Nuclear Power Reactors

(April 2009)
l

Most nuclear electricity is generated using just two kinds of reactors which were
developed in the 1950s and improved since.
New designs are coming forward and some are in operation as the first generation
reactors come to the end of their operating lives.
Over 16% of the world's electricity is produced from nuclear energy, more than from all
sources worldwide in 1960.
A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms of certain
elements. In a nuclear power reactor, the energy released is used as heat to make steam to
generate electricity. (In a research reactor the main purpose is to utilise the actual neutrons
produced in the core. In most naval reactors, steam drives a turbine directly for propulsion.)
The principles for using nuclear power to produce electricity are the same for most types of reactor.
The energy released from continuous fission of the atoms of the fuel is harnessed as heat in either
a gas or water, and is used to produce steam. The steam is used to drive the turbines which
produce electricity (as in most fossil fuel plants).
There are several components common to most types of reactors:
Fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) arranged in tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are
arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core.*
*Inanewreactorwithnewfuelaneutronsourceisneededtogetthereactiongoing.Usuallythisisberylliummixedwithpolonium,radiumor
other alpha-emitter. Alpha particles from the decay cause a release of neutrons from the beryllium as it turns to carbon-12.Restartingareactor
with some used fuel may not require this, as there may be enough neutrons to achieve criticality when control rods are removed.

Moderator. This is material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that
they cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.
Control rods. These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or
boron,andareinsertedorwithdrawnfromthecoretocontroltherateofreaction,ortohaltit.*In
some reactors, special control rods are used to enable the core to sustain a low level of power
efficiently.(Secondaryshutdownsystemsinvolveaddingotherneutronabsorbers,usuallyasafluid,
to the system.)
* In fission, most of the neutrons are released promptly, but some are delayed. These are crucial in enabling a chain reacting system (or reactor)
to be controllable and to be able to be held precisely critical.

Coolant. A liquid or gas circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. . In light water
reactors the water moderator functions also as primary coolant. Except in BWRs, there is
secondarycoolantcircuitwherethesteamismade.(seealsolatersectiononprimarycoolant
characteristics)
Pressure vessel or pressure tubes. Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and
moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the coolant
through the moderator.
Steam generator. (not in BWR) Part of the cooling system where the primary coolant bringing heat
from the reactor is used to make steam for the turbine.
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Containment. The structure around the reactor core which is designed to protect it from outside
intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of radiation in case of any malfunction inside.
It is typically a metre-thick concrete and steel structure.

characteristics)
Pressure vessel or pressure tubes. Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and
Nuclear_Power_Reactors
moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying
the coolant
through the moderator.
Steam generator. (not in BWR) Part of the cooling system where the primary coolant bringing heat
from the reactor is used to make steam for the turbine.
Containment. The structure around the reactor core which is designed to protect it from outside
intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of radiation in case of any malfunction inside.
It is typically a metre-thick concrete and steel structure.
There are several different types of reactors as indicated in the following table.
Nuclear power plants in commercial operation
Reactor type

Main Countries

Number

GWe

Fuel

Coolant

Moderator

US, France, Japan, Russia,

China

265

251.6

enriched UO2

water

water

US, Japan, Sweden

94

86.4

enriched UO2

water

water

Canada

44

24.3

natural UO2

heavy water

heavy
water

Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR & Magnox)

UK

18

10.8

natural U
(metal),
enriched UO2

CO2

graphite

Light Water Graphite Reactor (RBMK)

Russia

12

12.3

enriched UO2

water

graphite

Japan, France, Russia

1.0

PuO2 and UO2

liquid
sodium

none

Russia

0.05

enriched UO2

Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
'CANDU' (PHWR)

Fast Neutron Reactor (FBR)

Other

TOTAL

441

386.5

water

graphite

GWe = capacity in thousands of megawatts (gross)

Source: Nuclear Engineering International Handbook 2008
Forreactorsunderconstruction:seepaperPlans for New Reactors Worldwide.

Most reactors need to be shut down for refuelling, so that the pressure vessel can be opened up. In
this case refuelling is at intervals of 1-2 years, when a quarter to a third of the fuel assemblies are
replaced with fresh ones. The CANDU and RBMK types have pressure tubes (rather than a
pressure vessel enclosing the reactor core) and can be refuelled under load by disconnecting
individual pressure tubes.
If graphite or heavy water is used as moderator, it is possible to run a power reactor on natural
instead of enriched uranium. Natural uranium has the same elemental composition as when it was
mined (0.7% U-235, over 99.2% U-238), enriched uranium has had the proportion of the fissile
isotope (U-235) increased by a process called enrichment, commonly to 3.5 - 5.0%. In this case the
moderator can be ordinary water, and such reactors are collectively called light water reactors.
Because the light water absorbs neutrons as well as slowing them, it is less efficient as a
moderator than heavy water or graphite.
Practically all fuel is ceramic uranium oxide (UO2withameltingpointof2800C)andmostis
enriched. The fuel pellets (usually about 1 cm diameter and 1.5 cm long) are typically arranged in a
long zirconium alloy (zircaloy) tube to form a fuel rod, the zirconium being hard, corrosion-resistant
and permeable to neutrons.* Numerous rods form a fuel assembly, which is an open lattice and can
be lifted into and out of the reactor core. In the most common reactors these are about 3.5 to 4
metres long.
*Zirconium is an important mineral for nuclear power, where it finds its main use. It is therefore subject to controls on trading. It is normally
contaminated with hafnium, a neutron absorber, so very pure 'nuclear grade' Zr is used to make the zircaloy, which is about 98% Zr plus tin, iron,
chromiumandsometimesnickeltoenhanceitsstrength.

Burnable poisons are often used (especially in BWR) in fuel or coolant to even out the performance
of the reactor over time from fresh fuel being loaded to refuelling. These are neutron absorbers
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which
decay under neutron exposure, compensating for the progressive build up of neutron
absorbers in the fuel as it is burned. The best known is gadolinium, which is a vital ingredient of fuel
in naval reactors where installing fresh fuel is very inconvenient, so reactors are designed to run
more than a decade between refuellings.

be lifted into and out of the reactor core. In the most common reactors these are about 3.5 to 4
metres long.
*Zirconium is an important mineral for nuclear power, where it finds its main use. It is therefore subject to controls on trading. It is normally
contaminated with hafnium, a neutron absorber, so very pure 'nuclear grade' Zr is used to make the zircaloy, which isNuclear_Power_Reactors
about 98% Zr plus tin, iron,
chromiumandsometimesnickeltoenhanceitsstrength.

Burnable poisons are often used (especially in BWR) in fuel or coolant to even out the performance
of the reactor over time from fresh fuel being loaded to refuelling. These are neutron absorbers
which decay under neutron exposure, compensating for the progressive build up of neutron
absorbers in the fuel as it is burned. The best known is gadolinium, which is a vital ingredient of fuel
in naval reactors where installing fresh fuel is very inconvenient, so reactors are designed to run
more than a decade between refuellings.

Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)

This is the most common type, with over 230 in use for power generation and several hundred more
employed for naval propulsion. The design of PWRs originated as a submarine power plant. PWRs
use ordinary water as both coolant and moderator. The design is distinguished by having a primary
cooling circuit which flows through the core of the reactor under very high pressure, and a
secondary circuit in which steam is generated to drive the turbine.
A PWR has fuel assemblies of 200-300 rods each, arranged vertically in the core, and a large
reactor would have about 150-250 fuel assemblies with 80-100 tonnes of uranium.
Waterinthereactorcorereachesabout325C,henceitmustbekeptunderabout150times
atmospheric pressure to prevent it boiling. Pressure is maintained by steam in a pressuriser (see
diagram). In the primary cooling circuit the water is also the moderator, and if any of it turned to
steam the fission reaction would slow down. This negative feedback effect is one of the safety
features of the type. The secondary shutdown system involves adding boron to the primary circuit.
The secondary circuit is under less pressure and the water here boils in the heat exchangers which
are thus steam generators. The steam drives the turbine to produce electricity, and is then
condensed and returned to the heat exchangers in contact with the primary circuit.
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
This design (diagram next page) has many similarities to the PWR, except that there is only a
single circuit in which the water is at lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) so that
itboilsinthecoreatabout285C.Thereactorisdesignedtooperatewith12-15% of the water in
the
top part of the core as steam, and hence with less moderating effect and thus efficiency there.
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The steam passes through drier plates (steam separators) above the core and then directly to the
turbines, which are thus part of the reactor circuit. Since the water around the core of a reactor is
always contaminated with traces of radionuclides, it means that the turbine must be shielded and

condensed and returned to the heat exchangers in contact with the primary circuit.
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Nuclear_Power_Reactors

This design (diagram next page) has many similarities to the PWR, except that there is only a
single circuit in which the water is at lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) so that
itboilsinthecoreatabout285C.Thereactorisdesignedtooperatewith12-15% of the water in
the top part of the core as steam, and hence with less moderating effect and thus efficiency there.
The steam passes through drier plates (steam separators) above the core and then directly to the
turbines, which are thus part of the reactor circuit. Since the water around the core of a reactor is
always contaminated with traces of radionuclides, it means that the turbine must be shielded and
radiological protection provided during maintenance. The cost of this tends to balance the savings
due to the simpler design. Most of the radioactivity in the water is very short-lived*, so the turbine
hall can be entered soon after the reactor is shut down.
* mostly N-16, with a 7 second half-life
A BWR fuel assembly comprises 90-100 fuel rods, and there are up to 750 assemblies in a reactor
core, holding up to 140 tonnes of uranium. The secondary control system involves restricting water
flow through the core so that more steam in the top part reduces moderation.

Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR or CANDU)

The PHWR reactor design has been developed since the 1950s in Canada as the CANDU, and
morerecentlyalsoinIndia.Itusesnaturaluranium(0.7%U-235) oxide as fuel, hence needs a more
efficient moderator, in this case heavy water (D2O).**
** with the CANDU system, the moderator is enriched (ie water) rather than the fuel, - a cost tradeoff.
The moderator is in a large tank called a calandria, penetrated by several hundred horizontal
pressure tubes which form channels for the fuel, cooled by a flow of heavy water under high
pressureintheprimarycoolingcircuit,reaching290C.AsinthePWR,theprimarycoolant
generates steam in a secondary circuit to drive the turbines. The pressure tube design means that
the reactor can be refuelled progressively without shutting down, by isolating individual pressure
tubes from the cooling circuit.

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pressureintheprimarycoolingcircuit,reaching290C.AsinthePWR,theprimarycoolant
generates steam in a secondary circuit to drive the turbines. The pressure tube design means that
the reactor can be refuelled progressively without shutting down, by isolating individual
pressure
Nuclear_Power_Reactors
tubes from the cooling circuit.

A CANDU fuel assembly consists of a bundle of 37 half metre long fuel rods (ceramic fuel pellets in
zircaloy tubes) plus a support structure, with 12 bundles lying end to end in a fuel channel. Control
rods penetrate the calandria vertically, and a secondary shutdown system involves adding
gadolinium to the moderator. The heavy water moderator circulating through the body of the
calandria vessel also yields some heat (though this circuit is not shown on the diagram above).
Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR)
These are the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, using graphite moderator and
carbon dioxide as coolant. The fuel is uranium oxide pellets, enriched to 2.5-3.5%, in stainless steel
tubes.Thecarbondioxidecirculatesthroughthecore,reaching650Candthenpaststeam
generator tubes outside it, but still inside the concrete and steel pressure vessel. Control rods
penetrate the moderator and a secondary shutdown system involves injecting nitrogen to the
coolant.

The AGR was developed from the Magnox reactor, also graphite moderated and CO2 cooled, and
two of these are still operating in UK. They use natural uranium fuel in metal form.
Light
water graphite-moderated reactor (RBMK)
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This is a Soviet design, developed from plutonium production reactors. It employs long (7 metre)
vertical pressure tubes running through graphite moderator, and is cooled by water, which is
allowedtoboilinthecoreat290C,muchasinaBWR.Fuelislow-enriched uranium oxide made

Nuclear_Power_Reactors

The AGR was developed from the Magnox reactor, also graphite moderated and CO2 cooled, and
two of these are still operating in UK. They use natural uranium fuel in metal form.
Light water graphite-moderated reactor (RBMK)
This is a Soviet design, developed from plutonium production reactors. It employs long (7 metre)
vertical pressure tubes running through graphite moderator, and is cooled by water, which is
allowedtoboilinthecoreat290C,muchasinaBWR.Fuelislow-enriched uranium oxide made
up into fuel assemblies 3.5 metres long. With moderation largely due to the fixed graphite, excess
boiling simply reduces the cooling and neutron absorbtion without inhibiting the fission reaction, and
a positive feedback problem can arise, which is why they have never been built outside the Soviet
Union.
Advanced reactors
Several generations of reactors are commonly distinguished. Generation I reactors were developed
in 1950-60s and very few are still running today. They mostly used natural uranium fuel and used
graphite as moderator. Generation II reactors are typified by the present US fleet and most in
operation elsewhere. They typically use enriched uranium fuel and are mostly cooled and
moderated by water. Generation III are the Advanced Reactors, the first few of which are in
operation in Japan and others are under construction and ready to be ordered. They are
developments of the second generation with enhanced safety.
Generation IV designs are still on the drawing board and will not be operational before 2020 at the
earliest, probably later. They will tend to have closed fuel cycles and burn the long-lived actinides
now forming part of spent fuel, so that fission products are the only high-level waste. Many will be
fast neutron reactors.
More than a dozen (Generation III) advanced reactor designs are in various stages of development.
Some are evolutionary from the PWR, BWR and CANDU designs above, some are more radical
departures. The former include the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor, a few of which are now
operating with others under construction. The best-known radical new design is the Pebble Bed
Modular Reactor, using helium as coolant, at very high temperature, to drive a turbine directly.
Considering the closed fuel cycle, Generation 1-3 reactors recycle plutonium (and possibly
uranium), while Generation IV are expected to have full actinide recycle.
Fast neutron reactors (FNR)
Some reactors (only one in commercial service) do not have a moderator and utilise fast neutrons,
generating power from plutonium while making more of it from the U-238 isotope in or around the
fuel. While they get more than 60 times as much energy from the original uranium compared with
thenormalreactors,theyareexpensivetobuild.Furtherdevelopmentofthemislikelyinthenext
decade,andthemaindesignsexpectedtobebuiltintwodecadesareFNRs.SeealsoFast
Neutron Reactors and Small Reactors papers.
Floating nuclear power plants
Apart from over 200 nuclear reactors powering various kinds of ships, Rosatom in Russia has set
up a subsidiary to supply floating nuclear power plants ranging in size from 70 to 600 MWe. These
will be mounted in pairs on a large barge, which will be permanently moored where it is needed to
supply power and possibly some desalination to a shore settlement or industrial complex. The first
will have two 40 MWe reactors based on those in icebreakers and will operate at Severodvinsk, in
the
Archangel region. Five of the next seven will be used by Gazprom for offshore oil and gas field
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development and for operations on the Kola and Yamal peninsulas. One is for Pevek on the
Chukotka peninsula, another for Kamchatka region, both in the far east of the country. Further far
east sites being considered are Yakutia and Taimyr. Electricity cost is expected to be much lower
than from present alternatives.

Floating nuclear power plants

Apart from over 200 nuclear reactors powering various kinds of ships, RosatomNuclear_Power_Reactors
in Russia has set
up a subsidiary to supply floating nuclear power plants ranging in size from 70 to 600 MWe. These
will be mounted in pairs on a large barge, which will be permanently moored where it is needed to
supply power and possibly some desalination to a shore settlement or industrial complex. The first
will have two 40 MWe reactors based on those in icebreakers and will operate at Severodvinsk, in
the Archangel region. Five of the next seven will be used by Gazprom for offshore oil and gas field
development and for operations on the Kola and Yamal peninsulas. One is for Pevek on the
Chukotka peninsula, another for Kamchatka region, both in the far east of the country. Further far
east sites being considered are Yakutia and Taimyr. Electricity cost is expected to be much lower
than from present alternatives.
The Russian KLT-40S is a reactor well proven in icebreakers and now proposed for wider use in
desalination and, on barges, for remote area power supply. Here a 150 MWt unit produces 35
MWe (gross) as well as up to 35 MW of heat for desalination or district heating. These are
designed to run 3-4 years between refuelling and it is envisaged that they will be operated in pairs
to allow for outages, with on-board refuelling capability and used fuel storage. At the end of a 12year operating cycle the whole plant is taken to a central facility for overhaul and removal of used
fuel. Two units will be mounted on a 20,000 tonne barge. A larger Russian factory-built and bargemounted reactor is the VBER-150, of 350 MW thermal, 110 MWe. The larger VBER-300 PWR is a
325 MWe unit, originally envisaged in pairs as a floating nuclear power plant, displacing 49,000
tonnes. As a cogeneration plant it is rated at 200 MWe and 1900 GJ/hr.
Lifetime of nuclear reactors.
Most of today's nuclear plants which were originally designed for 30 or 40-yearoperatinglives.
However, with major investments in systems, structures and components lives can be extended,
andinseveralcountriesthereareactiveprogramstoextendoperatinglives.IntheUSAmostofthe
more than one hundred reactors are expected to be granted licence extensions from 40 to 60
years.Thisjustifiessignificantcapitalexpenditureinupgradingsystemsandcomponents,
including building in extra performance margins.
Somecomponentssimplywearout,corrodeordegradetoalowlevelofefficiency.Theseneedto
bereplaced.Steamgeneratorsarethemostprominentandexpensiveofthese,andmanyhave
been replaced after about 30 years where the reactor otherwise has the prospect of running for 60
years.Thisisessentiallyaneconomicdecision.Lessercomponentsaremorestraightforwardto
replaceastheyage.InCandureactors,pressuretubereplacementhasbeenundertakenonsome
plants after about 30 years operation.
Asecondissueisthatofobsolescence.Forinstance,olderreactorshaveanalogueinstrumentand
controlsystems.Thirdly,thepropertiesofmaterialsmaydegradewithage,particularlywithheat
andneutronirradiation.Inrespecttoalltheseaspects,investmentisneededtomaintainreliability
andsafety.Also,periodicsafetyreviewsareundertakenonolderplantsinlinewithinternational
safety conventions and principles to ensure that safety margins are maintained.
SeealsosectiononAgeing,inSafety of Nuclear Power Reactorspaper.
Load-following capacity
Nuclear power plants are essentially base-loadgenerators,runningcontinuously.Thisisbecause
their power output cannot readily be ramped up and down on a daily and weekly basis, and in this
respect they are similar to most coal-firedplants.(Itisalsouneconomictorunthematlessthanfull
capacity,sincetheyareexpensivetobuildbutcheaptorun.)However,insomesituationsitis
necessary to vary the output according to daily and weekly load cycles on a regular basis, for
instanceinFrance,wherethereisaveryhighrelianceonnuclearpower.
The ability of a power reactor to run at less than full power for much of the time depends on whether
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it is in the early part of its 18 to 24-month refueling cycle or late in it, and whether it is designed with
specialcontrolrodswhichdiminishpowerlevelsthroughoutthecorewithoutshuttingitdown.Thus,
though the ability on any individual reactor to run on a sustained basis at low power decreases
markedly as it progresses through the refueling cycle, there is considerable scope for running a

Nuclear power plants are essentially base-loadgenerators,runningcontinuously.Thisisbecause

their power output cannot readily be ramped up and down on a daily and weekly basis, and in this
respect they are similar to most coal-firedplants.(Itisalsouneconomictorunthematlessthanfull
Nuclear_Power_Reactors
capacity,sincetheyareexpensivetobuildbutcheaptorun.)However,insomesituationsitis
necessary to vary the output according to daily and weekly load cycles on a regular basis, for
instanceinFrance,wherethereisaveryhighrelianceonnuclearpower.
The ability of a power reactor to run at less than full power for much of the time depends on whether
it is in the early part of its 18 to 24-month refueling cycle or late in it, and whether it is designed with
specialcontrolrodswhichdiminishpowerlevelsthroughoutthecorewithoutshuttingitdown.Thus,
though the ability on any individual reactor to run on a sustained basis at low power decreases
markedly as it progresses through the refueling cycle, there is considerable scope for running a
fleet of reactors in load-followingmode.SeefurtherinformationintheNuclear Power in France
paper.
Primary coolants
The advent of some of the designs mentioned above provides opportunity to review the various
primarycoolantsusedinnuclearreactors.Thereisawidevariety- gas, water, light metal, heavy
metal and salt:
Water or heavy water must be maintained at very high pressure (1000-2200 psi, 7-15 MPa) to
enableittofunctionabove100C,asinpresentreactors.Thishasamajorinfluenceonreactor
engineering. However, supercritical water around 25 MPa can give 45% thermal efficiency - as at
some fossil-fuelpowerplantstodaywithoutlettemperaturesof600C,andatultrasupercritical
levels (30+ MPa) 50% may be attained.
Helium must be used at similar pressure (1000-2000 psi, 7-14 MPa) to maintain sufficient density
for efficient operation. Again, there are engineering implications, but it can be used in the Brayton
cycle to drive a turbine directly.
Carbon dioxide was used in early British reactors and their AGRs. It is denser than helium and thus
likely to give better thermal conversion efficiency. There is now interest in supercritical CO2 for the
Brayton cycle.
Sodium,asnormallyusedinfastneutronreactors,meltsat98Candboilsat883Catatmospheric
pressure, so despite the need to keep it dry the engineering required to contain it is relatively
modest. However, normally water/steam is used in the secondary circuit to drive a turbine (Rankine
cycle) at lower thermal efficiency than the Brayton cycle.
Lead or lead-bismuth eutectic in fast neutron reactors are capable of higher temperature operation.
They are transparent to neutrons, aiding efficiency, and since they do not react with water the heat
exchangerinterfaceissafer.Theydonotburnwhenexposedtoair.However,theyarecorrosiveof
fuel cladding and steels, and Pb-Bi yields toxic polonium (Po-210)activationproducts.Pb-Bi melts
atarelativelylow125C(henceeutectic)andboilsat1670C,Pbmeltsat327Candboilsat
1737Cbutisverymuchmoreabundantandcheapertoproducethanbismuth,henceisenvisaged
for large-scaleuseinthefuture.ThedevelopmentofnuclearpowerbasedonPb-Bi cooled fast
neutron reactors is likely to be limited to a total of 50-100 GWe, basically for small reactors in
remoteplaces.In1998Russiadeclassifiedalotofresearchinformationderivedfromits
experience with submarine reactors, and US interest in using Pb or Pb-Bi for small reactors has
increasedsubsequently.
Molten fluoride saltboilsat1400Catatmosphericpressure,soallowsseveraloptionsforuseof
the heat, including using helium in a secondary Brayton cycle with thermal efficiencies of 48% at
750Cto59%at1000C,ormanufactureofhydrogen.
Low-pressure liquid coolants allow all their heat to be delivered at high temperatures, since the
temperature drop in heat exchangers is less than with gas coolants. Also, with a good margin
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between
operating and boiling temperatures, passive cooling for decay heat is readily achieved.
The removal of passive decay heat is a vital feature of primary cooling systems, beyond heat
transfertodowork.Whenthefissionprocessstops,fissionproductdecaycontinuesanda
substantialamountofheatisaddedtothecore.Atthemomentofshutdown,thisisabout6%ofthe

increasedsubsequently.
Molten fluoride saltboilsat1400Catatmosphericpressure,soallowsseveraloptionsforuseof
Nuclear_Power_Reactors
the heat, including using helium in a secondary Brayton cycle with thermal efficiencies
of 48% at
750Cto59%at1000C,ormanufactureofhydrogen.
Low-pressure liquid coolants allow all their heat to be delivered at high temperatures, since the
temperature drop in heat exchangers is less than with gas coolants. Also, with a good margin
between operating and boiling temperatures, passive cooling for decay heat is readily achieved.
The removal of passive decay heat is a vital feature of primary cooling systems, beyond heat
transfertodowork.Whenthefissionprocessstops,fissionproductdecaycontinuesanda
substantialamountofheatisaddedtothecore.Atthemomentofshutdown,thisisabout6%ofthe
full power level, but it quickly drops to about 1% as the short-livedfissionproductsdecay.Thisheat
couldmeltthecoreofalightwaterreactorunlessitisreliablydissipated.Typicallysomekindof
convectionflowisreliedupon.

See also paper on Cooling Power Plants.

Primitive reactors
The world's oldest known nuclear reactors operated at what is now Oklo in Gabon, West Africa.
About 2 billion years ago, at least 17 natural nuclear reactors achieved criticality in a rich deposit of
uranium ore. Each operated at about 20 kW thermal. At that time the concentration of U-235 in all
natural uranium was 3.7 percent instead of 0.7 percent as at present. (U-235 decays much faster
than U-238, whose half-life is about the same as the age of the Earth.) These natural chain
reactions, started spontaneously by the presence of water acting as a moderator, continued for
about 2 million years before finally dying away.
During this long reaction period about 5.4 tonnes of fission products as well as 1.5 tonnes of
plutonium together with other transuranic elements were generated in the orebody. The initial
radioactive products have long since decayed into stable elements but close study of the amount
and location of these has shown that there was little movement of radioactive wastes during and
after the nuclear reactions. Plutonium and the other transuranics remained immobile.
Sources:
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Wilson, P.D., 1996, The Nuclear Fuel Cycle, OUP.

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During this long reaction period about 5.4 tonnes of fission products as well as 1.5 tonnes of
plutonium together with other transuranic elements were generated in the orebody.
The initial
Nuclear_Power_Reactors
radioactive products have long since decayed into stable elements but close study of the amount
and location of these has shown that there was little movement of radioactive wastes during and
after the nuclear reactions. Plutonium and the other transuranics remained immobile.
Sources:
Wilson, P.D., 1996, The Nuclear Fuel Cycle, OUP.

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