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Spectrum:
The spectrum of a signal is the
graph representing amplitudes
of the harmonics as a function
of their frequency.
3
Non-sinusoidal waveform
First harmonic (fundamental)
Third harmonic
Fifth harmonic
U1
U2
U3
fundamental
0
-20
third harmonic
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
total
-40
-60
-80
5
fundamental + harmonics
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 1
-10
-15
-20
-25
22 43 64 85 106 127 148 169 190 211 232 253 274 295 316 337 358
fundamental
all harmonics
total current
7
t
Linear load
t
Nonlinear load
current absorbed by
a non-linear load. 9
10
11
Fourier's formula:
where:
- Yo: DC component value, generally nil and would not be
considered
- Yn: rms value of the nth harmonic component,
- w: angular frequency of the fundamental,
th
- jn: displacement of the n harmonic component.
12
1
T
2
Effective value =
n=
y (t)dt =
0
S
Y n
n=1
+Y
+Y
+Y
+..+Y
2
n
13
Y
THD = 100
+Y
+Y
+Y
+..+Y
2
n
Y1
1
(distortion factor) =
1 + (THD)
15
(Frequency) spectrum
Representation of harmonic amplitude as a function of their
order: harmonics value is normally expressed as a
percentage of the fundamental.
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l=P/S
In pure sinusoidal waveform:
cos j1 = cos j = l
Distortion factor
The IEC 146-1-1 defines this factor as the ratio between the
power factor and the displacement power factor cos j1 :
n = l / cos j1
17
Peak factor
The ratio of peak value over rms value of a periodic quantity.
Fc = Ypeak / Yrms
18
19
system
impedance
20
22
Sources of Harmonics
There are many sources of power system harmonics. Some
examples of harmonic producing devices are:
Transformers: Third harmonic currents are present in the
magnetizing current (a small portion of the transformer full load
current). If the transformer saturates (due to over-voltage), the
harmonic distortion level of the current increases substantially.
Fluorescent Lamps: These devices produce a predominantly
third order harmonic current
on the order of 20% to 30% of the fundamental current.
Electronic ballasts have slightly
different characteristics but exhibit similar levels of harmonics.
Pulse-Width Modulated Converters: These devices use an
external controller for switching the input transistors allowing
the current waveform to be shaped more desirably. However,
these converters are limited in power and typically used in
23
applications less than a few hundred kilowatts.
Switched Mode Power Supplies: Typically found in singlephase electronic devices such as computers and other
business and consumer electronics, these devices use a
switching regulator to precisely control the DC voltage. The
input of these power supplies normally consists of a full-wave
bridge rectifier and a DC filter capacitor which produces
an alternating pulse current waveform rich in third harmonic.
Though they are not used in large power applications, the
cumulative effects of many devices may create concerns,
particularly for 400/230 Volt Y systems.
24
25
26
28
Induction motor
Transformers
The effects of harmonics inside the transformers involve
mainly three aspects:
a) increase of iron losses (or no-load losses)
b) increase of copper losses
c) presence of harmonics circulating in the windings
a) The iron losses are due to the hysteresis phenomenon and
to the losses caused by eddy currents; the losses due to
hysteresis are proportional to the frequency, whereas the
losses due to eddy currents depend on the square
of the frequency.
30
31
Induction motor
35
n=
uan(t) = Um cos wt
n=
n=
Neutral current
iN(t) = S
{
Ian cos (nwt jan) + Ibn cos [n(wt 120) jbn] + Icn
n=1
cos [n(wt + 120) jcn] }
In the balanced case, Ian = Ibn = Icn = In and jan = jbn = jcn =
jn , for all n; i.e., the harmonics of the three phases all have
equal amplitudes and phase shifts. The neutral current is
then
n=
37
n=
INrms = 3
n=
I 2n
n=3,6,9..
38
39
Example
A balanced nonlinear load produces line currents containing
fundamental and 20% third harmonic: ian(t) = I1 cos(wt j1) +
0.2 I1 cos(3wt j3). Find the rms neutral current, and compare
its amplitude to the rms line current amplitude.
n=
INrms = 3
n=3,6,9..
I 2n
2
=3
( 0.2 I1 )2
2
= 0.6
I1
2
n=
I 2n
n=1
I 2n
n=
I1rms =
I1rms =
n=1
( I1 )2
2
(0.2 I1 )2
2
( I 1 )2
2
I1
2
( I3 )2
2
1 + 0.04
I1
2
Yet the presence of the third harmonic has very little effect on
the rms value of the line current.
41
42
43
Delta-connected load
Irms
2pfC
I2rms
2pfC
45
46
Average power
Voltage and current as
Fourier series:
Pcycle =
0
influence of harmonics on
average power:
Pav =
Pav =
1
T
v(t) i(t) dt
1
T
v(t) i(t) dt
0
Pcycle
n=1
47
0 if n = m
Un In
n=1
Un In
2
So net energy is
transmitted to the load
only when the Fourier
series of u(t) and i(t)
contain terms at the
same frequency. For
example, if the voltage
and current both
contain third harmonic,
then they lead to the
average power:
U3 I3
cos (j3 q3) 48
2
Example 1
u (t)
i (t)
49
Example 2
u (t), i (t)
50
Example 3
Fourier series:
u(t) = 1.2 cos (wt) + 0.33 cos (3wt) + 0.2 cos (5wt)
i(t) = 0.6 cos (wt + 30) + 0.1 cos (5wt + 45) + 0.1 cos (7wt + 60)
Average power calculation:
Pav =
(1.2)(0.6)
cos (30) +
(0.2)(0.1)
51
52
1000 V
60 Hz
Closed switch
Synchronous
switch
I = 1000/10 = 100 A
R
10W
P = I2R = 1002x10
= 100 kW
Operational switch
(half time opened)
1410 V
141 A
Dissipated power = 50 kW
I2 = P/R = 50000/10 = 5000
I = 70.7 A
2
P = I2 x R = 70.7 x 10
P = 50 kW
54
Chopped current
1410 V
Fundamental
component
141 A
84 A
32.50
P = I2 x R = 59.32 x 10 = 35.2 kW
Apparent fundamental power supplied
by source
S = U x I = 1000 x 84/1.414 = 59.3 kVA
14.8kW
IF = 59.3-32.5 A
31.9kVAr
14.8kW
1 kV
50kW
35.2kW
55
10W
1kV
4.21W
IH = V I - IF = V 70.7 59.3
= 38.5 A
j9.07W
IF = 59.3A
10W
385 V
10W
IH = 38.5A
57
58
59
Cables:
Overheating of cables
Additional losses due to skin effect
Increase in dielectric losses of insulation
Induction motors:
Increase in core (stator) and Joule losses
Pulsating torques causing efficiency reduction,
abnormal vibration, rotor overheating
60
General Solutions
Limit injected harmonic currents:
Install limitation induction coils for speed drives
Install specific rectifiers called active front end
Install anti-harmonics induction coils
Install filters to trap harmonics:
Passive filters
Active filters
Hybrid filters
Oversize equipment
61
The 120
phase shift
between linear
load currents
will result in
their balanced
portions
instantaneously
canceling in the
neutral.
With linear loads, the neutral can be the same size as the
phase conductors because the neutral current cannot be
larger than the largest phase current, even when the load
62
is completely unbalanced.
64
K factor
Harmonic currents are generated whenever a non-linear load
is connected to the mains supply. The problems caused by
harmonic currents include overheating of cables, especially
the neutral conductor, overheating and vibration in induction
motors and increased losses in transformers.
Where power factor capacitors are fitted, harmonic currents
can damage them and care must be taken to avoid
resonance with the supply inductance.
Losses in transformers are due to stray magnetic losses in
the core, and eddy current and resistive losses in the
windings. Of these, eddy current losses are of most concern
when harmonics are present, because they increase
approximately with the square of the frequency. Before the
excess losses can be determined, the harmonic spectrum of
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the load current must be known.
Pt = Pf
In2 n2
S
n=1
66
K-Factor
In US practice, where dry-type transformers are often used,
the K-factor is the ratio of eddy current losses when driving
non-linear and linear loads:
K=
Pt
Pf
n = max
In2 n2
S
n=1
Factor K
In Europe, the transformer de-rating factor is calculated
according to the formulae in BS 7821 Part 4. The factor K is
given by:
In 2 0.5
e
I1 2 n = N
K = { 1+
]
S [ nq (
[
)
]}
I1
1+e
I
n=2
where
e is the eddy current loss at the fundamental frequency divided
by the loss due to a dc current equal to the RMS value of the
sinusoidal current, both at reference temperature.
n is the harmonic order
I is the rms value of the sinusoidal current including all
harmonics given by:
69
n=N
I=
0.5
[ S ( I n) 2]
n=1
= I1[
n=N
S(
n=1
In
I1
2 0.5
)]
70
71
K-Rated or De-Rated?
72
RMS
current (In)
In/I1
(In/I1)
1
3
1
0.82
1
0.82
5
7
9
11
0.58
0.38
0.18
0.045
0.58
0.38
0.18
0.045
nq (In/I1)
1
0.6724
6.473
4.3525
0.3364
0.1444
0.0324
0.0020
15.426
27.332
41.900
58.934
5.1893
3.9467
1.3576
0.1193
S=2.1876
Total rms
(I)=1.479
(I1/I)2 =
0.457
nq
S=14.9653
1
3
1
0.82
1
0.82
1
0.6724
(In/I)2 x
In/I
(In
n2
0.6761 0.4571 0.4571
0.5544 0.3073 2.7663
5
7
9
11
0.58
0.38
0.18
0.045
0.58
0.38
0.18
0.045
0.3364
0.1444
0.0324
0.0020
0.3921
0.2569
0.1217
0.0304
Harmonic
RMS
No.
current (In)
In/I1
(In/I1)
S=2.1876
Total rms (I) =
1.479
/I)2
0.1538
0.0660
0.0148
0.0009
3.8444
3.2344
1.2000
0.1120
11.6138
K-factor 11.6138
75
XL
X(W)
XL = 2 p f L (W)
Capacitive reactance
1
XC =
(W)
2pfC
XL = XC
f (hz)
XC
resonant
frequency
76
XL = XC = X = 2 p f L =
2pfC
fr =
1
2p LC
SSC
QC
27491
230
= 10.9
78
Irms
2pfC
I2rms
2pfC
80
Mitigation of Harmonics
There are many ways to reduce harmonics, ranging from
variable frequency drive designs to the addition of auxiliary
equipment. Following are some of the more common
methods used today for controlling power system harmonics.
Addition of a
downstream
reactor or
reduction in
upstream source
impedance
reduces voltage
THD at the point
considered.
82
Solution to avoid
Solution to recommended
85
87
89
Features of G5/4
G5/4 defines planning levels and introduces compatibility
levels for individual harmonics and THD over the voltage
range from 400V to 400 kV.
Emphasis placed on voltage distortion levels in Stage 2 and 3
assessment (compared with other standard)
The three stage assessment process of G5/3 retained
Information on harmonic impedance for use in network
modeling has been updated.
Description material and examples moved to the Application
Guide ETR 122.
90
92
6.6 20
8%
4%
>20 36.5
8%
3%
66 - 145
5%
3%
275 - 400
3.5 %
3%
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96
97
98
99
100
101
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