Experiment 1 : Tensile Test

Objective
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

To estimate the stress () and strain () of the material.

To study the stress and strain behavior of the material using - diagram.
To study the various regions of the - diagram.
To determine the Youngs modulus or the Modulus of Elasticity.
To study the ductile behavior of the material.

Abstracts
Tensile are fundamental for understanding properties of different material, and how they
will behave under load. This experiment tested four different material, including steel,
copper, aluminum, and copper alloy (brass). Each material was tested by using a pull
tester and data was recorded. The data from each test was used to determine valuable
material properties such as ultimate tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and yield
strength. Other calculated properties included true fracture strength, percent reduction of
area, and percent elongation. These material properties were used for comparing the
material to each other, and to define the material as brittle or ductile.
The results of the tensile tests showed that the steel was the strongest material. It had the
highest ultimate tensile strength (699 MPa), the greatest yield strength (684 MPa), and
the largest true fracture strength (554.2 MPa). The copper had a higher yield (310 MPa)
than the aluminum (292.1 MPa), a higher ultimate tensile strength (315 MPa), but a lower
true fracture strength (165 MPa). All of the materials besides the brass proved to be
ductile, especially the copper, which had a percent elongation of 9.6%. The brass sample
averaged a percent elongation of only 3.1%.

Methodology
Stress and strain relationship
When a specimen is subjected to an external tensile loading, the metal will undergo
elastic and plastic deformation. Initially, the metal will elastically deform giving a linear
relationship of load and extension. These two parameters are then used for the calculation
of the engineering stress and engineering strain to give a relationship as follow
=

P
Ao

L f L
=
Lo
L0
o

Where, is the stress

is the strain
P is the external axial tensile load
Ao

is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen

is the deformation of the specimen

Lo

is the original length of the specimen

Lf

is the final length of the specimen

Youngs modulus, E
During elastic deformation, the engineering stress-strain relationship follows the Hook's
Law and the slope of the curve indicates the Young's modulus (E)
E=

Young's modulus is of importance where deflection of materials is critical for the required
engineering applications. This is for examples: deflection in structural beams is
considered to be crucial for the design in engineering components or structures such as
bridges, building, ships, and others. The applications of tennis racket and golf club also
require specific values of spring constants or Young's modulus values.

Figure 1: Stress-strain relationship under uniaxial tensile loading

Yield strength, y
By considering the stress-strain curve beyond the elastic portion, if the tensile loading
continues, yielding occurs at the beginning of plastic deformation. The yield stress, y,
can be obtained by dividing the load at yielding (Py ) by the original cross-sectional area
of the specimen (Ao ) as shown
y=

Py
Ao

The yield point can be observed directly from stress-strain curve of the metals. At the
yield point, the specimen continues to extend without a significant change in the stress
level. Load increment is then followed with increasing strain.
Ultimate Tensile Strength
Beyond yielding, continuous loading leads to an increase in the stress required to
permanently deform the specimen as shown in the stress-strain curve. At this stage, the
specimen is strain hardened or work hardened if the load is continuously applied, the
stress-strain curve will reach the maximum point, which is the ultimate tensile strength.
At this point, the specimen can withstand the highest stress before necking takes place.
This can be observed by a local reduction in the cross sectional area of the specimen.
Rupture Strength, rupture
After necking, plastic deformation is not uniform and the stress decreases accordingly
until fracture. The rupture strength ( rupture) can be calculated from the load at rupture
divided by the original cross-sectional area, Ao, as expressed
rupture =

Prupture
Ao

Tensile ductility
Tensile ductility of the specimen can be represented as percentage of elongation or
percentage of reduction in area as expressed in the equations given below

| |

Percentage of Elongation=

Lf Lo
x 100
Lo

Percentage of Reduction Area=

A f A o
x 100
Ao

Where Af is the cross-sectional area of the specimen at fracture.

Fracture characteristics
Metals with good ductility normally exhibit a so-called cup and cone fracture
characteristic whereas metal with low ductility appear a flat fracture surface as shown in
figure below.

Figure 2: Fracture characteristics

Necking starts when the stress-strain curve has passed the maximum point where plastic
deformation is no longer uniform. This type of fracture surface signifies high energy
absorption during the fracture process due to large amount of plastic deformation taking
place, also indicating good tensile ductility. Metals such as aluminum and copper
normally exhibit ductile fracture. For brittle metals, the fracture surfaces usually consist
of flat.

Apparatus
1. Universal Testing Machine
2. Sample specimens of metal
3. Vernier caliper

Figure 3a: Force display

Figure 3b: Elongation display

Figure 3: Universal Testing Machine

Figure 4: Sample specimens of metal

Procedure

1. The original length and diameter of four materials was measured by vernier caliper
and readings were recorded.
2. The load frame of the upper part was adjusted to fit the test specimen inside the dial
gauge.
3. The dial gauge was loosened and lowered it on the column and a test specimen was
chosen and screwed tightly into the jaws of the machine.
4. The force display and elongation display of pull tester was adjusted back to zero
reading.
5. The hand wheel was turn slowly to increment of 0.01mm for each elongation and the
test specimen was observed.

6. The force applied and elongation was recorded base on the elongation display and
force display from time by time until the test specimen reached its necking region and
then fracture.
7. The true fracture force and final elongation were recorded.
8. The final length and diameter of four materials was measured by vernier caliper and
readings were recorded.
9. Step 2 to step 8 was repeated by replacing each different material test specimen.

Results
Based on the observation, we can conclude that steel, copper and aluminum have good
ductility and behave as ductile material as all of the sample specimen undergo necking
process and exhibit a cup and cone fracture at the fracture surface. For brass, it behaves
as brittle surface and appear a smooth fracture at the fracture surface.

Table 1: The original length, diameter and area for four materials

Materials

Length,

lo

Diameter,

do

Area,

(m)

(m)

Steel

0.025

0.00505

20.03

Copper

0.025

0.00505

20.03

Aluminum

0.025

0.00505

20.03

A0

m2 /x 106

d o4
4

Brass

0.025

0.00505

20.03

Table 2: The final length, diameter and area for four materials

Materials

Length,

lf

Diameter,

df

Area,

Af

(m)

(m)

df 2
4

m2 /x 106

Steel

0.02642

0.00315

7.79

Copper

0.02739

0.00256

5.15

Aluminum

0.02705

0.00288

6.54

Brass

0.02578

0.00382

11.46

Table 3: The percent reduction of area, and the percent elongation for four materials

Materials

Percent of elongation (%)

Percent of reduction of area (%)

Steel

5.7

61.1

Copper

9.6

74.3

Aluminum

8.2

67.4

Brass

3.1

42.8

Table 4: The yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, true rupture strength, and modulus of
elasticity for four materials

Materials

Steel

Copper

Aluminum

Brass

Yield
y strength,
(MPa)

684

310

292.1

699

315

302

434.3

554.2

165

290

434.3

63.1

40

150

37.4

Ultimate tensile
u
strength,
(MPa)
True rupture
r
strength,
(MPa)
Modulus of
elasticity, E (GPa)

Table 5: The percent error of modulus of elasticity for four materials

Materials

Theoretical modulus
ET
of elasticity,

Steel

(GPa)
200

63.1

68.5

Copper

117

40

65.8

Aluminum

69

150

117.4

Brass

114

37.4

67.2

Experimental modulus
Percentage
EE
of elasticity,
(GPa) Error (%)

ET E
ET

Percentage error=
E

*The approximate theoretical values of Young Modulus are taken from Wikipedia.
Website: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%27s_modulus
Steel
Elongation (mm)
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.18
0.19

Force (kN)
0
1.3
2.1
2.7
3.2
3.8
4.4
4.9
5.4
5.7
6.2
6.7
7.1
7.5
7.9
8.2
8.5
9.0
9.3
9.6

Strain (mm/mm)
0
0.0004
0.0008
0.0012
0.0016
0.0020
0.0024
0.0028
0.0032
0.0036
0.0040
0.0044
0.0048
0.0052
0.0056
0.0060
0.0064
0.0068
0.0072
0.0076

Stress (kPa)
0
64895.4737
104831.1498
134782.9069
159742.7044
189694.4615
219646.2186
244606.0161
269565.8137
284541.6923
309501.4898
334461.2874
354429.1254
374396.9635
394364.8015
409340.6801
424316.5586
449276.3562
464252.2347
479228.1133

0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.42
0.46
0.50
0.56
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
1.42

10.0
11.3
12.5
13.2
13.6
13.7
13.9
14.0
14.0
13.7
13.7
13.3
13.3
12.8
12.5
12.3
12.0
11.3
11.1

0.0080
0.0100
0.0120
0.0140
0.0160
0.0168
0.0184
0.0200
0.0224
0.0240
0.0280
0.0320
0.0360
0.0400
0.0440
0.0480
0.0520
0.0560
0.0568

499195.9513
564091.4250
623994.9392
658938.6557
678906.4938
683898.4533
693882.3723
698874.3318
698874.3318
683898.4533
683898.4533
663930.6153
663930.6153
638970.8177
623994.9392
614011.0201
599035.1416
564091.4250
554107.5060

Stress-Strain Curve of Steel

800000

683898.4533
698874.3318

700000

600000

554107.5060
500000

479228.1133

400000

300000

200000

100000

0
0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

600000
500000
479228.1133
400000
300000
200000
100000
0 0.0000
0.0000
0.0010

Young modulus of Steel,

E=

0.0020

Es

0.0030

0.0040

0.0050

0.0070

0.0080

= slope of stress-strain curve within proportional limit

y 2 y 1
x 2x 1

Es =

0.0060

479228.1133 x 103 0
=63.0563 x 109 63.1GPa
0.00760

At yield point,
=0.42 mm ,

Py

Yield Strength , y =

= 13.70 kPa
3
Py
13.7 x 10
=
684 MPa
Ao 20.03 x 106

At fracture point,
=1.42 mm ,

Pr

= 11.10 kPa

True Rupture Strength , r =

3
Pr
11.1 x 10
=
554.2 MPa
A o 20.03 x 106

Copper
Elongation (mm)
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.16
0.18

Force (kN)
0
0.6
1.0
1.4
1.7
2.0
2.4
2.7
3.0
3.3
3.5
3.9
4.1
4.5
4.7
4.9
5.1
5.5

Strain (mm/mm)
0
0.0004
0.0008
0.0012
0.0016
0.0020
0.0024
0.0028
0.0032
0.0036
0.0040
0.0044
0.0048
0.0052
0.0056
0.0060
0.0064
0.0072

Stress (kPa)
0
29951.7571
49919.5951
69887.4332
84863.3117
99839.1903
119807.0283
134782.9069
149758.7854
164734.6639
174718.5830
194686.4210
204670.3400
224638.1781
234622.0971
244606.0161
254589.9352
274557.7732

0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.30
0.55
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.10
1.30
1.50
1.70
1.90
2.10
2.30
2.39

5.9
6.1
6.2
6.2
6.3
6.3
6.1
6.0
6.0
6.0
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.1
4.8
4.3
3.7
3.3

0.0080
0.0088
0.0096
0.0104
0.0120
0.0220
0.0240
0.0280
0.0320
0.0360
0.0440
0.0520
0.0600
0.0680
0.0760
0.0840
0.0920
0.0956

294525.6113
302013.5505
307005.5101
309501.4898
314493.4493
314493.4493
304509.5303
299517.5708
299517.5708
299517.5708
289533.6518
279549.7327
269565.8137
254589.9352
239614.0566
214654.2591
184702.5020
164734.6639

Stress-Strain Curve of Copper

350000

314493.4493
309501.4898
300000

254589.9352
250000

200000

164734.6639
150000

100000

50000

0
0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

Best Fit Line of Stress-Strain Curve of Copper

Within Proportional Limit
300000
250000

254589.9352

200000
150000
100000
50000
0 0.0000
0.0000
0.0010

Young modulus of Copper,

E=

y 2 y 1
x 2x 1

0.0020

Ec

0.0030

0.0040

0.0050

0.0060

0.0070

= slope of stress-strain curve within proportional limit

Ec =

254589.9352 x 10 0
=39.7797 x 109 40 GPa
0.00640

At yield point,
=0.26 mm ,

Py

Yield Strength , y =

= 6.20 kPa
Py
6.20 x 103
=
310 MPa
Ao 20.03 x 106

At fracture point,
=2.39 mm ,

Pr

= 3.30 kPa

True Rupture Strength , r =

3
Pr
3.30 x 10
=
=165 MPa
A o 20.03 x 106

Aluminum
Elongation (mm)
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.35
0.40

Force (kPa)
0
2.80
4.80
5.30
5.40
5.50
5.55
5.60
5.60
5.70
5.75
5.75
5.75
5.80
5.85
5.85
5.90
5.90

Strain (mm/mm)
0
0.0008
0.0016
0.0024
0.0032
0.0040
0.0048
0.0056
0.0064
0.0072
0.0080
0.0088
0.0096
0.0104
0.0112
0.0120
0.0140
0.0160

Stress (kPa)
0
139774.8664
239614.0566
264573.8542
269565.8137
274557.7732
277053.7530
279549.7327
279549.7327
284541.6923
287037.6720
287037.6720
287037.6720
289533.6518
292029.6315
292029.6315
294525.6113
294525.6113

0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.85
0.95
1.05
1.15
1.25
1.35
1.45
1.55
1.65
1.75
1.85
1.95
2.05

5.90
5.90
5.90
5.90
5.95
5.95
5.95
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.05
6.00
6.00
5.90
5.80

0.0180
0.0200
0.0220
0.0240
0.0260
0.0280
0.0300
0.0340
0.0380
0.0420
0.0460
0.0500
0.0540
0.0580
0.0620
0.0660
0.0700
0.0740
0.0780
0.0820

294525.6113
294525.6113
294525.6113
294525.6113
297021.5910
297021.5910
297021.5910
299517.5708
299517.5708
299517.5708
299517.5708
299517.5708
299517.5708
299517.5708
299517.5708
302013.5505
299517.5708
299517.5708
294525.6113
289533.6518

Stress-Strain Curve of Aluminum

350000

302013.5505

300000
292029.6315

289533.6518

250000
239614.0566

200000

150000

100000

50000

0
0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

300000

239614.0566

250000

200000

150000

100000

50000
0.0000
0
0.0000

0.0002

0.0004

Young modulus of Aluminum,

0.0006

EA

0.0008

0.0010

y 2 y 1
x 2x 1

EA=

239614.0566 x 1030
=149.7588 x 10 9 150 GPa
0.00160

At yield point,
=0.30 mm ,

Py

Yield Strength , y =

At fracture point,

0.0014

0.0016

0.0018

= slope of stress-strain curve within proportional

limit
E=

0.0012

= 5.85 kPa
Py
5.85 x 103
=
292.1 MPa
Ao 20.03 x 106

=2.05 mm ,

Pr

= 5.80 kPa

Pr
5.8 x 103
True Rupture Strength , r = =
290 MPa
A o 20.03 x 106
Brass
Elongation (mm)
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.34
0.38
0.42
0.46
0.50
0.54
0.60

Force (kN)
0
0.0
0.3
0.7
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.1
2.5
2.8
3.1
3.5
3.8
4.1
4.5
4.7
5.0
5.1
5.4
5.5
6.0
6.3
6.6
7.0
7.2
7.4
7.8
8.2
8.2
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.5

Strain (mm/mm)
0
0.0004
0.0008
0.0012
0.0016
0.0020
0.0024
0.0028
0.0032
0.0036
0.0040
0.0044
0.0048
0.0052
0.0056
0.0060
0.0064
0.0068
0.0072
0.0076
0.0080
0.0088
0.0096
0.0104
0.0112
0.0120
0.0136
0.0152
0.0168
0.0184
0.0200
0.0216
0.0240

Stress (kPa)
0
0
12479.8988
34943.7166
49919.5951
69887.4332
87359.2915
104831.1498
124798.9878
137278.8866
154750.7449
174718.5830
189694.4615
204670.3400
224638.1781
234622.0971
249597.9757
254589.9352
269565.8137
274557.7732
299517.5708
314493.4493
329469.3279
349437.1659
359421.0850
369405.0040
389372.8420
409340.6801
409340.6801
419324.5991
419324.5991
419324.5991
424316.5586

0.65
0.70
0.75
0.78

8.5
8.5
8.5
8.7

0.0260
0.0280
0.0300
0.0312

424316.5586
424316.5586
424316.5586
434300.4776

Stress-Strain Curve of Brass

500000

450000

434300.4776

400000

350000

300000
269565.8137
250000

200000

150000

100000

50000

0
0.0000

0.0050

0.0100

0.0150

0.0200

0.0250

0.0300

0.0350

300000
269565.8137

250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0.0000
0
0.0000

0.0010

Young modulus of Brass,

E=

0.0020

Eb

0.0030

0.0040

0.0050

269565.8137 x 103 0
=37.4397 x 10 9 37.4 GPa
0.00720

At fracture point,
=0.78 mm ,

Pr

= 8.70 kPa

True Rupture Strength , r =

0.0070

0.0080

= slope of stress-strain curve within proportional limit

y 2 y 1
x 2x 1

Eb =

0.0060

Pr
8.7 x 103
=
434.3 MPa
A o 20.03 x 106

Discussion
1. After carrying out the experiment, we recorded the results. These results were then
used to plot graphs of stress versus strain so that are able to see the relationships
between each material.
2. As a general idea and based on the results obtained, we assume that copper and
aluminum are ductile and brass as brittle. As we did not know the exact composition
of the steel alloy, we took steel as a ductile material based on the shape of its curve in
the stress strain graph. Harder steel alloys are usually more brittle than softer ones.
However, although we take steel as a ductile material, it is still much stronger than
other ductile materials (copper and aluminum).
3. From Table 4, which sums up most of the results of the experiment, we can see that
Steel is the strongest material as it has the highest ultimate strength followed by brass,
copper then aluminum. Steel also has the highest rupture strength. This is closely
followed by brass aluminum then copper. Steel is the strongest because it is an alloy
of iron. The carbon in steel provides a doping agent which increases strength in the
crystal structure of the iron. This allows steel to become stronger and lighter than pure
iron.
4. From the graphs, we see that copper has the highest ductility. As ductility increases
with the maximums strain a material can handle, copper proves to be the most ductile
material of the four. Ductile material can be stretch easily into wire due to their
necking and yielding regions of their stress strain graph. On the other hand, Brass is
the most brittle material as it does not take much elongation to rupture it.
5. Problems occurred when comparing Youngs Modulus. Between materials, aluminum
was found to have the highest Youngs Modulus, higher than that of steel. This is
theoretically impossible as Youngs Modulus is essentially a degree of stiffness. As
Youngs Modulus increases, the material is stiffer.
6. As we can see from Table 5, we encountered extremely high percentage errors when
comparing the theoretical and experimental Youngs Modulus. Errors are highly likely
to have occurred here. Some of the possible error and problems faced are discussed
below.
7. An important aspect of the experiment that was overlooked was the specimen
alignment. A deviated alignment will significantly influence the results. If the

alignment is off center, the rupture strength will be lowered considerably. This is
because the experiment setup is no longer uniaxial. Unwanted side loading and
bending moments will cause the specimen to rupture with lower force. This affects
brittle materials more than ductile materials. To counter this problem, we should
always check the machines alignment before starting the experiment.
8. During the experiment, we found out that the hydraulics in machine were faulty.
When increasing the force, we sometimes experienced a lost of control over the
amount of the force we were adding. The wheel would lose its grip and rotate forward
a great deal. The hydraulic system of the machine should be constantly checked and
maintained in good condition.
9. Worn machine component also contributed to the error. For examples, worn out
thread would lose their grip. The specimen may slip or break inside the gripped area.
A dirty experimental setup will also affect the grip of the threads. The setup should be
cleaned to prevent this error.
10. When carrying out the experiment, we did not take into account the decrease in
diameter when the specimen is subjected to the load. We did not measure the gradual
change in diameter so the stress is calculated using the same surface area. To
accurately measure this decrease in diameter, we should change to an electronic setup.
11. To carry out the experiment, we used a shaped specimen that will concentrate the
stress within the gage length. If the specimen is incorrectly machined, fracture could
occur outside the gage length and result in strain errors. This is important because we
want to avoid having a break or fracture within the area being gripped. We should
always check the conditions of the specimen before the experiment.
12. The display of the force was also a problem. As the smallest division could only
measure 0.5kN, we did not have the accuracy to control the force well. To solve this,
we should use a computerized system to exert and measure the force.
13. Inaccurate reading of the specimen dimensions will also cause errors. Worn
micrometers or calipers should be replaced and care should be taken when recording
specimen dimensions. To prevent this error, a computer based test systems should be
used to read the micrometer or caliper directly, thus eliminating data entry errors.
14. Parallax errors and human error also affected the results of the experiment. We should
take greater care when taking the readings and increasing the force.

Conclusion
1. To estimate the stress and strain on a material, we plot a stress-strain graph. We do this
so that we can then analyze the behaviors of the materials under different stresses and
strain more accurately.
2) & 3) Brittle material such as brass do not have a yield, strain hardening and necking
regions to their graph. They rupture as soon as the ultimate strength is reached. Ductile
materials have yield, strain hardening and necking regions to their graph. They will not
rupture when the ultimate strength is reached. They undergo strain hardening and necking
before breaking at rupture strength.
4) Youngs Modulus can be found by calculating E=/. Youngs Modulus is also
equivalent to the gradient of the region before reaching the proportional limit in a stressstrain graph. As Youngs Modulus increases, the stiffness of the material increases. We
could not determine the Youngs modulus of a material accurately due to errors. The
experimental Youngs Modulus for all the materials are:
1. Steel, 63.1 Gpa
2. Copper, 40 Gpa
3. Aluminum, 150 Gpa
4. Brass, 37.4 Gpa
5) Ductile materials are different from brittle materials as they have yield, strain
hardening and necking regions to their graph. They undergo strain hardening and necking
before breaking at rupture strength.
As we could achieve four out of the five objectives, the experiment was a success.