressurecompressor.Theairavailablefordrivingaccessoriesandforotherpurposesinthe
aircraftisusuallyabout3or4percentoftheprimaryengineairflow.Keepinmindtheairunder
pressurethatisextractedfromtheengineisnotabonus.Engineoutputandfuelconsumptionare
sacrificed.
MECHANICALLYDRIVENACCESSORIES
Theothermethodofdrivingaccessoriesisadirect,mechanicaldriveoperatedbygearingfromthe
compressorturbinedriveshaft.Accessorydrivesandaccessorymountingpadsareprovidedinan
enginemounted,accessorydrivegearboxorinaremotelymountedgearbox.Onsometurbojet
engines,accessorypadsandmechanicallypowereddrivesarealsoprovidedintheenginenose
section.Fordualcompressor,axialflowengines,themainaccessorydrivegearboxusuallyreceives
itspowerfromthehighpressurecompressordriveshaft.Mechanicallydrivenaccessoriesinclude:
tachometers,generators(alternators),hydraulicpumps,fuelpumps,oilpumps,fuelcontrols,starters,
and(iisomeinstances)waterpumps.
LYCOMINGT55ENGINE
ThepowerextractionsystemtransmitspowerfromtheN1andN2systemstotheaccessorygearbox
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locatedatthe6o'clockpositionontheinlethousing(Figures81,82).Mostofthesecomponents
receivetheirdrivingforcefromtheN1system.AminimumamountofpowerisextractedfromtheN2
system.
Thestartergearbox,mountedatthe12o'clockposition,functionsasacentrifugeforairoilseparation
duringengineoperation.TheN1systemprovidesthedrivingforce.Asinglebevelgearislocatedat
thefrontendofthecompressorshaftmesheswithaplanetarygeartrainhousedintheinlethousing
ThisgeartraintransmitsN1powerthroughtwodriveshafts:onetothestartergearbox,theotherto
theaccessorygearboxtodrivetheidlersystem.Agearlocatedontheoutputpowershaft
interconnectswiththe90anglegearintheoutputshaftsupporthousing.ThegearsdrivetheN2
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sectionoftheaccessorygeartrain.
TheN2drivenoverspeedgovernorinthefuelcontrolisdrivenfromaspurgear.Thisgearisattached
totheN2systemdriveshaftwhichrotatesonaballbearingwithapad,locatedatthe6o'clock
positionontheinlethousing
Customerpowerextractionisprovidedthroughtheverticalbevelpiniongearlocatedwithinthe
accessorygearcarrier.Itisavailableforusebyinsertingacustomersupplieddriveshaftinitsinternal
splines.
Theaccessorydrivegearboxsuppliesmountingpadsfortheenginesupportingaccessoriesand
providesthetransmissioncapabilitytodrivethesecomponents.Dimensionalstandardizationpermits
interchangingcomponentsamongenginesandeliminatestheneedforadaptersfortestequipment.
GENERALELECTRICT701
Theaccessorymodulemountsonthecoldsectionmoduleatthe12o'clockpositionofthemainframe
(Figures83,84).Itincludestheaccessorydrivegearbox(AGB)thatisdrivenbyabevelgear
systemfromthecompressorrotorviaaradialdriveshaft.Severalaccessoriesarecontainedinor
mountedonthefrontandrearcasingsoftheAGB.Therearfaceprovidesdrivepadsfortheengine
starter,hydromechanicalunit,inletseparatorblower,andafaceportedpadfortheoverspeedand
drainvalve.Padsforthealternatorandfuelboostpumpareonthefrontface.Acavityisprovidedfor
thelubeandscavengepumpandchipdetector.Padsaresuppliedfortheoilcooler,fuelmeter,and
lubefilter.CoredpassagesintheAGBhousingconveyfuelandoilbetweencomponents.
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Drivepadsealsforthestarter,hydromechanicalunit,andfuelboostpumpdrainintoacommoncored
passageintheAGBhousing.Itthendrainstoanexternalportontherighthandsideofthe
mainframe.
ACCESSORYDRIVES
AccessoryDriveSystem
TheaccessorydrivesystemprovidesdrivesforboththeN1drivenaccessorygearboxandtheN2
drivenoverspeedgovernorandtachometerdriveassembly.Provisionisalsomadewithinthesystem
forthedriveofcustomerfurnishedaccessoriesthroughthepowertakeoffpadlocatedatthe2o'clock
positionontheengineinlethousing(Figure85).
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N1driveisprovidedfromapiniongear(9)mountedontheforwardendofthecompressorrotorshaft,
drivingtwobevelgears(10and19)locatedwithintheaccessorygearcarrier.
Thebevelgearlocatedatthe6o'clockpositionwithinthecarrier,beingtheaccessorygearboxdrive
gear(10),issplinedinternallytoaccepttheaccessorygearboxshaft(18).Thisdriveshaftconnectsthe
gearcarriertotheaccessorygearboxthroughthe90piniongear(16)whichinturnissplineddirectly
tothestartergeneratordrivegear(15).Thestartergeneratordrivegearprovidesdrivetoall
subordinategearslocatedwiththeaccessorygearboxhousing.
Thepowertakeoffdriveisprovidedthroughthesecondbevelgear(19)locatedwithintheaccessory
gearcarrierandisusedtodriveairframeaccessories.
TheN2drivenoverspeedgovernorandtachometerdrivegearbox(1)receivesitsdrivefromaspur
gear(20)pressedtothepowershaftaftofthesungear.ThisgearengagestheN2driveanddriven
gearpackage(8)locatedwithintheaccessorygearcarrier.Thispackage,aseriesofthreegears,
providesaninternalsplinedriveforthedriveshaft(2)whichpassesupthroughthe10o'clockinlet
housingstrutandintothegearbox(l).
Thedriveshaftthenengagestheinternalsplinesoftheupperdrivegear(3)whichprovidesdriveto
thetachometergear(5).Thisgearmeshesdirectlywithanidlergear(6)whichinturntransmitsthe
drivetothecombinationtorquemeterboostpumpandoverspeedgovernordrivegear(7).
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MainAccessoryDriveGearbox
Theaccessorydrivegearbox(Figure86)ismountedatthe6o'clockpositionoftheengineinlet
housingandisdriventhroughbevelgearsfromthefrontendofthecompressorrotor.Drivepadsare
providedontherearofthegearboxforthefuelcontrol,thestartergenerator,andthegasproducer(nI)
tachometergenerator.Thegearboxfrontsidehasmountingfortherotaryoilpumpandalsohasan
unuseddrivepadwithconnectionline.Oilscavengelinesareconnectedattherightrearonthe
gearboxwhichservesasanoilcollectorsump,keptpracticallyemptybythepump.Achipdetector
plugislocatedinthelowerrightside,andtheoilfilterisontheleftside.Adrainlinefromtheinlet
guidevaneactuatorisconnectedtotherightside.
PowerandAccessoryGearbox
Themainpowerandaccessorydrivegeartrainsareenclosedinasinglegearcase.Thegearcase
servesasthestructuralsupportoftheengine.Allenginecomponents,includingtheenginemounted
accessories,areattachedtothecase.At100percentenginespeed,reductiongearingreducespower
turbinespeedfrom33,290to6016RPMattheoutputdrivepads.Thepowerturbinegeartrainhasa
torquemetertomeasureengineoutputtorque.Accessoriesdrivenbythepowerturbinegeartrainare
thepowerturbinetachometergenerator(N2)andthepowerturbinegovernor.Thegasproducergear
traindrivestheoilpump,fuelpump,gasproducerfuelcontrol,andtachometergenerator(N1).The
gearboxhasaspareaccessorymountingpadwhichisdrivenbythegasproducergeartrain.During
startingthestartergeneratorcrankstheenginethroughthegasproducergeartrain.Aftercompletion
ofthestartingcycle,thestartergeneratorfunctionsasagenerator.
STARTERS
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Gasturbineenginesarestartedbyrotatingthecompressor.Inthecaseofdualaxialflowcompressor
engines,thehighpressurecompressorisusuallytheonlyonerotatedbythestarter.First,compressor
acceleratestoprovidesufficientairunderpressuretosupportcombustionintheburners.Second,after
fuelisintroducedandtheengineisfired,startercontinuestoassisttheengineabovetheself
sustainingspeed.Thetorquemustbeinexcessofthatrequiredtoovercomerotorinertiaandengine
frictionandairloads.
Basictypesofstartersdevelopedforgasturbineenginesareairturbine(pneumatic),electricmotor,
hydraulic,combustion,andcartridgepnuematic.Airturbinestartersarethemostcommonlyused.
Smallerenginesgenerallyuseelectricstarters.Hydraulicstartersarefrequentlyfoundinhelicopters
andsomemarinegasturbineinstallations.Combustionandcartridgepneumaticstartersaregenerally
specialapplicationdevicesthatmayrequireaselfcontainedstartingsystem.Animpingementstarting
systemissometimesusedAnimpingementstarterconsistsofsimplejetsofcompressedairpipedto
theinsideofthecompressororturbinecase.Thejetairblastisdirectedontothecompressoror
turbinerotorbladesandcausesthemtorotate.
Asthestarteracceleratesthecompressorsufficientlytoestablishairflowthroughtheengine,the
ignitionandthenthefuelareturnedon.Theexactsequenceofthestartingprocedureisimportant.
Theremustbesufficientairflowthroughtheenginetosupportcombustionwhenthefuelairmixture
isignitedThefuelflowratewillnotbesufficienttoenabletheenginetoaccelerateuntilaftertheself
sustainingorselfacceleratingspeedhasbeenreachedIfassistancefromthestarterwerecutoffbelow
theselfsustainingspeed,theenginewouldeitherfailtoacceleratetoidlespeedordecelerate.
Decelerationoccursbecausesufficientenergywasnotproducedtosustainrotationoracceleration
duringtheinitialphaseofthestartingcycle.Thestartermustcontinuetoassisttheengineabovethe
selfstainingspeedtoavoidadelayinthestartingcycle.Thiswouldresultinahotorhung(false)
start,oracombinationofboth.Inahotstart,theenginelightsup,buttheexhaustgastemperature
exceedsthatallowedforanenginestart.Inhungorfalsestarttheenginelightsupnormallybut,
insteadofincreasingtoidlespeed,theRPMremainsatsomelowervalue.
Attheproperpointsinthesequence,thestarterandtheignitioncutoff.ThehighertheRPMbefore
thestartercutsout,theshorterthetotaltimerequiredfortheenginetoattainidleRPM.Theengine
andstarterworktogethertofurnishthetorquenecessaryforengineacceleration.
Themostimportantrequirementofastarteristoproducesufficienttorquetostarttheengineproperly.
Enginesmustberotatedandacceleratedaboveacertainminimumrateifconsistentlygoodstartsare
tobeachieved.Thetorquecharacteristicsofanacceptablestartermustbewellabovetherequired
minimum.
AirTurbine
Airturbinestarters(whicharealsocalledpneumaticstarters)areusedmorethananyotherforstarting
jetaircraftengines,particularlylargerengines(Figure87).Asmallgearedairturbineisattachedto
theenginestarterpadlocatedattheaccessorydrivegearbox.Airturbinestartersmustreceive
compressedairfromanexternalpowersource.Acompressormountedonagroundunitoronboard
theaircraftisonesuchsource.Asmallturbineengineusuallydrivestheseunits.Onmultiengine
aircraft,airisoftenbledfromthefirstenginestartedandusedtooperatethestartersfortheremaining
engines.Withanairturbinestarter,theairsupplymustbeofsufficientvolumeandpressuretomeet
starterrequirements.Otherwise,thestartertorquemaynotproduceconsistentlysuccessfulstarts
withinanacceptabletimelimit.Whenbledairfromanotheroperatingengineisused,theenginebeing
usedforacompressedairsupplymustbeturningoverfastenoughtoensureadequateairpressureto
thestarteroftheenginebeingstarted.
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Stillanotherformofpneumaticstarteriswhenthestarteritselfispartofthegroundpowerunit.The
endofaflexibleshaftfromthestarterisplacedinaconnectionboxontheenginetoturnthe
compressor.Whentheenginestarts,theflexibleshaftisremovedThistypestartermightbeusedon
smallgasturbineengines.Itmightalsobeusedonagasturbineengineforamissileorwhereairborne
weightmustbeheldtotheminimum.
Combustion
Acombustionstarterisessentiallyasmallturboshaftgasturbineengine(Figure88).Itschief
advantagesarequickstartsbecauseofthehightorqueproducedandportability.Thecompletestarting
systemmaybecarriedaboardtheaircraft.Thisstarterobtainsitspowerfromhotexpandinggases.
Thesegasesaregeneratedinthestartercombustionchamber.Theyoccurbyburningacombustible
mixtureeitherfuel,air,ormonopropellant.Amonopropellantisaspeciallycompoundedsolidor
liquidslowburningsubstance.
Thequantityoffuelormonopropellantrequiredbythestarterisproportionaltothelengthoftimethe
starterisoperating.Aircraftweightandsizelimitationsrequirethatthequantityoffuelor
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monoporpellantbeheldtoaminimuminanairborne,combustionstartersystem.Thestarterburning
timemustbeheldtoaminimum.Thisisdeterminedbythestartertorqueandthestartercutoutspeed.
Thestartercutoutspeeddependsontheselfsustainingspeedoftheengine.Theselfsustainingspeed
determines,toalargeextent,theamountoffuelormonopropellantrequired.Ordinarily,sufficient
fuelormonopropellanttoprovideaminimumoftwostartswillbecarriedaboardtheaircraft.Some
combustionstartersoperateassimpleairturbines.Whenanoutsideairsourcefromagroundunitor
anotherenginewhichisalreadystartedisconnectedtothestarter,thecombustionstarterfunctionsas
apneumaticstarter.
CartridgePneumatic
Acartridgepneumaticstarterisacombustionstarterthatoperatesfrommonopropellantcontainedina
cartridge.Priortostarting,themonopropellantcartridgeisinsertedinthestarter.Likearegular
combustionstarter,acartridgestarterfireselectricallyfromaswitchintheaircraft.Cartridge
pneumaticstarterscanbeoperatedaspneumaticstarterswhenprovidedwithoutsideair.
ElectricStarting
Directcrankingandstartergeneratorarethetwoelectricstartingsystemsforgasturbineaircraft
(Figure89).
Directcrankingelectricstartingsystemsaresimilartothoseusedonreciprocatingengines.Starter
generatorstartingsystemsarealsosimilartodirectcrankingelectricalsystems.Electrically,thetwo
systemsmaybeidentical.Butthestartergeneratorispermanentlyengagedwiththeengineshaft
throughthenecessarydrivegears.Thedirectcrankingstartermustusesomemeansofdisengaging
thestarterfromtheshaftaftertheenginehasstarted.
DirectCrankingGasTurbineStarters.Onsomegasturbineengines,nooverloadreleaseclutchor
gearreductionmechanismisused.Thisisbecauseofthelowtorqueandhighspeedrequirementfor
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starting.Areducedvoltagemechanismisused,however,inthestartingassemblyduringstarting.
StarterGeneratorStartingSystem.Manygasturbineaircraftareequippedwithstartergenerator
systems.Thesestartingsystemsuseacombinationstartergeneratorwhichoperatesasastartermotor
todrivetheengineduringstarting.Aftertheenginereachesaselfsustainingspeed,thestarting
systemoperatesasageneratortosupplytheelectricalsystempower.
Thestartergeneratorunitisbasicallyashuntgeneratorwithanadditionalheavyserieswinding.This
serieswindingiselectricallyconnectedtoproduceastrongfieldandaresultinghightorquefor
starting.Startgeneratorunitsaredesirablefromaneconomicalstandpoint.Oneunitcanperformthe
functionofbothstarterandgenerator.Additionally,thetotalweightofstartingsystemcomponentsis
reduced,andfewersparepartsrequired.
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INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS
CHAPTER9
INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS
Engineinstrumentsaremountedontheinstrumentpanelinthepilot'scompartment.Theyareusually
groupedtogether.Theyaidthepilotinmonitoringtheengine,rotor,orpropellerRPMpressures
temperaturesandgeneralengineperformance.Refertotheengine'smaintenancemanualfor
maintenance,operationallimitations,andcolorcodemarkings.Instrumentstodayreadinvertical
scales,digitalreadouts,andinsomecasesheadsupdisplay(HUD).TheHUDsystemprojects
instrumentimagesonthewindshieldinfrontofthepilots.Inthisway,pilotsdonothavetodivert
theireyesfromtheviewinfrontofandaroundthem.Theverticalscaleofferssimilarsafety
conditions.Thepilotshavetheabilitytoquicklyglanceattheinstrumentforareading.Thischapter
willdiscussthemostcommonlyusedinstrumentsandthenewerverticalscale(VIDS).
VERTICALINSTRUMENTDISPLAYSYSTEM(VIDS)
TheVIDS(Figure91)consistsofaverticalstripcentraldisplayunit(CDU),twoverticalstrippilot
displayunits(PDU),andtwosignaldataconverters(SDC).Thesereadingsareshownbyascending
anddescendingcolumnsofmulticoloredlights(redyellow,andgreen)measuredagainstvertical
scales.Thescalesoperateassegmentsandlightinnormalprogression.Theyremainonasthe
receivedsignallevelincreases.Theygooffinnormalprogressionasthereceivedsignallevel
decreases.Whenscaleswithredandambercodedsegmentsbelowgreencodedreceiveasignallevel
ofzero(bottomscale),thesegmentslightinnormalprogressionandremainon.Whenthefirst
segmentabovetheredoramberrangegoeson,allredorambercodedsegmentsgooff.These
segmentsremainoffuntilthereceivedsignallevelindicatesareadingatorwithintheredoramber
range.Atthattimeallredorambercodedsegmentsonthescaledisplaygoonoroffinnormal
progression.Foranincreasingindicationwhenascalewithsidearrowslights,thecorrespondingside
arrowalsolights.Asthesegmentsgoon,thecorrespondingsidearrowsalsogoon,oneatatime.
Onlythesidearrowassociatedwiththehighestpercentindicationofthecorrespondingscalewillbe
on.Foradecreasingindication,scaleswithsidearrowswilloperateinthesamemanner.Onlytheside
arrowassociatedwiththehighestpercentindicationofthecorrespondingscalewillbeon.TheCDU
andPDUscontainphotocellsthatautomaticallyadjustindicatorlightingtoambientlight.Ifeither
photocellfails,thelightsontheverticalscalesorthePDUsandtheCDUgooff.TheDIMknobon
theCDUhasanoverridecapabilitywhichallowsthepilottomanuallysetthedisplaylightlevel.
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TACHOMETERSYSTEM
ThetachometerprovidesthepilotwithacontinuousindicationofengineRPM.Avarietyor
combinationofsystemsmaybeusedongasturbineengines.Gasproducertogasgenerator
tachometers,turbineandrotortachometers,andNIandNIItachometeraresomeofthetachometer
systemsused(Figure92).
EnginerotorRPMcanbesensedbyamechanicallydriventachometergenerator,mechanicallydriven
permanentmagnet,orapulsepickupwhichsensespassingcompressor,fanblades,orgearteeth.The
outputorsignalfromanyofthesensorsisdirectedtoanappropriateindicatorinthecockpit.The
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INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS
indicatoriscalibratedtoreaddirectlyinpercentRPM.Dualaxialflowcompressorenginesare
usuallyprovidedwithtwotachometers:oneindicateslowpressurecompressorspeed(Nl),andthe
otherindicateshighpressurecompressorspeed(N2).Forthedualaxialandcentrifugalcompressors
thesecondtachometerindicatespowerturbinespeed(N2).
Formostaxialflowcompressorengines,thetachometermonitorsRPMduringenginestartand
indicatesoverspeedconditionshouldoneoccur.Useofthetachometerforsettingthrustisnot
recommendedonaxialflowcompressorengines.Thelowpressurecompressor(Nl)tachometeron
enginepressureratio(EPR)controlleddualcompressorenginesmaybeusedasanapproximate
referencetosetenginethrustintransientandcertainotherflightconditions.WhentheN1tachometer
setsenginethrust,thethrustsettingshouldbemoreaccuratelyadjustedbyenginepressureratioas
soonaspossible.Onsinglecompressor,axialflowengines,enginespeedshouldnotbeused
primarilytosetorcheckenginethrust.
TheGeneralElectricT700/701systemeliminatestachgenerators.TwoNpsensorsarelocatedinthe
exhaustframe.Onesensorextendsthroughthe1:30o'clockstrutandtheotherthroughthe10:30
o'clockstrut.Thepowerturbineshaftisequippedwithtwopairsofteethwhichinduceelectrical
pulsesintheNpsensors.Theseteethpermitmeasurementofthetorsionortwistoftheshaft,whichis
proportionaltooutputtorque.Thesensorsareidenticalandinterchangeablebutservedifferent
functions.
Thelefthand(10:30o'clock)sensorprovidesanNpsignaltotheECU.ThissignalisusedintheNp
governingcircuitryandforgenerationofacockpittachometersignal.Therighthand(1:30o'clock)
sensorfeedstheECUtorquecomputationcircuitandtheNpoverspeedprotectionsystem.Thesensors
containapermanentmagnetandwirecoil.Theyproduceapulseofcurrenteachtimeashaftor
referencetoothpasses(Figure93).
TORQUEMETERINDICATINGSYSTEM
Onlyasmallpartofthepropulsiveforceproducedbyaturbopropiscausedbyjetthrust.Neither
turbinedischargepressurenorenginepressureratioisusedtoindicatepowerproducedbytheengine.
Insteadatorquemetermeasuresthepowerlevelthattheenginedevelopsonthegroundandinflight.
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Consulttheenginemaintenancemanualforadescriptionoftorquemetersystemfunctions.Inmost
systems,however,torquemeteroilpressureisusedtoactuateatorqueindicatinginstrumentinthe
aircraft.Thetorquemeterinstrumentportraystorquemeteroilpressure(whichisproportionalto
enginepower)inpoundspersquareinch.Sometorquemeterinstrumentsarecalibratedtoread
poundfeetoftorque.Somemayreadshafthorsepowerdirectly(Figure94).
Onetorquemeterindicatingsystemsometimescalledatorquepressureindicatingsystem,containsa
pressureindicatortypeinstrument.Itprovidescontinuousreadingofengineoutputshafttorque
suppliedbyanelectricaltransmittermountedontheengineinletsection.Thetransmitterisconnected
byhosestoaspecializedoilpressuretapontheengineinlethousingandtoaventconnectiononthe
accessorydrivegearbox.The28voltACsystemoperatestheelectricalcircuit.
TheLycoming(T55L712)torquemeter,arefinedtorquemeasuringsystem,comprisesfive
componentsandinterconnectingwiring.Twoofthese,thepowersupplyandindicator,areairframe
suppliedcomponents.Theymaybereplacedanytimewithoutrecalibration.Theremainingthree
(poweroutputshaft,headassembly,andjunctionbox)areonlyreplacedasaprecalibratedset.
Whentorqueisimposedontheenginepoweroutputshaft,tensionandcompressionstresseschange
themagneticreluctanceoftheshaft.Thissystemmeasuresthechangeofmagneticreluctancebecause
ofthetorsionallyinducedforces(Figure95).
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Theoutputshafthasweldedtoitaferromagneticsleevewhichservesasatransformercoreinthe
headassembly.Anonrotatingtransformer,theheadassemblycontainstheprimarycoilswhich
receivealternatingcurrentrequiredtopowerthetransformerfromthepowersupply.Italsocontains
sixsetsofsecondarycoilsorientedat90otoeachand45ototheshaftaxis.Theypickupinduced
currentandregisterthedifferentialincurrentonthedialfaceoftheindicator.Inoperation,thehead
assemblysurroundstheferromagneticsleeveontheshaftwhichactsasthetransformercore.
Thejunctionboxactsasthesystemconditionerandincludeskeycalibrationcontrols.The
potentiometersstandardizethesignallevelforindicatordisplayandbalanceouteffectsofmagnetic
nonhomogeneities.Theboxalsorectifiesthesecondaryvoltagesfromtheheadassembly.
Thecockpitmountedindicatorreadstheengineappliedtorqueinpercent.Anetworklocatedwithin
theindicatorcomputesthealgebraicdifferencebetweenthetwosecondaryinducedvoltagescoming
fromthejunctionbox.
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Thepowersupplyisanairframemountedunitwhichconvertstheairframe28VDCsignaltoa
constant70VAC2KHzsignalforsystemoperation.
TheGeneralElectricT700/701torquesensingsystemisareferenceshaftthatispinnedtothefront
endofthedriveshaftandextendstotheaftend.Itisfreetorotaterelativetothedriveshaft.The
relativerotationisduetooutputtorque.Theresultantphaseanglebetweenthedriveshaftteethand
referenceteethiselectricallysensedbyapickupsensingthetwoteethonthedriveshaftplustwo
referenceteeth.Theelectricalsignalisconditionedintheelectricalcontrolunit,whichprovidesaDC
voltageproportionaltotorque(Figure95).Anintermediatepower(1690SHP),theoutputtorqueis
410poundfeet,andthetwistoftheshaftis7.4.
EXHAUSTGASTEMPERATUREINDICATINGSYSTEM
Turbineenginesmaybeinstrumentedforexhaustgastemperatureindicationatlocationsbefore,
between,orbehindtheturbinestages.Exhaustgastemperatureisanengineoperatinglimitandis
usedtomonitorthemechanicalintegrityoftheturbines.Italsochecksengineoperatingconditions.
Actually,thetemperatureattheturbineinletistheimportantconsideration.Thisisthemostcriticalof
allenginevariables.However,itisimpracticaltomeasureturbineinlettemperatureinmostengines.
Consequently,thermocouplesareinsertedattheturbinedischarge.Thisprovidesarelativeindication
oftemperatureattheinlet.Thetemperatureatthispointismuchlowerthanthatattheinlet.Itenables
thepilottomaintainsurveillanceoverengineinternaloperationconditions.
Severalthermocouplesareusuallyused.Theyarespacedatintervalsaroundtheperimeterofthe
engineexhaustductneartheturbineexit.Theexhaustgastemperatureindicatorintheaircraftshows
theaveragetemperaturemeasuredbytheindividualthermocouples.Thereadingsofseveral
thermocouplesareusuallyobtainedindividuallyduringgroundenginemaintenancebyaselective
switch.Thespreadbetweenthelowestandthehighestthermocouplereadingisusefulinmaintenance.
Itservestoindicatethepresenceofhotorcoldspotsintheengineexhaustpatternwhichmayindicate
aprobleminsidetheengine.Theimportanceofexhaustgastemperaturecannotbeoveremphasized.
TwosystemsthatareinuseonArmyhelicoptersfollow.
ThermoelectricalSystems(T55L11E/T55L712)
Thechromelalumel,thermoelectric(MGT)measuringsystemisindependentofallotherengine
electricalwiring(Figure96).Theenginecomponentsarefivedualprobesegmentseachprobeis
connectedexternallysoeachsegmentcanbeoperationallycheckedindependentlyandreplaced
individually.The10thermocoupleprobesprotrudeintothegasstreamatthepowerturbineentrance
(station45).Theprobesreacttovariationsintemperaturebydevelopingaproportionalelectromotive
forceacrossthechromelalumeljunction.
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Thispotentialdifferenceresultsinmeterdeflectionsofthecockpitindicator.Thecockpitindicatoris
calibratedtoreadtemperatureindegreescentigrade.
Inaddition,thissystemincorporatestwobussbarslocatedontheaftfireshield.Thisallowsfor
connectionofthefiveMGTsegmentstothesingleMGTharness.
T701GeneralElectricThermocouple
Thethermocoupleharnessisaonepieceassembly.Itconsistsofsevensingleimmersion,equally
spacedthermocouplesformeasuringpowerturbineinletgastemperature(Figure97).The
thermoelementsaremadefromspecialtolerance,oxidationresistant,chromelalumelwire.Each
thermocouplejunctionissealedwithinaHastalloyXsheath.Thethermoelementforthejunctionof
eachprobeiscontinuouswithoutjointsorsplicesfromthejunctiontotheharnessoutputconnector
junctionboxwherealloutputsareparallel.Theharnessoutputconnectorishermeticallysealed,has
twoalumelcontacts,andhastwochromelcontacts.Theaverageoutputofthesevenprobesprovides
thetemperaturesignaltotheECUviatheyellowcable.FromtheECU,thesignalisrelayedtothe
cockpitTGTindicatorandtothehistoryrecorder.
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EXHAUSTGASTEMPERATUREINDICATORS
Theindicator(Figure98)inatypicalexhaustgastemperatureindicatingsystemoperateson
electricalpotentialfromanenginethermocoupleharness.Theprobesaremountedintheaftsectionof
theengineexhaustdiffuser,Thethermocoupleconvertsheatintoelectricity.Theexhaustgas
temperatureindicator(thermocouplethermometerindicator)isactuallyasensitivemillivoltmeter
calibratedindegreescentigrade.ItsD'Arsonvalmovementisactivatedbyanelectricalforcegenerated
byitsrelativethermocouple.Theindicatorcircuitisentirelyindependentofanyotherelectricalpower
source.Itincludesacoilresistorwhichprovidesinstrumentcalibration.
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INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS
FUELFLOWRATEINDICATINGSYSTEM
Thefuelflowrateindicatingsystemmeasurestherateoffuelflowconsumedbytheengine.Atypical
systemconsistsofanindicator(dualindicatorifatwoenginesystem),afuelflowmeter,andafuel
transmitter,whichisanintegralpartofthefuelflowmeterlocatedontheengine.Thefuelflowrate
indicator,drivenbyadifferentialautosyn,registerstherateoffuelflowtotheengineinhundredsof
poundsperhour.Afourdigitsubtractingcounterontheindicatorcanbesettoreadthetotalpounds
offuelremainingintheaircraft.Thefuelflowmetertransmitterisinstalledonamountontheengine.
Theflowmeterconsistsofameteringchamberandadifferentialautosyn.Asfueltravelsfromthe
maintankorvalvemanifoldtotheenginefuelcontrol,itpassesthroughthemeteringchamber,
movingapivotedvane.Thepivotshaftofthevaneiscoupledtotherotorshaftofthedifferential
autosyn.Whenfuelflowsthroughthemeteringchambers,thedifferentialautosynrotates.This
autosynrotation,inturn,causestheindictorautosyntorotate.Thisresultsinanindicationofengine
fuelconsumption.
FUELFLOWINDICATOR
Thefuelflowindicatorshowsfuelflowinpounds(orkilograms)perhourtothefuelnozzles(Figure
99).Fuelflowismonitoredforinflightfuelconsumption,checkingengineperformance,andin
flightcruisecontrol.Therelationshipofabnormalfuelflowtootherinstrumentreadingsprovidesone
ofthebestindicatorsforprobablecauseofenginemalfunction.
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INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS
FUELPRESSUREINDICATINGSYSTEM
Atypicalfuelpressureindicatingsystemprovidescontinuousreadingoffuelpressure(psi)inthe
mainfuelsupplylinefromboostpumpsinthetanksbyanelectricaltransmitter.Thetransmitteris
connectedtoataponthevalvemanifold.Allfuelsupplylinesjointhetopelectricaltransmitterto
deliverfueltotheenginethroughthefuelcontrolinlethose.Electricityissuppliedtothetransmitter
bythe28voltACsystem.
FUELINLETPRESSUREINDICATOR
Fuelsystemcharacteristicsfrequentlymakeitadvisabletomonitorthefuelpumpinletpressure
(Figure910).Incaseoffuelflowstoppageinflight,thesourceofdifficultyshouldbelocated
quickly.Thisdetermineswhethertroubledevelopedintheengineorintheaircraftfuelsystem.
Promptcorrectiveactionmaythenbetaken.Inaddition,thefuelpumpinletpressureindicates
possiblecavitationatthefuelpumpinletinflight.Itwillalsoshowwhetherornotthefuelsystemis
operatingproperlyduringenginegroundchecks.
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INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS
ENGINEOILPRESSUREINDICATINGSYSTEM
Atypicalengineoilpressureindicatingsystemprovidescontinuousreadingofengineoilpump
pressureinpsitotheindicator.Thisisprovidedbyanelectricaltransmittermountedontheengine
inletsection.Thetransmitterisconnectedtothe28voltACelectricalsystemandbyahosetoa
pressuretapontheengineoilfalterhousing.
OILPRESSUREINDICATOR
Toguardagainstenginefailureresultingfrominadequatelubricationandcoolingofengineparts,oil
supplytocriticalareasmustbemonitored(Figure911).Theoilpressureindicatorshowsthepressure
relayedbytheoilpressuretransmitter.Onmostinstallations,theoilpressuretransmittertakes
breatherpressureintoconsideration,relayingthetruepressuredropacrosstheoiljetsintheoil
system.
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INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS
ENGINEOILTEMPERATUREINDICATINGSYSTEM
Inatypicalengineoiltemperatureindicatingsystem,theindicatoriselectricallyconnectedtothe28
voltDCsystem.Aelectricalresistancetypethermobulbinstalledintheengineoilpumphousing
measuresthetemperatureofoilenteringthatunit.Thetemperaturereadingistransmittedtothe
indicatorindegreescentigrade.Twodissemblermetalsheattoelectricity.
OILINTEMPERATUREINDICATOR
Theabilityoftheengineoiltolubricateandcoolisafunctionoftheoiltemperatureandtheamount
ofoilsuppliedtothecriticalareas.Anoilinlettemperatureindicatorisfrequentlyprovidedtoshow
theoiltemperatureasitenterstheenginebearingcompartments.Oilinlettemperaturealsoindicates
properoperationoftheengineoilcooler(Figure912).
AIRTEMPERATUREINDICATOR
Theairtemperatureindications(Figure913)currentlyusedinaircraftarefreeairtemperature(FAT),
outsideairtemperature(OAT),ramairtemperature(RAT),totalairtemperature(TAT),andstaticair
temperature(SAT).Regardlessofwhichtemperatureisinstrumentedinaspecificaircraftmodel,the
flightmanualshowshowtouseit,alongwithapplicablechartsortables,tosettheEPRvalueswhich
provideratedthrustlevels.TheEPRsettingvarieswiththethrustleveldesiredandwiththetrueTAT
existingatthefrontoftheengine(Tt2).SomeaircrafthaveinstrumentationwhichindicatesTt2values
thatmaybeusedwithoutcorrectiontodetermineEPRsettings.
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INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS
ENGINETHRUSTINDICATION
Thewayapilotsetsandmonitorsthethrustproducedbytheenginehasbeenmentionedbefore
(Figure914).Thrustindicationisdiscussedindetailbelow.
Onsomeengines,engineRPMandexhaustgastemperature(EGT)areusedtoindicateandsetthrust.
Onsuchengines,thepilotreceivesthefullratedthrustoftheenginefortakeoffat100percentRPM
andaspecifiedEGT.ThespecifiedEGTat100percentRPMisestablishedonathrustmeasuring
groundteststandbyvaryingtheexhaustnozzleareaoftheenginetoachievethedesiredEGT.
Oncentrifugalcompressorengines,notablythemilitaryJ48,thrustisindicatedbyRPMalone.Full
ratedthrustfortakeoffisobtainedwhenthetachometerreads200percent.TheJ48hasafixednozzle
areawhichisestablishedatmanufacture.WhilethereisanEGTlimitfortakeoffandfortheother
engineratings,aJ48willnormallyoperateatEGTbelowtheapplicablelimitforthethrustratingused
bythepilot.IftheEGTreachestheallowablelimit,theenginedeterioratesormalfunctions.
Mostafterburningandnonafterburningturbojetsandturbofanswithsingleordualaxialflow
compressorsuseengineratiotomeasureenginethrust.EPRindicatorscomparetotalturbinedischarge
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INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS
pressuretototalairpressureenteringthecompressor.EPRthenindicatestheratioofthesepressures.
EnginesinstrumentedforEPRhaveafixedexhaustnozzlearea.Somemilitaryafterburningengines
havetwofixedareas.Oneisusedfornonafterburningoperation.Avariablenozzleareaisusedfor
someafterburningengines,butitvariesonlywhileinafterburning.Onbothafterburningand
nonafterburningengines,RPMandEGTmayvarywhentheaircraftthrottleisadjustedtoobtain
desiredenginethrust.
Somemilitaryafterburningmodelshaveexhaustnozzleswhicharescheduledtovarytheexhaustarea
whentheengineisrunning.Consequently,theseenginescannotbeoperatedtoEPRsettings.They
mustbecontrolledbythrottlepositionwithvariousengineparameterscheckedtoassurecorrectthrust
output.
Forengineswithafixednozzlearea,actualexhaustgastemperaturesobtainedduringoperationare
usuallybelowprescribedlimits.Itispermissibleforanenginetooperateatthetemperaturelimitfor
anygiventhrustrating.However,anenginethatdoesmayhaveaproblemwhichcausesittorun
abnormallyhot.
Withtheexceptionnotedintheuseofthetachometer,engineRPMisconsideredaveryinadequate
parameterforsettingandcheckingenginethrustonsingleanddualaxialflowcompressorturbojet
andturbofanengineshavingfixedexhaustnozzleareas.WhenRPMisusedasthecontrollingvariable
onsuchengines,complicationsarise.Themostimportantare
RPMdoesnotprovideanaccuratemeansofdeterminingifthecompleteengineisfunctioning
properly.HighpressureRPMondualaxialflowcompressorenginesandtheRPMofthewhole
compressoronsingleaxialflowcompressorenginesisgovernedbyfuelcontrol.Forexample,
RPMalonewillnotenableanengineoperatortodetectadamagedordirtycompressor.RPM
carefullyusedinconjunctionwithotherenginevariablessuchasfuelflow,exhaustgas
temperature,andenginepressureratioallowfordetection.
RPMforanygiventhrustconditionwillvaryslightlyamongindividualengines,depending
upontheenginetrimspeed.Enginesaretrimmedbyafuelcontroladjustmenttoproducefull
ratedthrustatafixedthrottlepositiononastandardday.TheRPMvariationmustbetakeninto
accountwhenRPMisusedtomeasurethrustbeingdevelopedbytheengine.Thiscausesa
complicationwhichcannotbetoleratedwhenprecisethrustsettingsarenecessaryduringflight.
Ondualaxialflowcompressorengines,RPMvariationofonepercentcausesapproximately
fourpercentvariationinthrustatthehigherthrustsettingsforthelowpressurecompressor
rotor(N1)andfivepercentvariationforthehighpressurecompressorrotor(N2).Onepercent
variationinturbinedischargepressureorenginepressureratioresultsinonlyoneandonehalf
percentvariationinthrust.ThefivepercentvariationinthrustforonepercentvariationinRPM
alsoholdstrueforsingleaxialflowcompressorengines.
RPMdoesnotvaryindirectproportiontothrustproducedbytheengineovertheentirethrust
range.
Forthesereasons,eitherturbinedischargepressureorenginepressureratiomustbeusedasthe
enginevariabletoindicatethrustonaxialflowcompressorengineswithfixedareaexhaustnozzles.
Theuseofeitherissimplerundermostconditionsandismoreaccurate.
MEASURINGPOWERANDTHRUSTFORTURBOPROPS
Forenginesotherthanthosewithfullyvariableexhaustnozzles,turbinedischargepressure,engine
pressure,orenginepressureratiocanbeusedwithgoodresultstoindicateorsetenginethrust.They
varyproportionallytothethrusttheengineisdeveloping.Mostturbojetandturbofanaircrafttoday
areinstrumentedforenginepressureratio.Thisistheparametergenerallyusedtosetormeasure
enginethrustduringtakeoff,climb,andcruise.Forveryaccuratethrustmeasurement,suchasduring
groundtrimmingofanengine,turbinedischargepressureisoftenusedtomeasurethrust.Insuch
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INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS
cases,itiscommonpracticetotemporarilyconnectaturbinedischargepressureindicatortothe
engine.
ENGINEPRESSURERATIOINDICATINGSYSTEM
Inatypicalenginepressureratioindicatingsystem,theindicatorisadualsynchroinstrument.The
systemshowsaconstantreadingofengineperformance.Thisisdonebycomputingtheratiobetween
thegasgeneratordischargepressureandtheinletpressureoftheengine.Theseratiosarethen
transmittedtoanindicator(bothindicatorsifatwoengineaircraft).Samplepressuresaretakenfrom
enginegasproducerorgasgeneratorportsandfromthepilotpressuresystem.Thesystemincludesa
transducer.Thetransducerincludesamountingbracketandatransmitterunit.Thetransmitterunit
containsamulticell,diaphramactuatedcomputergeartraintwophasemotorandtransmitting
synchros.Theindicatorsaregraduatedfrom1.0to2.5EPRunitswith0.1EPRmarkingsandavernier
dialgraduatedin0.01EPRmarkings.Anadjustablepointeronthefaceoftheindicatorissettothe
maximumEPRfortheambienttemperaturetoindicatepossibleengineoverspeed.Themaximum
EPRforgiventemperaturesislistedontheinstrumentpanel.TheACPowersystemsupplies
electricalpowerthroughtheEPRcircuitbreaker.
TURBINEDISCHARGEPRESSUREINDICATOR
Thisinstrumentindicatestheinternalenginepressureupstreamofthejetnozzle,immediatelyaftof
thelaststageoftheturbine(Pt5toPt7).Itindicatespressureavailableacrossthenozzletogenerate
thrust.TurbinedischargepressuremustbeusedinconjunctionwithT12andP12.
ENGINEPRESSURERATIOINDICATOR
Thisinstrument(Figure915)indicatestheenginepressureratioasameasureofthrustdevelopedby
theengine.Thisistheratiooftheturbinedischargetotalpressuretotheequivalentofthecompressor
inlettotalpressure(Pt5/Pt2orPt7/Pt2).ValuesforPt2mustbecorrectedforinletductlossonthe
enginepressureratiocurvesorchartsbytheaircraftmanufacturer.Therefore,bothforstatic(takeoff)
andflightuse,theactualvalueforPt2willvaryamongdifferentaircrafttypesandmodelsbecauseof
installationeffects.However,therelationofPt2attheenginefacetoPamplusPrisequivalenttototal
pressureatornearthecompressorinletwhenairborne.Itisnotadvisabletoinstrumentthe
compressorinletwhenairborne.ItisnotadvisabletoinstrumentthecompressorinletdirectlyforPt2.
ThePt2sensorforthepressureratioindicatormaybeplacedatsomeotherlocationontheaircraft,
preferablyasneartheengineairinletaspossible.Afterappropriatecorrectionsaremadetothein
flightchartsintheflightofoperationmanual,anyratedthrustorpercentofratedthrustmaybeset
withtheaircraftthrottle(asafunctionoftheTATorTt2).
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INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS
Pressureratiobetweenthepressureattheengineairinletandthedischargepressureatthejetnozzle
indicatesthrustdevelopedbytheengine.Turbinedischargepressurealoneisnotanaccurate
indicationofengineoutput.Compressorinletpressure(Pt2)mustbetakenintoaccountoncurvesor
chartswhenonlyturbinedischargepressureisinstrumented.
Forstaticengineoperation,thisisusuallyaccomplishedbyshowingbarometricpressure(corrected
forinletductloss)ratherthanPt2valuesonthecurvesorcharts.Inflight,curvesortablesusually
showairspeedandaltitude.ThiseliminatestheneedforactuallydelineatingPt2valuesinthe
operatingdata.EnginepressureratioindicatorshavethePt2valueintroducedintothesystem.This
factorisautomaticallytakenintoaccountontheobservedinstrumentreading.Exceptforanindicator
tomeasureenginethrust,theaboverepresentstheminimumadequateinstrumentationforcontrolof
theengine.Someinstallationsmayhaveadditionalinstruments.
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