Professional Documents
Culture Documents
H ISTORY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Since early recorded history, people have been harnessing the energy of the wind. Wind
energy propelled boats along the Nile River as early as 5000 B.C. By 200 B.C., simple windmills
in China were pumping water, while vertical-axis windmills with woven reed sails were grinding
grain in Persia and the Middle East.
New ways of using the energy of the wind eventually spread around the world. By the
11th century, people in the Middle East were using windmills extensively for food production;
returning merchants and crusaders carried this idea back to Europe. The Dutch refined the
windmill and adapted it for draining lakes and marshes in the Rhine River Delta. When settlers
took this technology to the New World in the late 19th century, they began using windmills to
pump water for farms and ranches, and later, to generate electricity for homes and industry.
Industrialization, first in Europe and later in America, led to a gradual decline in the use
of windmills. The steam engine replaced European water-pumping windmills. In the 1930s, the
Rural Electrification Administration's programs brought inexpensive electric power to most rural
areas in the United States.
However, industrialization also sparked the development of larger windmills to generate
electricity. Commonly called wind turbines, these machines appeared in Denmark as early as
1890. In the 1940s the largest wind turbine of the time began operating on a Vermont hilltop
known as Grandpa's Knob. This turbine, rated at 1.25 megawatts in winds of about 30 mph, fed
electric power to the local utility network for several months during World War II.
The popularity of using the energy in the wind has always fluctuated with the price of
fossil fuels. When fuel prices fell after World War II, interest in wind turbines waned. But when
the price of oil skyrocketed in the 1970s, so did worldwide interest in wind turbine generators.
The wind turbine technology R&D that followed the oil embargoes of the 1970s refined
old ideas and introduced new ways of converting wind energy into useful power. Many of these
approaches have been demonstrated in "wind farms" or wind power plants groups of turbines
that feed electricity into the utility grid in the United States and Europe.
Today, the lessons learned from more than a decade of operating wind power plants,
along with continuing R&D, have made wind-generated electricity very close in cost to the
power from conventional utility generation in some locations. Wind energy is the world's fastestgrowing energy source and will power industry, businesses and homes with clean, renewable
electricity for many years to come.
Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind. For more than
two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water. Wind power was
widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later, requiring sources
of fuel. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and in arid regions such as
the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps provided water for livestock and
steam engines.
With the development of electric power, wind power found new
applications in lighting buildings remote from centrallygenerated power. Throughout the 20th century parallel paths
developed small wind plants suitable for farms or residences,
and larger utility-scale wind generators that could be connected
to electricity grids for remote use of power. Today wind powered
generators operate in every size range between tiny plants for
battery charging at isolated residences, up to near giga watt
sized offshore wind farms that provide electricity to national
electrical networks.
1.1 Antiquity:
Sailboats and sailing ships have been using wind power for at least 5,500 years and
architects have used wind-driven natural ventilation in buildings since similarly ancient times.
The use of wind to provide mechanical power came somewhat later in antiquity.
The Babylonian emperor Hammurabi planned to use wind power for his ambitious
irrigation project in the 17th century BC.
The wind wheel of the Greek engineer Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is the
earliest known instance of using a wind-driven wheel to power a machine. Another early
example of a wind-driven wheel was the prayer wheel, which was used in
ancient Tibet and China since the 4th century.
By
the
14th
century
Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas
of the Rhine River delta.
constructed in the winter of 1887-1888 by Charles F. Brush, this was built by his engineering
company at his home and operated from 1886 until 1900.
The Brush wind turbine had a rotor 17 m (56 foot) in diameter and was mounted on an
18 m (60 foot) tower. Although large by today's standards, the machine was only rated at 12 kW;
it turned relatively slowly since it had 144 blades. The connected dynamo was used either to
charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs, three arc lamps, and
various motors in Brush's laboratory. The machine fell into disuse after 1900 when electricity
became available from Clevelands central station and was abandoned in 1908.
In 1891 Danish scientist, Poul la Cour, constructed a wind turbine to generate electricity,
which was used to produce hydrogen by electrolysis to be stored for use in experiments and to
light the Askov High school. He later solved the problem of producing a steady supply of power
by inventing a regulator, the Kratostate, and in 1895 converted his windmill into a prototype
electrical power plant that was used to light the village of Askov.
19001973, when widespread use of individual wind generators competed against fossil
fuel plants and centrally-generated electricity
1973onward, when the oil price crisis spurred investigation of non-petroleum energy
sources
novel wing construction using help from German aeronautics specialists. The power plant was
capable of delivering 2MW, had a tubular tower, pitch controlled wings and three blades. It was
built by the teachers and students of the Tvind school. Before completion these "amateurs" were
much ridiculed. The turbine still runs today and looks almost identical to the newest most
modern mills.
Danish commercial wind power development stressed incremental improvements in
capacity and efficiency based on extensive serial production of turbines, in contrast with
development models requiring extensive steps in unit size based primarily on theoretical
extrapolation. A practical consequence is that all commercial wind turbines resemble the Danish
model, a light-weight three-blade upwind design.
the natural market for wind-generated power, since network power distribution provided a farm
with more dependable usable energy for a given amount of capital investment.
In Australia, the Dunlite Corporation built hundreds of small wind generators to provide
power at isolated postal service stations and farms. These machines were manufactured from
1936 until 1970.
experimental wind turbines were put into operation, in four major wind turbine designs. This
research and development program pioneered many of the multi-megawatt turbine technologies
in use today, including: steel tube towers, variable-speed generators, composite blade materials,
partial-span pitch control, as well as aerodynamic, structural, and acoustic engineering design
capabilities. The large wind turbines developed under this effort set several world records for
diameter and power output. The MOD-2 wind turbine cluster of three turbines produced 7.5
megawatts of power in 1981. In 1987, the MOD-5B was the largest single wind turbine operating
in the world with a rotor diameter of nearly 100 meters and a rated power of 3.2 megawatts. It
demonstrated an availability of 95 percent, an unparalleled level for a new first-unit wind
turbine. The MOD-5B had the first large-scale variable speed drive train and a sectioned, twoblade rotor that enabled easy transport of the blades. The 4 megawatt WTS-4 held the world
record for power output for over 20 years. Although the later units were sold commercially, none
of these two-bladed machines were ever put into mass production. When oil prices declined by a
factor of three from 1980 through the early 1990s, many turbine manufacturers, both large and
small, left the business. The commercial sales of the NASA/Boeing Mod-5B, for example, came
to an end in 1987 when Boeing Engineering and Construction announced they were "planning to
leave the market because low oil prices are keeping windmills
for electricity generation uneconomical."
Later, in the 1980s, California provided tax rebates for wind
power. These rebates funded the first major use of wind power
for utility electricity. These machines, gathered in large wind
parks such as at Altamont Pass would be considered small and
un-economic by modern wind power development standards.
All major horizontal axis turbines today rotate the same way (clockwise) to present a
coherent view. However, early turbines rotated counter-clockwise like the old windmills, but a
shift occurred from 1978 and on. The individualist-minded blade supplier kr made the
decision to change direction in order to be distinguished from the collective Tvind and their
small wind turbines. Some of the blade customers were companies that later evolved
into Vestas, Siemens, Enercon and Nordex. Public demand required that all turbines rotate the
same way, and the success of these companies made clockwise the new standard.
Following experience with reconditioned 1930s wind turbines, a new generation of
American manufacturers started building and selling small wind turbines not only for batterycharging but also for interconnection to electricity networks. An early example would be
Enertech Corporation of Norwich, Vermont, which began building 1.8 kW models in the early
1980s.
In the 1990s, as aesthetics and durability became more important, turbines were placed
atop tubular steel or reinforced concrete towers. Small generators are connected to the tower on
the ground, and then the tower is raised into position. Larger generators are hoisted into position
atop the tower and there is a ladder or staircase inside the tower to allow technicians to reach and
maintain the generator, while protected from the weather.
10
11
CHAPTER 2
WIND TURBINE
2.1 What Is Wind?
Wind is moving air and is caused by differences in air pressure within our atmosphere. Air under
high pressure moves toward areas of low pressure. The greater the difference in pressure, the
faster the air flows.
12
2.4 Measurement:
If you want to measure wind speed, it is important to use an
accurate digital anemometer.
leads to lower pressure over the land. The air over the sea remains cooler and denser, so pressure
is higher than inland. So we now have a pressure difference set up, and air moves inland from the
sea to try and equalize this difference - this is our sea breeze. It explains why beaches are often
much cooler than inland areas on a hot, sunny day.
2.5.2 Large scale winds:
A similar process takes place on a global scale. The sun's rays reach the earth's surface in
Polar Regions at a much more slanted angle than at equatorial regions. This sets up a temperature
difference between the hot equator and cold poles. So the heated air rises at the equator (leading
to low pressure) whilst the cold air sinks above the poles (leading to high pressure). This pressure
difference sets up a global wind circulation as the cold polar air tries to move southwards to
replace the rising tropical air. However, this is complicated by the earth's rotation (known as the
Coriolis Effect).
Air that has risen at the equator moves pole wards at higher levels in the atmosphere then
cools and sinks at around 30 degrees latitude north (and south). This leads to high pressure in the
subtropics - the nearest of these features that commonly affects UK weather is known as the
Azores high. This sinking air spreads out at the earth's surface some of it returns southwards
towards the low pressure at the equator (known as trade winds), completing a circulation known
as the Hadley Cell.
Another portion of this air moves pole wards and meets the cold air spreading southwards
from the Arctic (or Antarctic). The meeting of this subtropical air and polar air takes place on
latitude close to that of the UK and is the source of most of our weather systems. As the warm air
is less dense than the polar air it tends to rise over it - this rising motion generates low pressure
systems which bring wind and rain to our shores. This part of the global circulation is known as
the mid-latitude cell, or Ferrell Cell.
Another important factor is that the coriolis effect from the earth's rotation meaning that
air does not flow directly from high to low pressure - instead it is deflected to the right (in the
northern hemisphere - the opposite is true in the southern hemisphere). This gives us our
prevailing west to southwesterly winds across the UK.
grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity to
power homes, businesses, schools, and the like.
The terms wind energy or wind power describes the process by which the wind is used to
generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind
into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding
grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity.
Wind Turbines
Wind turbines, like aircraft propeller
blades, turn in the moving air and power an
electric generator that supplies an electric
current. Simply stated, a wind turbine is the
opposite of a fan. Instead of using
electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind
turbines use wind to make electricity. The
wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft,
which connects to a generator and makes
electricity. Wind turbines operate on a
simple principle. The energy in the wind
turns two or three propeller-like blades
around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the
main shaft, which spins a generator to create electricity.
5. Gear Box:
Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational speeds from
about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the rotational speed
required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of
the wind turbine and engineers are exploring direct-drive generators that operate at lower
rotational speeds and dont need gear boxes.
6. Generator:
Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity which is
approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost.
7. High Speed Shaft:
Drives the generator.
8. Low Speed Shaft:
The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute.
9. Nacelle:
The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator,
controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land on.
10. Pitch:
Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the rotor speed and keep the rotor from
turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
11. Rotor:
The blades and the hub together are called the rotor. which is approximately 20% of the wind
turbine cost.
12. Tower:
Towers are made from tubular steel, concrete, or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases with
height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity. which
is approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost.
13. Wind Direction:
This is an upwind turbine, so-called because it operates facing into the wind. Other turbines
are designed to run downwind, facing away from the wind.
14. Wind Vane:
Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly
with respect to the wind.
15. Yaw Drive:
16
Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind
as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines dont require a yaw drive; the wind blows the
rotor downwind.
16. Yaw Motor:
Powers the yaw drive.
17
Small wind turbines such as those used at residences usually have the blades connected to
a DC generator, power inverter, AC generator and bank of batteries. The home wind turbine is
used to power the batteries, which in turn power the residence. An electrical contractor can tie in
the home wind generator to the grid if desired.
How wind turbines work efficiently have to do with the size and shape of the rotors, the
location of the turbine including geography and height and other basic mechanics that either
cause more drag or less drag on the system. Many assume that the old style windmill with many
blades is more efficient because of the number of rotors.
But, the number of rotors can actually add more drag, more weight and get in the way of
wind flowing through the blade area. Two or three bladed turbines are most popular now days
because of more thrust and less wind resistance.
One of the main factors that contribute to how wind turbines work is the kind of
electromagnetic system that is used to generate electricity. The wind turbine blades are usually
tied into something akin to the alternator in one's car.
The alternator works because many loops of copper wire spin around at high speeds
around an iron core, producing an electromagnetic current (electricity). The kind of
electromagnetic induction can vary depending upon the size of the wind turbine and the
manufacturer's specifications and design.
How wind turbines work has changed over the years. The history of wind power starts
with these renewable energy devices being used to grind grains and pump water. Over the years,
the need to use wind turbines for electrical generation has come to the forefront and which is
why so much development is taking place right now.
2.10 Efficiency:
Not all the energy of blowing wind can be harvested, since conservation of mass requires
that as much mass of air exits the turbine as enters it. Betz' law gives the maximal achievable
extraction of wind power by a wind turbine as 59% of the total kinetic energy of the air flowing
through the turbine.
Further inefficiencies, such as rotor blade friction and drag, gearbox losses, generator and
converter losses, reduce the power delivered by a wind turbine. Commercial utility-connected
turbines deliver about 75% of the Betz limit of power extractable from the wind, at rated
operating speed.
18
Efficiency can decrease slightly over time due to wear. Analysis of 3128 wind turbines
older than 10 years in Denmark showed that half of the turbines had no decrease, while the other
half saw a production decrease of 1.2% per year.
2.12 History:
The task of orientating the rotor into the wind was a complicated issue already for
historical windmills. The first windmills able to rotate in order to "face" the wind appeared in the
mid-18th century. Their rotatable nacelles were mounted on the main structure of
the windmill using primitive wooden gliding bearings lubricated with animal fat. The necessary
yawing torque was created by means of animal power, human power or even wind
power (implementation of an auxiliary rotor known as fantail).
Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) do not need a yaw system since their vertical rotors
can face the wind from any direction and only their self-rotation gives the blades a clear direction
of the air flow. Horizontal axis wind turbines however need to orient their rotors into and out of
the wind and they achieve that by means of passive or active yaw systems.
Horizontal axis wind turbines employ some sort of yaw system which can be passive or
active. Both passive and active systems have advantages and disadvantages and various design
solutions (both active and passive) are being tried in order to find the optimal design for each
wind turbine depending on its size, cost and purpose of operation.
2.13 Types:
2.13.1 Active yaw system:
The active yaw systems are equipped with some sort of torque producing device able to rotate
the nacelle of the wind turbine against the stationary tower based on automatic signals from wind
direction sensors or manual actuation (control system override). The active yaw systems are
considered to be the state of the art for all the modern medium and large sized wind turbines,
with a few exceptions proving the rule (e.g. Vergnet). The various components of the modern
active yaw systems vary depending on the design characteristics but all the active yaw systems
include a means of rotatable connection between nacelle and tower (yaw bearing), a means of
active variation of the rotor orientation (i.e. yaw drive), a means of restricting the rotation of the
19
nacelle (yaw brake) and a control system which processes the signals from wind direction
sensors (e.g. wind vanes) and gives the proper commands to the actuating mechanisms.
The most common types of active yaw systems are:
Roller yaw bearing - Electric yaw drive - Brake: The nacelle is mounted on a roller
bearing and the azimuth rotation is achieved via a plurality of powerful electric drives. A
hydraulic or electric brake fixes the position of the nacelle when the re-orientation is
completed in order to avoid wear and high fatigue loads on wind turbine components due
to backlash. Systems of this kind are used by most of the wind turbine manufacturers and are
considered to be reliable and effective but also quite bulky and expensive.
Roller yaw bearing - Hydraulic yaw drive: The nacelle is mounted on a roller bearing and
the azimuth rotation is achieved via a
plurality of powerful hydraulic motors or
ratcheting hydraulic cylinders. The benefit
of the yaw system with hydraulic
drives has to do with the inherent benefits
of the hydraulic systems such as the
high power-to-weight
ratio and
high reliability. On the downside however
the hydraulic systems are always troubled
by leakages of hydraulic fluid and
clogging of their high pressure hydraulic
valves. The hydraulic yaw systems often
(depending on the system design) also
allow for the elimination of the yaw brake
mechanism and their replacement with cut-off valves.
Gliding yaw bearing - Electric yaw drive: The nacelle is mounted on a friction
based gliding bearing and the azimuth rotation is achieved via a plurality of powerful electric
drives. The need for a yaw brake is eliminated and depending on the size of the yaw system
(i.e. size of the wind turbine) the gliding bearing concept can lead to significant cost savings.
Gliding yaw bearing - Hydraulic yaw drive: The nacelle is mounted on a friction
based gliding bearing and the azimuth rotation is achieved via a plurality of
powerful hydraulic motors or ratcheting hydraulic cylinders. This system combines the
characteristics of the aforementioned gliding bearing and hydraulic motor systems.
The passive yaw systems utilize the wind force in order to adjust the orientation of
the wind turbine rotor into the wind. In their simplest form these system comprise a simple roller
bearing connection between the tower and the nacelle and a tail fin mounted on the nacelle and
designed in such a way that it turns the wind turbine rotor into the wind by exerting a
"corrective" torque to the nacelle. Therefore the power of the wind is responsible for the rotor
rotation and the nacelle orientation. Alternatively in case of downwind turbines the tail fin is not
necessary since the rotor itself is able to yaw the nacelle into the wind. In the event of skew
winds the "wind pressure" on the swept area causes a yawing moment around the tower axis (zaxis) which orients the rotor.
The tail fin (or wind vane) is commonly used for small wind turbines since it offers a low
cost and reliable solution. It is however unable to cope with the high moments required to yaw
the nacelle of a large wind turbine. The self-orientation of the downwind turbine rotors however
is a concept able to function even for larger wind turbines. The French wind turbine
manufacturer Vergnet has several medium and large self-orientating downwind wind turbines in
production.
Passive yaw systems have to be designed in a way that the nacelle does not follow the
sudden changes in wind direction with too fast a yaw movement, in order to avoid high
gyroscopic loads. Additionally the passive yaw systems with low yaw-friction are subjected to
strong dynamic loads due to the periodic low amplitude yawing caused by the variation of
the inertia moment during the rotor rotation. This effect becomes more severe with the reduction
of the number of blades.
The most common passive yaw systems are:
Roller Bearing (free system): The nacelle is mounted on a roller bearing and it is free to
rotate towards any direction. The necessary moment comes from a tail fin or the rotor
(downwind wind turbines)
Gliding Bearing/Brake (Passive system): The nacelle is mounted on a gliding bearing and
it is free to rotate towards any direction. The inherent friction of the gliding bearing achieves
a quasi-active way of operation.
2.14 Component:
21
2.14.3Yaw brake:
In order to stabilize the yaw bearing against rotation a means of braking is necessary. One
of the simplest ways to realize that task is to apply a
constant small counter-torque at the yaw drives in order
to eliminate the backlash between gear-rim and yaw
drive pinions and
to
prevent
the nacelle from oscillating due to the rotor rotation.
This operation however greatly reduces the reliability of
the electric yaw drives, therefore the most common
solution is the implementation of a hydraulically
actuated disk brake.
The disk brake requires a flat circular brake
disk and
plurality
of
brake calipers with
hydraulic pistons and brake pads. The hydraulic yaw
brakes are able to fix the nacelle in position thus
22
relieving the yaw drives from that task. The cost however of the yaw brake in combination with
the requirement of a hydraulic installation (pump, valves, pistons) and its installation in the
vicinity of brake pads sensitive to lubricant contamination is often an issue.
A compromise that offers several advantages is the use of electric yaw brakes. These
replace the hydraulic mechanism of the conventional brakes and with electro-mechanically
actuated brake calipers. The use of electric yaw brakes eliminates the complexity of the hydraulic
leakages and the subsequent problems that these cause to the yaw brake operation.
Several wind turbine design and manufacturing companies experiment with alternative
yaw breaking methods in order to eliminate the drawbacks of the existing systems and to reduce
the cost of the system. One of these alternatives involves the use of air pressure in order to
achieve the necessary yaw braking moment. In this case, some of the gliding surface (usually the
axial, due to higher available surface) is utilized in order to accommodate the yaw brake pads
and the pneumatic brake mechanism. The pneumatic actuator can be a conventional pneumatic
cylinder or even a flexible air chamber which inflates when supplied with pressurized air. Such a
device is able to exert very high braking forces due to the high active surface. This is achieved
with a simple industrial air pressure compression system (6-10 bars) which is a reliable and low
cost solution. Furthermore in the even of leakage, the environmental impact is practically zero
compared to hydraulic oil leakages. Finally brake actuators can be produced with very low cost
from lightweight plastic materials thus significantly reducing the overall cost of the system.
the source direction of the wind, however, will be subject to a larger force (bending torque) than
the rest of the rotor. On the one hand, this means that the rotor will have a tendency to yaw
against the wind automatically, regardless of whether we are dealing with an upwind or a
downwind turbine. On the other hand, it means that the blades will be bending back and forth in
a flap wise direction for each turn of the rotor. Wind turbines which are running with a yaw error
are therefore subject to larger fatigue loads than wind turbines which are yawed in a
perpendicular direction against the wind.
24
Permanent magnet alternators are can be very efficient, in the range of 60%-95%,
typically around 70% though. As a generator they do not require a controller as a typical three
phase motor would need. It is easy to rectify the power from them and charge a battery bank or
use with a grid tie.
It is easy to build a permanent magnet alternator, even for beginners. This is a common
choice for home builders. I will have some great information on this site a little later that will
take you through the design and building process. You just need to understand a little science and
have some sort of mechanical competency.
Note: Car alternators are not PMA but actually have a field coil instead of permanent
magnets, and are typically very inefficient around 50%. They typically need to be spun
1500+RPM to get any real power out of them, but with a belt or gear arrangement can still do a
decent job.
2.16.3 Brushed DC Motor:
Brushed DC Motors are commonly used for home built wind turbines. They are
backwards from a permanent magnet generator. On a brushed motor, the electromagnets spin on
the rotor with the power coming out of what is known as a commutator. This does cause a
rectifying effecting outputting lumpy DC, but this is not an efficient way to rectify the power
from the windings, it is used because its the only way to get the power out of the rotor. A good
brushed motor can reach a good efficiency, but are typically at most 70%.
There are many great advantages to using a brushed motor. One of the biggest reasons is
because typically you can find one not requiring any gearing and still get a battery charging
voltage in light wind. They are also quite easy to find, they can be purchased from eBay, surplus
supply stores, industrial supply stores, and can find them on different things that might get
thrown away or given away (like a treadmill).
2.17 Advantages:
Wind Energy offers many advantages, which explains why its the fastest-growing energy
source in the world. Research efforts are aimed at addressing the challenges to greater use of
wind energy.
Wind energy is fueled by the wind, so its a clean fuel source. Wind energy doesnt
pollute the air like power plants that rely on combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal or natural
gas. Wind turbines dont produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid rain or greenhouse
gasses. Wind energy is a domestic source of energy, produced in the United States. The nations
wind supply is abundant. Wind energy relies on the renewable power of the wind, which cant be
used up. Wind is actually a form of solar energy; winds are caused by the heating of the
atmosphere by the sun, the rotation of the earth, and the earths surface irregularities. Wind
25
energy is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy technologies available today, costing
between 4 and 6 cents per kilowatt-hour, depending upon the wind resource and project
financing of the particular project. Wind turbines can be built on farms or ranches, thus
benefiting the economy in rural areas, where most of the best wind sites are found. Farmers and
ranchers can continue to work the land because the wind turbines use only a fraction of the land.
Wind power plant owners make rent payments to the farmer or rancher for the use of the land.
2.18 Challenges:
Wind power must compete with conventional generation sources on a cost basis.
Depending on how energetic a wind site is, the wind farm may or may not be cost competitive.
Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the past 10 years, the
technology requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fueled generators. Good wind sites are
often located in remote locations, far from cities where the electricity is needed. Transmission
lines must be built to bring the electricity from the wind farm to the city. Wind resource
development may compete with other uses for the land and those alternative uses may be more
highly valued than electricity generation. Although wind power plants have relatively little
impact on the environment compared to other conventional power plants, there is some concern
over the noise produced by the rotor blades, aesthetic (visual) impacts, and sometimes birds have
been killed by flying into the rotors. Most of these problems have been resolved or greatly
reduced through technological development or by properly siting wind plants.
CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF WIND TURBINE
Wind turbines can be separated into two basic types determined by which way the turbine
spins. Wind turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more common (like a wind
mill), while vertical axis wind turbines are less frequently used (Savonius and Darrieus are
the most common in the group).
26
Horizontal axis wind turbines, also shortened to HAWT, are the common style that most of us
think of when we think of a wind turbine. A HAWT has a similar design to a windmill; it has
blades that look like a propeller that spin on the horizontal axis.
Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a
tower, and they must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane
placed square with the rotor (blades), while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled
with a servo motor to turn the turbine into the wind. Most large wind turbines have a gearbox,
which turns the slow rotation of the rotor into a faster rotation that is more suitable to drive an
electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of the tower.
Wind turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by
high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and
are sometimes tilted up a small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of
turbulence, because they don't need an additional mechanism for
keeping them in line with the wind. Additionally, in high winds the
blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and
thus their wind resistance. Since turbulence leads to fatigue
failures, and reliability is so important, most HAWTs are upwind
machines.
27
Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and
generator.
Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly)
being lifted into position.
Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the appearance
of the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence when
a blade passes through the tower's wind shadow (for this reason, the majority of HAWTs
use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower).
HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind.
HAWTs generally require a braking or yawing device in high winds to stop the turbine
from spinning and destroying or damaging itself.
28
VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where rooftops,
mesas, hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind velocity.
Most VAWTs have a average decreased efficiency from a common HAWT, mainly
because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the wind. Versions
that reduce drag produce more energy, especially those that funnel wind into the collector
area.
Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower and do not take
advantage of higher wind speeds above.
Because VAWTs are not commonly deployed due mainly to the serious disadvantages
mentioned above, they appear novel to those not familiar with the wind industry. This has
often made them the subject of wild claims and investment scams over the last 50 years.
Floating
Fixed
30
3.11 Spar:
The main advantage of the spar design over other floating platforms is
its small cross-section at the water's surface, which makes it less
sensitive to wave motion
The main disadvantage is the cost. The structure requires roughly five
times as much steel as a standard monopile.
The spread mooring system of a Spar does not influence the waveinduced motions of the platform. Instead, the Spar relies on its deep
draft and large effective mass to keep vertical motions within an
acceptable range.
3.11.1 Advantages of the Spar
Less sensitive than TLPs to water depth and payload
Allows surface wellheads (dry trees)
Vertical access to wells
Support of remote wells
Drilling and workover capability
Active lateral mooring system can provide drilling access to a large well pattern
3.11.2 Limitations of the Spar
More extensive offshore campaign for integration and installation
The Spar configuration typically includes a buoyant upper section (hard tank), a deep lower
section to contain permanent solid ballast material (keel tank), and a structural connection
between the hard tank and keel tank that may take the form of a truss structure (for a Truss Spar)
or a flooded circular cylinder (Classic Spar).
31
suited for water depths greater than 300 metres (about 1000 ft) and less than 1500 metres (about
4900 ft). Use of tension-leg platforms has also been proposed for wind turbines.
The mooring system of a TLP is vertically oriented and consists of tubular steel members called
tendons. The group of tendons at each corner of the structure is called a tension leg. The tendon
system is highly tensioned due to excess buoyancy of the platform hull. The high tension limits
horizontal offsets to a small percentage of water depth. Vertical motions of the TLP are nearly
non-existent due to the tendons high axial stiffness (low elasticity). Roll and pitch motions are
also negligible.
32
4,674 ft. (1,425 m) Magnolia ETLP. Its total height is some 5,000 feet (1,500 m).
3,800 ft. (1,200 m) Ursa TLP. Its height above surface is 485 ft (148 m) making a total
height of 4,285 ft. (1,306 m).
3.15 Semi-submersible:
Similar to the Truss Spar, the spread mooring of a Semi does not influence the wave-induced
motions of the platform. The Semi relies on its small waterplane area to help minimize vertical
motions. Vertical motions of the many typical Semi designs in the GoM prohibit the platform
from supporting top tensioned risers.
of
the
Platform motions
Cannot support TTRs (Target
Tracking Radars)
34
35
A mooring system is made up of a mooring line, anchor and connectors, and is used for station
keeping of a ship or floating platform in all water depths. A mooring line connects an anchor on
the seafloor to a floating structure. We will focus on mooring Mobile Offshore Drilling Units and
Floating Production Systems.
The mooring line can be made up of synthetic fiber
rope, wire and chain or a combination of the three.
Environmental factors - wind, waves and currents determine which materials make up the mooring
system.
Chain is the most common choice for permanent
moorings in shallow water up o 100 m, whereas steel
wire rope is lighter weight and has a higher elasticity
than chain, which is a better choice in water depths
greater than 300 m. However, synthetic fiber rope is
the lightest weight of all three. Configurations
include all chain, chain and wire rope (conventional
mooring line to 2,000 m), chain and synthetic fiber
rope, and chain, wire rope and synthetic fiber rope
combinations are used in ultra-deepwater (greater
than 2,000 m).
3.18 Anchors:
The mooring system relies on the strength of the anchors. The holding capacity of anchors
depends on the digging depth and the soil properties. The mooring lines run from the vessel to
the anchors on the seafloor. Anchor types include: drag embedment, suction and vertical load.
A drag embedment anchor (DEA) is the most utilized anchor for mooring floating MODUs in the
Gulf of Mexico. The drag anchor is dragged along the seabed until it reaches the required depth.
As it penetrates the seabed, it uses soil resistance to hold the anchor in place. The drag
embedment anchor is mainly used for catenary moorings, where the mooring line arrives on the
seabed horizontally. It does not perform well under vertical forces.
Suction piles are the predominant mooring and foundation system used for deepwater
development projects worldwide. Tubular piles are driven into the seabed and a pump sucks out
the water from the top of the tubular, which pulls the pile further into the seabed. Suction piles
36
37
The tout leg system typically uses polyester rope that is pre-tensioned until taut. The rope comes
in at a 30 to 45 degree angle on the seabed where it meets the anchor (suction piles or vertically
loaded anchors), which is loaded vertically. When the platform drifts horizontally with wind or
current, the lines stretch and this sets up an opposing force.
The semi-taut system combines taut lines and catenary lines in one system. It is ideally
used in deep-water.
A spread mooring system is a group of mooring lines distributed over the bow and stern
of the vessel to anchors on the seafloor. The vessel is positioned in a fixed heading, which is
determined by the sea and weather conditions. The symmetrical arrangement of anchors helps to
keep the ship on its fixed heading location. The spread mooring system does not allow the vessel
to weathervane, which means to rotate in the horizontal plane due to wind, waves or current.
Spread mooring is versatile as it can be used in any water depth, on any vessel, in an equally
spread pattern or a group.
A single point mooring system connects all the lines to a single point. It links subsea
manifolds connections and weathervaning tankers, which are free to rotate 360 degrees. The
single point system includes a buoy, mooring and anchoring elements, product transfer system
and other components.
Dynamic positioning does not use mooring lines. Instead a computer controls the vessel's
thrusters and propellers to maintain position. DP can be used in combination with other mooring
systems to provide additional redundancy.
38
3.21Ty
pes of
off
Shore
Fixed Foundation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Monopile
Tripode
Gravity
Gravity trpode
Jacket
Monopile Foundation:
Monopile foundations are used in
shallow depth applications (0-30 m) and
consist of a pile being driven to varying
depths into the seabed (10-40 m)
depending on the soil conditions. The
pile-driving construction process is an
environmental concern as the noise
produced is incredibly loud and
propagates far in the water, even after
mitigation strategies such as bubble
shields, slow start, and acoustic
cladding. The footprint is relatively
small, but may still cause scouring or
artificial reefs. Transmission lines also
produce an electromagnetic field that may be harmful to some marine organisms.
39
Gravity Foundation
Gravity foundations are used in shallow depth applications (0-30 m) and consist of a large and
heavy base constructed of steel or
concrete to rest on the seabed. The
footprint is relatively large and may
cause scouring, artificial reefs, or
physical destruction of habitat upon
introduction. Transmission lines also
produce an electromagnetic field that
may be harmful to some marine
organisms.
Gravity Tripod
Gravity tripod foundations are used in
transitional depth applications (10-40
m) and consist of two heavy concrete
structures connected by three legs, one
structure sitting on the seabed while
the other is above the water. As of
2013, no offshore wind farms are
currently using this foundation. The
environmental concerns are identical
to those of gravity foundations,
though the scouring effect may be less
significant depending on the design.
40
Floating Structure
Floating structure foundations are used in deep depth applications (40-900 m) and consist of a
balanced floating structure moored to the seabed with fixed cables. The floating structure may be
stabilized using
1. mooring lines
2. ballast
3. buoyancy
The mooring lines may cause minor scouring or a potential for collision. Transmission lines also
produce an electromagnetic field that may be harmful to some marine organisms.
3.22
Jacket structure:
There are many variants of the three or four-legged jacket/lattice structure typically consisting of
corner piles interconnected with bracings with diameters up to 2m. The soil piles are driven
inside the pile sleeves to the required depth to gain adequate stability for the structure. The
tubular joints are welded.
These types of structures are considered well suited
for sites with water depth ranging from 20-50m
according to the DNV. The minimum is 3.5m at the
South Korean offshore wind farm Tamra and the
maximum depth for an operational project is 45m on
the Beatrice Demonstration project. Other projects in
the planning pipeline are suggestion using jackets in
water dephs up to 60-70m but these have yet to be
consented
The transition piece forms the connection between the
main jacket and the tower of the wind turbine. Loads
are transferred through the members mainly in axial
direction. The large base of the jacket structure offers
large resistance to overturning.
The secondary steel includes the work platform,
ladders and stairs, access systems, J-tube, cables, and corrosion protection systems.
3.22.1 Advantages of the jacket structures as:
Low wave loads in comparison to monopiles (the jacket structure is very stiff and the area
facing
the
wave
movement
is
smaller
than
monopiles)
Fabrication expertise is widely available, in part due to Offshore Oil and Gas industry supply
chain
41
higher
maintenance
costs
CHAPTER 4
WIND ENERGY RESOURCE POTENTIAL
Global distribution of annual average onshore wind power potential (W/m2) for 2006
accounting for Spatial limitations on placement without limitations on potential realizable
capacity factors.
Annual
wind
energy potential country by country, restricted to installations with capacity factors >20%
with siting limited.
One of the questions most often asked about wind power is what happens when the wind
doesnt blow. On a local level, this is mainly a question of grid integration, but in the big picture
the wind is a vast untapped resource capable of supplying the worlds electricity needs many
times over. In practical terms, in an optimum, clean energy future, wind will be an important part
of a mix of renewable energy technologies, playing a more dominant role in some regions than in
42
others. However, it is worthwhile to step back for a minute and consider the enormity of the
resource.
Researchers at Stanford Universitys Global Climate and Energy Project recently did an
evaluation of the global potential of wind power, using five years of data from the US National
Climatic Data Center and the Forecasts Systems Laboratory. They estimated that the worlds
wind resources can generate more than enough power to satisfy total global energy demand.
After collecting measurements from 7,500 surface and 500 balloon-launch monitoring stations to
determine global wind speeds at 80 meters above ground level, they found that nearly 13% had
an average wind speed above 6.9 meters per second , sufficient for economical wind power
generation. Using only 20% of this potential resource for power generation, the report concluded
that wind energy could satisfy the worlds electricity demand in the year 2000 seven times over.
North America was found to have the greatest wind power potential, although some of
the strongest winds were observed in Northern Europe, whilst the southern tip of South America
and the Australian island of Tasmania also recorded significant and sustained strong winds. To be
clear, however, there are extraordinarily large untapped wind resources on all continents, and in
most countries; and while this study included some island observation points, it did not include
offshore resources, which are enormous.
43
For example, looking at the resource potential in the shallow waters on the continental
shelf off the densely populated east coast of the US, from Massachusetts to North Caroline, the
average potential resource was found to be approximately four times the total energy demand in
what is one of the most urbanized, densely populated and highest-electricity consuming regions
of the world.
A study by the German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU), World in
Transition Towards Sustainable Energy Systems (2003) calculated that the global technical
potential for energy production from both onshore and offshore wind installations was 278,000
TWh (Terawatt hours) per year. The report then assumed that only 1015% of this potential
would be realizable in a sustainable fashion, and arrived at a figure of approximately 39,000
TWh supply per year as the contribution from wind energy in the long term, which is more than
double current electricity demand.
The WBGU calculations of the technical potential were based on average values of wind
speeds from meteorological data collected over a 14 year period (19791992). They also
assumed that advanced multi-megawatt wind energy converters would be used. Limitations to
the potential came through excluding all urban areas and natural features such as forests,
wetlands, nature reserves, glaciers and sand dunes. Agriculture, on the other hand, was not
regarded as competition for wind energy in terms of land use.
4.1 OFFSHORE:
Offshore wind power installations are
on track to hit a seventh consecutive
annual record in 2013. Developers
added 1,080 megawatts of generating
capacity in the first half of the year,
expanding the world total by 20
percent in just six months. Fifteen
countries host some 6,500 megawatts
of offshore wind capacity. Before the
year is out, the world total should
exceed 7,100 megawatts. Although
still small compared with the roughly
300,000 megawatts of land-based
wind power, offshore capacity is
growing at close to 40 percent a year.
In 1991, Denmark installed the worlds first offshore wind farm, a 5-megawatt project in
the Baltic Sea. The countrys offshore wind sector has since alternated between lulls and bursts
of activity. Since 2008, Denmarks offshore wind capacity has more than tripled, topping 1,200
44
megawatts by mid-2013. Over 350 megawatts of offshore wind power were plugged into the grid
in the first half of the yearall of it to complete the 400-megawatt Anholt project, which is
expected to meets 4 percent of Danish electricity needs.
Denmark already gets more than 30 percent of its electricity from windonshore and
offshoreand aims to increase that share to 50 percent by 2020. At about one third the size of
New York State, Denmark has the worlds
highest wind power capacity per square
mile, so it will rely mostly on offshore
expansion to hit the 2020 target. Denmark
was first to put wind turbines in the sea,
but today it ranks a distant second to the
United Kingdom in total offshore wind
generating capacity.
More than 500 megawatts of new
offshore wind power went online in U.K.
waters in the first half of 2013, bringing
the countrys grand total to over 3,400
megawattsenough to power more than
2 million U.K. homes. The bulk of this
new offshore capacity went to completing the
630-megawatt first phase of the London Array,
now the worlds largest offshore wind farm. It
overtook another U.K. project, the 500megawatt Greater Gabbard wind farm, which
was finished in 2012. In all, the United
Kingdom has some 12,000 megawatts of
offshore wind capacity under construction or in
earlier development stages. Belgiums offshore
wind capacity grew 20 percent to 450
megawatts in the first half of 2013, placing it
third in the world rankings. Germany reached
380 megawatts of offshore wind and will have at least 520 megawatts by years end.
Beyond this, the German offshore industry expects another 1,000 megawatts will connect to the
grid in both 2014 and 2015. Countries in Asia are starting to make offshore wind power more
than just a European affair. China, for example, brought its first offshore wind farm online in
2010. Since then, China has quickly climbed to fourth in the world, with 390 megawatts.
The official goal is for 5,000 megawatts of wind capacity in Chinese waters by 2015,
ballooning to 30,000 megawatts by 2020. In Japan, where land is at a premium and where the
future of nuclear energy is in question, offshore wind is gaining attention as a potentially huge
45
domestic, carbon-free power source. A 16-megawatt project inaugurated in the first half of 2013
bumped Japans offshore wind capacity to 41 megawatts. Because Japan lacks much shallow
seabed in which to fix standard offshore turbines, new floating turbine technology is likely the
future for offshore wind there. Off the coast of Fukushima prefecture, a 2-megawatt floating
turbine will begin generating electricity in November 2013, the first stage of a 16-megawatt
demonstration project. If it performs well, the hope is to expand the projects capacity to up to
1,000 megawatts by 2020.
Floating turbines may actually be a big part of future offshore wind development at the
global level. Not only do they greatly expand the area available for wind farms, they also have
the potential to dramatically reduce the cost of offshore wind generation, which today is more
than twice as expensive as that from turbines on land. While offshore wind manufacturers have
managed to achieve cost reductions for the turbines themselvesthrough lighter, stronger
materials and increased efficiency, for examplethese savings have thus far been offset by the
rising cost of installing and maintaining turbines fixed to the seabed as projects move into deeper
waters.
The renewable energy consultancy GL Garrad Hassan notes that working around harsh
weather becomes much easier with floating turbines: when conditions are favorable, relatively
cheap tugboats can bring a turbine to the project site for quick installation, avoiding the need for
specialized installation vessels.
The turbine developer, Deep Cwind, a consortium led by the University of Maine, plans
to deploy two much larger versions, 6 megawatts each, in 2016. The first full-fledged offshore
wind farm in the United States, though, will likely be of the traditional variety fixed to a
foundation in the seabed. Three proposalsMassachusetts 470-megawatt Cape Wind project,
Rhode Islands 30-megawatt Block Island Wind Farm, and New Jerseys 25-megawatt
Fishermans Energy I projectare the closest to beginning construction. U.S. offshore winds
potential is staggering.
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, shallow waters along the eastern seaboard
could host 530,000 megawatts of wind power, capable of covering more than 40 percent of
current U.S. electricity generation. Adding in deeper waters and the other U.S. coastal regions
boosts the potential to more than 4.1 million megawatts. This is consistent with the findings of
a 2009 Harvard study that calculated wind energy potential worldwide.
The authors estimated that in most of the worlds leading carbon dioxide-emitting
countries, available wind resources could easily meet national electricity needs. In fact, offshore
wind alone would be sufficient. Clearly, the world has barely begun to realize its offshore
potential. Indeed, in some countries, regulatory and policy uncertainty seem to be sapping
offshore winds momentum just as it really gets going, clouding the picture for future
development.
46
The U.K. government, concerned about costs, recently changed its target date for 18,000
megawatts of offshore wind from 2020 to 2030. In Germany, turbine orders are scarce as
developers await the new coalition governments plans for regulations and incentives. And in
China, offshore wind companies say the guaranteed price for the electricity they generate is set
too low to stimulate rapid growth, calling into question whether the country can hit its ambitious
goals for 2015 and 2020.
Reflecting the hazy outlook in these and other key countries, projections for global
offshore wind capacity over the next decade or sofrom research and consulting firms and from
industry publicationsrange anywhere from 37,000 to 130,000 megawatts. Despite the
impressive growth of recent years, it seems that the lower end of these forecasts is much more
likely. We know there is practically no limit to the available resource. What remains to be seen is
how quickly the world will harness it and give offshore wind power a more prominent place in
the new energy economy.
Coun
t.
1
Wind Farm
Greater
Gabbard
Bird OffShore 1
Anholt
3
4
London Array
Total
(MW)
630
Location
UK
504
UK
400
400
Germany
Denmark
Commissionin
g Date
2012
2012
2013
2013
47
Walney Phases
1&2
376.2
UK
Thorntonebank
Phases(1-3)
235
Belgium
315
UK
Sheringham
shoal
Thanet
300
UK
9
10
Lincs
Horns Rev 2
270
209.3
UK
Denmark
11
Rodsand 2
207
Denmark
12
13
201
194
China
UK
14
Chenjiagang
Lynn & Inner
Dowsing
Robin Rigg
180
UK
15
Gunfleet Sands
172
UK
16
17
Nysted
Bligh Bank
166
165
Denmark
Belgium
18
Horns Rev 1
160
Denmark
19
20
Ormonde
Longyuan
Rudong
Intertidal
Demonstration
150
150
UK
China
21
Princess Amalia
120
22
Donghai Bridge
110.6
Netherlan
ds
China
23
Lillgrund
110
Sweden
120
102
SIEMENS SWT3.6-107
6 REPOWER 5MW,
48 REPOWER 6.15
MW
88 SIEMENS 3.6107
100 VESTAS V903MW
75 3.6MW
91 SIEMENS 2.393
90 SIEMENS 2.393
134 1.5MW
54 SIEMENS 3.6107
60 VESTAS V903MW
48 SIEMENS 3.6107
72 SIEMENS 2.3
55 VESTAS V903MW
80 VESTAS V802MW
30 RE POWER 5M
21 SIEMENS 2.393;
20
GOLDWIND 2.5M
W
17 SINOVEL 3W
2 CSIC HZ 5.0154 PROTOTYPE
60 VESTAS V802MW
34
SINOVEL SL3000/
90
1 SINOVEL SL
5000
1 S HANGHAI
E LECTRIC
W3600/116
48 SIEMENS 2.393
2011(phase 1)
2012(phase 2)
2009(P1)
2012(P2)
2013(P3)
2012
2012
2013
2009
2010
2010
2008
2010
2010
2003
2010
2002
2012
2011
2012
2008
2010
2011
2007
48
24
Egmond aan
Zee
108
Netherlan
d
36 VESTAS V903MW
2006
25
Borkum Riffgat
108
Germany
30 SIEMENS 3.6MW
2014
Count.
Wind
Farm
Production
Total
Production
Country
Turbine
Model
HORNS
R EV 1
676
5877
DENMAR
NYSTED
1
575
HORNS
R EV 2
956
80
2002
VESTAS
V80
2.0
MW
72
2003
BONUS 2.3
MW
91
2009
X S IEMENS
2.3 MW
5097
DENMAR
K
2959
DENMAR
K
Official
Start
49
CHAPTER 5
CHALLENGE AND CONSIDERATION FOR OFFSHORE WIND INCLUDE
5.1 Costs:
The installed cost of an offshore wind plant can be 50 to 100 percent higher than an equivalent
onshore plant. Offshore costs are much more dependent on site-specific factors than land-based
projects. Access to financing is typically more difficult due to the higher perceived investment
risk.
Economics plays a critical role when assessing the overall feasibility of offshore wind energy.
This chapter identifies the major cost variables comprising a wind project investment and
estimates the cost of energy derived from a hypothetical ocean-based project in New Jersey.
Financial incentives for wind development are also discussed.
which the transmission cable would be fed, to eliminate the need for surface disturbance of the
dune and beach areas. Once onshore the transmission cable would proceed to the interconnection
point via direct burial, conduit, or aerially as conditions dictate.
5.3.2 Interconnection Requirements:
To be economically feasible, offshore wind projects generally need to be large in terms of both
the number of turbines and total installed capacity (> 100 MW). The thermal capability of
existing lines must therefore be sufficient to deliver the power from an offshore wind project to
the utilitys load centers. The thermal capability of transmission lines rated at 138 kV and higher
meet this requirement. Lower voltage lines (69 kV and below) would need to be upgraded to at
least 138 kV in order to inject large amounts of wind generation from a single offshore location
into the existing bulk power system. 26 Other factors affecting the choice of potential injection
points include landfall locations that offer a low-impact route for marine cable, the lack of
transmission congestion or the need for costly upgrades, and substation capacity.
5.3.3 Availability, Reliability and Access
High availability is crucial for the economics of any wind farm. This depends primarily on high
system reliability and adequate maintenance capability, with both being achieved within
economic constraints on capital and operational costs.
Key issues to be addressed for good economics of an offshore wind farm are:
5.3.4 Minimization of maintenance requirements; and Maximization of access feasibility.
The dilemma for the designer is how best to trade the cost of minimizing maintenance by
increasing reliability - often at added cost in redundant systems or greater design margins against the cost systems for facilitating and increasing maintenance capability. Previous studies
within the EU research programmers, such as OptiOWECS, have considered a range of strategies
from zero maintenance (abandonment of faulty offshore turbines) to highly facilitated
maintenance.
Access is critical as, in spite of the direct cost of component or system replacement in the
difficult offshore conditions, lost production is often the greatest cost penalty of a wind turbine
fault. For that reason much attention is given to access. Related to the means of access is the
feasibility of various types of maintenance activities and the need or not for support systems
(cranes and so on) and other provisions in the wind turbine nacelle systems.
5.5 IMPACT ON NACELLE DESIGN
The impacts of maintenance strategy on nacelle design relate to:
Transformers may be located in the nacelle or inside the tower base. Transformer failures have
occurred in offshore turbines, but it is not clear that there is any fundamental problem with
location either in the nacelle or the tower base.
5.7 IMPORTANCE OF TOWER TOP MASS:
The tower top mass is an important influence on foundation design. In order to achieve an
acceptable natural frequency, greater tower top mass may require higher foundation stiffness,
which could significantly affect the foundation cost for larger machines.
5.8 INTERNAL CRANES:
One option is to have a heavy duty internal crane. Siemens and Vestas have adopted an
alternative concept, which in general consists of a lighter internal winch that can raise a heavy
duty crane brought in by a maintenance vessel. The heavy duty crane may then be hoisted by the
winch and set on crane rails provided in the nacelle. Thus it may be used to lower major
components to a low-level platform for removal by the maintenance vessel.
Critical and difficult decisions remain about which components should be maintained offshore in
the nacelle, which can be accessed, handled and removed to shore for refurbishment or
replacement, and when to draw a line on component maintenance capability and accept that
certain levels of fault will require replacement of a whole nacelle.
5.9 MEANS OF ACCESS
The costs of turbine downtime are such that an effective access system offshore can be relatively
expensive and still be justified.
Source: Windcat Workboats, Unifly
52
Helicopter access to the nacelle top has been provided in some cases. The helicopter cannot land
but can lower personnel. Although having a helipad that would allow a helicopter to land is a
significantly different issue, the ability to land personnel only on the nacelle top of a wind
turbine has very little impact on nacelle design. Although adopted for the Horns Rev offshore
wind farm, helicopter access is probably too expensive as a routine method of transporting
personnel to and from offshore wind turbines, assuming current project sizes and distance from
shore. However, as projects grow in size and go further offshore, this will be a credible option.
5.10
ACCESS FREQUENCY:
At Horns Rev, which is the first major offshore wind farm in the North Sea, a vast number of
worker transfers have taken place since construction, and this is a concern for the health and
safety of personnel. It is expected (and essential) that the required number of transfers for the
establishment and commissioning of offshore wind plant will reduce as experience is gained.
5.11 ACCESS IMPEDIMENTS
In the Baltic Sea especially, extensive icing occasionally takes place in some winters. This
changes the issues regarding access, which may be over the ice if it is frozen solid or may use
icebreaking ships. Also, the ice in general is in motion and may be quite unstable. Lighthouses
have been uprooted from their foundations and moved by pack ice. The wind turbine foundation
design used by Bonus in the Middelgrunden offshore wind farm, situated in shallow water
between Denmark and Sweden, provides for a section at water level with a bulbous shape. This
assists in ice breaking and easing the flow of ice around the wind turbine, thereby reducing loads
that would tend to move the whole foundation.
53
54
There are multiple smaller installations in a wind farm and no permanent (shift based) manning,
nor the infrastructure that would necessarily justify helicopter use; and
Cost of energy rules wind technology, whereas maintenance of production is much more
important than access costs for oil and gas.
Thus, although the basis of solutions exists in established technology, it is not the case that the
existing offshore industry already possesses off-the-shelf solutions for wind farm construction
and maintenance. This is evident in the attention being given to improved systems for access,
including the development of special craft.
5.14 CONCLUSIONS REGARDING ACCESS ISSUES
There appears to be a clear consensus on offshore wind turbine access emerging for current
generation sites. Purpose-built aluminum catamaran workboats are currently in use for the
several wind farms. Catamarans generally provide safe access in sea conditions with a
maximum significant wave height up to 1.5m. On occasion this figure has been exceeded by
skippers experienced in offshore wind transfers on a particular site.
In most current projects the standard boat and ladder access principle is practicable for
approximately 50-80 per cent of the available service time, depending on the site. However
when this accessibility figure is considered in concert with the overall wind farm availability
equation, there is scope for improvement. The main reason for improvement is that winter
accessibility rates are typically much worse than for the summer period. This is compounded
with a higher likelihood of turbine failures in winter and also higher winds, hence higher levels
of production loss.
With some effort this accessibility figure can be improved markedly - that is to say, where access
can be made possible in significant wave heights of between 1.5m and 2.0m. Providing access
above 2.0m becomes an economically and technically challenging decision. It is likely that
significant expenditure and technical resources would be necessary to gain modest incremental
improvements in access rates above the 2.5m significant wave threshold.
Projects soon to come online and those planned for the next decade may have a new driver
distance to shore. For these, transit times by vessel become impractical for day-workers, and in
these cases solutions using helicopters or offshore accommodation platforms (or vessels) will
come to the fore.
5.16 Noise
Offshore wind turbines can and do propagate noise through the air and surrounding water. the
underwater noise propagation of an operating wind park is a function of seabed conditions,
foundation type, turbine design and other factors. The results of these studies and reports are
forming a base for the evaluation of noise on marine wildlife and the nearest land residents.
55
CHAPTER 6
56
FUTURE CONCEPTS
such
as
Mark Moore, aerospace engineer at NASA, outlined this research as a study to look at the
practicalities of the idea of air-borne turbines. To know the challenges that will be faced when
turbines are working at 30,000 feet above ground level and what the effect will be on airspace
and unmanned aircraft is what the project is aiming to uncover.
A prototype planned by Italian startup TWIND has a pair of balloons at 2,600 feet. The
open sails move antagonistically so while one moves
downwind the other moves upwind. This movement
spins a turbine to generate power. The option of
offshore flying wind turbines is also being explored to
solve the airspace competition issue.
57
At higher altitudes, wind has more power and velocity and is more consistently
predictable. As power generated goes up because of higher wind resistance proportional to the
cube of relative velocity, more power can be generated. That works out to be some 8 27 times
the power produced at ground level. The tethers can haul in the kites/balloons housing the
turbines during storms or for general maintenance work. Less pollution is an advantage, as well
as the fact that it will not take up much precious ground space for installation.
rough idea of the flow conditions over the blade surfaces from surface measurement. This helps
them implement real-time actuation on the blades. In this way, not only the efficiency of wind
turbine system is increased but the airflow can also be managed.
Advantages of new systems to optimize the efficiency of wind turbines and their blades
New developments that are being worked out to make wind turbines and blades more
efficient
The overall working scope of the wind turbine can be enlarged by using the flow control
on the outboard side of the blade beyond the half radius. Attempts are being made to
increase the rated output power without increasing the level of operating range.
An anechoic chamber is being set-up to measure and define the effects of flow control on
the noise spectrum of the wind turbine.
To know the airfoil lift and drag characteristics with suitable flow control while exposed
to large-scale flow unsteadiness, efforts are being made to characterize airfoil in an
anechoic wind tunnel facility at Syracuse University.
Scientists are also trying to attain a greater efficiency by placing blades at various angles
through wind tunnel tests of 2.5 megawatt turbine airfoil surfaces and computer
simulations.
riblets to increase wind turbine efficiency by 3 percent is being worked upon by Roger Arndt,
Leonardo P. Chamorro and Fotis Sotiropoulos from University of Minnesota.
As the world discovers new ways to meet its growing energy needs,
energy generated from Sun, which is better known as solar power and
energy generated from wind called the wind power are being considered as a
means of generating power. Though these two sources of energy
have attracted the scientists for a very long time, they are not able to
decide, which of the two is a better source to generate power. Now
scientists are looking at a third option as well. Scientists at Washington
State University have now combined solar power and wind power to
produce enormous energy called the solar wind power, which will
satisfy all energy requirements of human kind.
The scientists say that whereas the entire energy generated from solar wind will not be
able to reach the planet for consumption as a lot of energy generated by the satellite has
to be pumped back to copper wire to create the electron-harvesting magnetic field, yet the
amount that reaches earth is more than sufficient to fulfill the needs of entire human,
irrespective of the environment condition.
Moreover, the team of scientists at Washington State University hopes that it can generate
1 billion billion gigawatts of power by using a massive 8,400-kilometer-wide solar sail to
harvest the power in solar wind.
According to the team at Washington State University, 1000 homes can be lit by
generating enough power for them with the help of 300 meters (984 feet) of copper wire,
which is attached to a two-meter-wide (6.6-foot-wide) receiver and a 10-meter (32.8-foot)
sail.
One billion gigawatts of power could also be generated by a satellite having 1,000-meter
(3,280-foot) cable with a sail 8,400 kilometers (5,220 miles) across, which are placed at
roughly the same orbit.
The scientists feel that if some of the practical issued are solved, Solar wind power will
generate the amount of power that no one including the scientists working to find new
means of generating power ever expected.
But despite the fact that Solar wind power will solve almost all the problems that we were to
face in future due to power generating resources getting exhausted, it has some disadvantages as
well. These may include:
Brooks Harrop, the co-author of the journal paper says that while scientists are keen to
tap solar wind to generate power, they also need to keep provisions for engineering
difficulties and these engineering difficulties will have to be solved before satellites to tap
solar wind power are deployed.
The distance between the satellite and earth will be so huge that as the laser beam travels
millions of miles, it makes even the tightest laser beam spread out and lose most of the
energy. To solve this problem, a more focused laser is needed.
But even if these laser beams reach our satellites, it is very doubtful that our satellites in
their present form will be able to tap them. As Greg Howes, a scientist at the University
of Iowa puts it, The energy is there but to tap that energy from solar wind, we require
big satellites. There may be practical constraints in this.
Farm partners:
This wind farm project is resulting from a partnership between Lake Erie Energy
Development Corporation (LEEDCo) of Northern Ohio and General Electric Co.(NYSE:GE).
Costing US $100 million, this project will light up 16,000 homes. General Electric (GE) has been
asked to supply the 5 turbines for this project. This project can be the harbinger of good times of
GE along with another $300 million Saudi contract in the times of overall financial setback.
Perfect balance:
62
63
methods
of
Wind Turbine
traditional
outlet. If
movement
Another plus attached to this wind turbine is that it wont cost a heaven
when you get its power. According to manufacturers this turbine is expected to deliver power at a
cost at par with the coal-fired power plants. If you want to probe deeper, its good news that total
operating costs over the lifetime of the unit are expected to be about $0.12/kWh.
If we take the maintenance angle it wont cause much headache because its a bladeless
turbine. The turbine maintenance requirements are not colossal and it would result in lower
lifetime operating costs. The turbine is mainly supported on magnetic bearings. Another
advantage is all of the generating equipments are kept at ground level. This will lead towards
64
easy maintenance of equipments. The company comes out with encouraging figures and
proclaims final costs will be about $1.50/watt rated output, or roughly 2/3 the cost of
comparable bladed units.
If we take a look at the Tesla turbine patented in 1913, it operates using the viscous flow
of a fluid to move the turbine and as a result generates energy. The Tesla turbine has a set of
smooth disks fitted with nozzles that send out a moving gas to the edge of the disk. The gases
drag on the disk by following the principle of viscosity and the adhesion of the surface layer of
the gas. As the gas slows and adds force to the disks, it twirls in to the center exhaust. Because
the rotor has no projections, it is very strong and sturdy. One has to be careful about the disk
space because disks in the turbine need to be closely spaced so that they can trap the viscous
flow. The Tesla turbine has extremely thin disks to reduce turbulence at the edges and that makes
them effective. In 1913, Tesla was unable to find metals of adequate quality to make this work
effectively. But now almost a century later, those limitations have been surmounted.
Solar Aeros current prototype is a modest trailer-mounted unit. But inventor says that
their other models should be capable of 10kW output with no problem. If this technology takes
off smoothly it would remove many hurdles attached with conventional wind turbines and more
environments friendly.
6.8 Jet Engines the Inspiration for New Wind Power Technology
Wind power has recently received a nice boost as one of the hottest forms of energy on
the market. When comparing the recent market growth
against all forms of energy, both renewables and nonrenewables, wind turbines seem to be jumping to the
head of the pack. While it still has a way to go before it
catches up to solar, it is gaining ground rather quickly.
Something that will help pick up the pace even further
is new technology that is coming from FloDesign. Their
truly unique wind turbine is actually based on the
design of a jet engine instead of the traditional
windmills that we see all across the country. Their
concept seems to be a simple one, but it extremely
effective.
The design concept is based on capturing the
wind through a small hole that powers a turbine that
looks almost identical to a jet engine. They claim that
the design makes the turbine as much as 4 times as
effective as the current turbines that are being used.
Judging by the $34.5 million financing that they have just received, it would seem that they have
convinced more than one person that this is the real deal.
65
Along with being more efficient, it is also less expensive. This is a rather large
development as wind energy was already growing in acceptance and following and with this turn
of events, it could really start to gain some momentum. Proof of this is the $8.3 million grant that
was awarded to the company from the US Dept of Energy.
FloDesign has a very hot product on their hands right now. More efficient, less cost and
more of them can occupy the same space that the traditional design was capable of occupying. If
this design is launched and experiences success, the energy world will literally change right
before our eyes.
The swirling kites prompt KiteGens core in motion, and the rotation activates large
alternators producing a current. They also have a control system on autopilot. This control
system manipulates the flight pattern so that maximum power can be generated be it night or day.
The KiteGen people are concerned with the environment too. They dont want the lives of birds
to be affected by their flying kites. So they have installed the advanced radar system that can
redirect kites within seconds in case they detect flying of birds.
The cost of the technology is US$750,000 and it wont takes acres and acres of space like
a wind farm. You can install the whole machinery within a diameter of just 100 meters. KiteGen
claim that they can produce half a GW of energy, and produce it at a cost of US$2.5 per GW. Its
creators, Sequoia Automation, say a 2,000 meter-version would generate 5GW of power.
6.10 Wind Turbine Power Goes Portable with Foldable Wind Generator
Renewable energy is one of the hottest things on the market right now but until recently,
solar power has been getting most of the attention. While there are plenty of techno gadgets, like
solar briefcases and solar laptop chargers, that can have solar power on the run, very few if any
items exist for other sources of renewable energy to become portable. The foldable wind
generator has all the right ideas, but may still be just a bit ahead of its time.
The Eolic is a very interesting design, but it is very questionable
as to whether or
not their foldable wind generator is capable of doing the job that it is there
for. The Eolic
looks great and is an incredible idea, but can it actually create enough
energy to
power anything and is it durable enough to actually hold its ground in a
wind strong enough to create electricity? At this point, it is probably nothing
more than wishful thinking.
The designers concepts behind the foldable wind generator are to be
supply power on the go in areas that do not have access to electricity.
was the beginning of a construction project or a community that lacked
these portable units could be put up to supply the necessary power to that
area. As we see it, the thing that makes this item so appealing is probably its
link.
able
to
Whether it
electricity,
specific
weakest
constant renewable energy on the go. That would be a two-pack that people would surely stand
in line for.
6.11 Energy Grid Could Make Offshore Wind Power More Reliable
Scientists believe that natural resources can meet the energy needs of the entire human
population. Wind energy too has huge potential to generate power for us. Researchers are trying
to trap offshore wind power. But there are still many hiccups that are preventing us from utilizing
natural resources for our needs. Wind turbines produce intermittent power because the direction
and strength of the wind varies. Scientists are trying to generate more or less consistent power
from offshore winds.
The researchers are focusing their efforts on more consistent offshore wind power supply.
They are of the view that production of energy can be more consistent if project locations can be
chosen by observing regional weather patterns. They are also proposing to connect the wind
power generators with a shared power line. The
fund was provided by the Delaware Sea Grant
College Program and CAPES, a Brazilian research
council.
Researchers from the University of
Delaware and Stony Brook University are trying to
generate a steady power supply from offshore
winds. They have published their work in the
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
The members of the research team are UD alumnus
Felipe Pimenta, UD research faculty member Dana
Veron, and Brian Colle, associate professor in the
School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences at
Stony Brook University. Willett Kempton is the
UD professor of marine policy in the College of
Earth, Ocean, and Environment and director of its
Center for Carbon-free Power Integration. Willett
Kempton the lead author of the paper, says,
Making wind-generated electricity more steady
will enable wind power to become a much larger
fraction of our electric sources. The research team presented various designs of how offshore
wind power projects can reduce the nuisances of local weather on power fluctuations.
The researchers analyzed five years of wind observations from 11 monitoring stations
along the U.S. East Coast from Florida to Maine. Based on wind speeds at each location, they
estimated electrical power output from a hypothetical five-megawatt offshore turbine. After
analyzing the patterns of wind energy among the stations along the coast, the team explored the
seasonal effects on power output. Kempton talks about his work, Our analysis shows that when
transmission systems will carry power from renewable sources, such as wind, they should be
designed to consider large-scale meteorology, including the prevailing movement of high- and
low-pressure systems.
68
Scientists are working on this project for the last five years. They have never found the
power output of their simulated grid to come to a standstill in this time period. The researchers
created their own hypothetical power generation site. They showed power fluctuations too like
any wind based powerhouse. But when they simulated a power line connecting grids, they
received a steady power supply without extremes. Until now the USA doesnt have any offshore
energy plants. But many are in the pipeline waiting to be implemented off the coasts of many
Atlantic states. These proposed projects can take help in the selection of sites. Colle talks about
the ideal configuration. north-south transmission geometry fits nicely with the storm track that
shifts northward or southward along the U.S. East Coast on a weekly or seasonal time scale, he
said. Because then at any one time a high or low pressure system is likely to be producing wind
(and thus power) somewhere along the coast.
every kilowatt-hour of energy that is shifted from on-peak usage to off-peak, there is a decrease
in the source fuel needed to generate it. This reduction can be between 8 and 30%.
such as season, temperature variation, pressure variation etc. So accurate forecast of wind speed
is not easy. But when wind farms are contributing considerably in the energy mix of the grid then
it becomes necessary to know that how much power will be produced by the wind farm. They
have to behave like conventional power generator units. These forecasts are used to schedule the
operations of other plants, and are also used for trading purposes.
How this neural network was developed? Researchers have taken the help from Global
Forecasting System from the US National Centers for Environmental Prediction. They provide
the data of entire planet earth with a resolution of approximately 100 kilometres. The best thing
is one can access all the data for free on the Internet. But researchers went a step further and for
more detailed predictions they integrated the fifth generation mesoscale model (MM5), from
the US National Center of Atmospheric Research. It has a resolution of 1515 kilometres.
Sancho Salcedo, an engineer at the Escuela Politcnica Superior and co-author of the
study, published online in the journal Renewable Energy explained, This information is still not
enough to predict the wind speed of one particular aerogenerador, which is why we applied
artificial neural networks. These neural networks are automatic information learning and
processing systems. While doing their work the neural networks imitate the mechanisms of
animal nervous systems. Neural networks utilize the temperature, atmospheric pressure and wind
speed data already fed to them by forecasting models and data collected from the aerogenerators.
All these data are used to acclimatize the systems so that they can predict the wind speed in the
time range of one and forty eight hours. Wind farms are bound by law to provide these forecasts
to Red Elctrica Espaola, the company that delivers electricity and runs the Spanish electricity
system.
Salcedo states that the method can be applied immediately: If the wind speed of one
aerogenerator can be predicted, then we can estimate how much energy it will produce.
Therefore, by summing the predictions for each aero, we can forecast the production of an
entire wind farm. They have already applied this method at the wind farm in Fuentasanta, in
Albacete. The trial was very successful.
This neural network for wind speed forecasting can save millions of Euros. They have
detected an improvement of 2% in predictions as compared to the existing models. But this
improvement is really significant if we see it in totality because it will lead to the amount of
energy production that can save millions of euros. Scientists are trying to improve the method.
They want to incorporate several global forecasting models that will result in several sets of
observations. These observations will be applied to banks of neural networks to achieve a more
accurate prediction of aerogenerator wind speeds. It will naturally lead to more accurate
forecasting of wind speed.
foresee the near future a bit and try to prepare himself /herself for the impending battle raising
from the horizons of the past. He or she wont start
digging a well
when the thirst strikes. Most of us want to do
something about this and contribute positively to
make this earth a better place to live. But we are most
of the time clueless. We dont know from where to
begin? Where we can find relevant information? If
we are able to track down information then how to
process it for our own and communitys good?
If you empathize with above-mentioned
feeling you can take the help of the renewable
maps introduced by the Natural Resources Defense
Council (NRDC). Nathanael Greene, who is the director of renewable energy policy at NRDC,
explains enthusiastically, You can find your county on the appropriate map, select the different
map layers to see current renewable energy sites and resource potential, and then read about the
latest technologies to see what mix of energy opportunities might work for you and your
community.
You can find detailed information about the alternative energy scene about Florida, Ohio,
Nebraska, Pennsylvania and Tennessee. NRDC considers these states as key battlegrounds in
the alternative energy scenario. They are trying to include statistics of other states in near future
soon. The Natural Resources Defense Council has introduced maps showing the correlation
between natural resources (sunlight, wind, crops and livestock) and the renewable energy
potential that can be trapped from a particular area.
The map on NRDCs Renewable Energy for America site colors the different regions of
the country differently, according to regional resources and shows the sites of existing and
planned wind, biofuel and biodigester plants. If you want to know about the energy mix of any
state, the information is just a mouse click away. If you feel lost in the vast states of the country
and want to view the stats of a particular area enter the zip code.
Nathanael Greene wrote on his blog about the objective of introducing such idea, We
definitely plan to use the site as a tool for getting people excited about what they can do in their
state with renewables.
Right now the map on NRDCs Renewable Energy for America site is still in the process
of development. NRDC is gearing up to add data on solar, geothermal power projects and
potential in the other fields in the coming months. They are updating state-by-state features
continuously. Soon you will be able to view data of states like Michigan, Missouri, Indiana,
Virginia and Nevada too. NRDC has gathered much of its data for the new map from the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. They are collecting data on solar energy for decades.
Other maps and online tools highlight energy efficiency data too. The Green Grid, an industry
group formed to encourage energy efficiency in data centers, has online tools, including a map,
to show which parts of the country hold the greatest potential for using outside air to cool data
centers (see Green Grid: Free Cooling for Data Centers).
This map service is not for investors or research purposes only. Everyone, be it a farmer,
politician, financier or a scholar, can benefit from it. This site (http://www.nrdc.org/renewables/)
73
can help you in taking a decision that from various energy options (solar, wind, geothermal,
biomass or anaerobic digesters) which one will best suit you or your community. You can watch
the current and proposed renewable energy projects in your area; get yourself acquainted with
new technology and legislations debated by the politicians and arrive at the right decision you a
right kind of energy mix for yourself or your area.
The objective of such a step is to be self-reliant and use local resources for ones energy
need. They have conviction that local action can make a difference. Ideal renewable energy mix
technology will help in improving the environment, less dependence on fossil fuel, create
employment opportunities during the time of recession and outsourcing and protect natural
resources of the country.
turbine suppliers. Nippi should give the country a leg up in overcoming that last hurdle as the
aerospace company aims to take wind power in Japan to new heights.
if there
A
power
of
their
75
CHAPTER 7
ASSESSMENT OF WIND POWER POTENTIAL FOR COASTAL AREAS OF
PAKISTAN
Introduction
There is rising need for alternate and renewable sources of energy, especially in developing
countries,
Whose progress and economic growth may strongly be indexed to its development. With the ever
increasing growth in energy consumption and rapidly depleting fossil fuel reserves, it is feared
the world will soon exhaust its fossil fuel reserves.
Pakistan is an energy deficient country and each year spends a large amount of its foreign
exchange to
import oil, to meet its energy requirements [1]. Thus the need to develop alternate energy
resources has
become inevitable. The oldest and most widely used renewable energy resources are solar and
wind, which have shown prospects and potential for efficient utilization. In the recent past, wind
energy has emerged as clean, abundant, affordable, inexhaustible and environmentally benign
source of energy. This is getting worldwide attention with the development and availability of
inexpensive technology that allow its easy conversion into useful energy [2, 3].
Wind energy has the advantage that it can be utilized independently, and deployed locally in rural
and remote areas. Thus the location far away from the main grid finds wind suitable for
generating electricity and pumping water for irrigation purpose [4]. Unfortunately, at present
there is no share of wind energy in the energy mix of Pakistan, whereas countries like Germany,
United States, India and China have successfully setup wind energy sources.
Coastal areas and mountains with high wind potential are considered most suitable for wind
energy utilization. Therefore this study aims in investigating the prospects of harnessing and
useful conversion of wind energy potential for the coastal area of Pakistan.
The coast of Pakistan is about 1,120 kilometer long and has a population of about 10 million
people [5].
It is very expensive to connect small villages to
the national electric grid because of the huge
infrastructure costs involved. According to the
experts,
WAPDA
(Water
and
Power
Development Authority, Pakistan) does not have
enough electricity to supply them. The only way
many in the coastal areas can be supplied is
through the use of wind power, because high
wind is always available nearly all year round in
these areas. [5]
Table 1 lists the geographic locations involved this study; and Table 2 gives the monthly mean,
maximum, minimum and annual wind speeds.
76
Table 2. Monthly mean, maximum, minimum and annual wind speed for coastal locations of
Pakistan. in m/sec
This study gives a preliminary investigation of the potential of wind power generation employing
wind speed data of six years (1995-2000) for selected coastal areas of Pakistan. The maximum
available and extractable wind power is also calculated employing different blade diameters for
slow and fast wind machines.
To test the power generation feasibility, two test aero generators are considered: one having
Vci = 2.5 msec1
and
Vr = 5.3 msec1;
the other having
Vci = 3.5 m_sec1 and Vr = 8.5.
Parameters Vci and Vr are the cut-in speed and rated speed of the wind machine, respectively
77
(1)
where V (h )is the wind speed at height h, and V10 is the wind speed at 10 m height and is the
Hellmann exponent. For flat and open areas, = 1/7. The available power in the wind per unit
area at any wind
speed may be estimated as [7]
P = 1/2V3
(2)
where is the air density, which was assumed to be 1.225 Kgm3and V3 is monthly mean wind
speed in
msec1. This available power cannot be totally extracted by any wind machine. The maximum
extractable power from any wind machine is limited by the Betz relation [8], which assigns the
power coefficient
C = 16/27
for the maximum performance of a wind machine.
Maximum extractable power per meter is given as
Pmax = 1/2CpV3 Wm2
(3)
78
Figures 1 and 2 gives the power curve for 4 KW and 20 KW aero-generators, where the rated
wind speed has been estimated using the expression [16]
Vci = (0.15)1/3 Vr
(9)
Here Vci is the cut-in and Vr is rated wind speed of the machine. The rated wind speed for a 4
KW wind machine is 5.3 msec1 and for 20 KW wind machine it is 8.5 msec1. While the cutin speed Vci of these machines are 2.5 msec1, 3.5 msec1, respectively [16]. The generator
will not generate power below Vci and wind machine output will be constant at the rated speed.
Shown in Figure 3 is the variation of mean monthly wind speed for the selected coastal areas:
Karachi, Ormara, Jivani & Pasni. For Karachi the wind speed is lower during the period
November, December and January. It is higher during monsoon months, i.e. June, July, August
and September. The maximum value of 5.9 msec1 is recorded in June.
80
81
The wind speed pattern for Karachi and Ormara is nearly identical. It is observed that the wind
speed at Jivani is higher during the period of March to August, when it ranges from 5.3 msec1
to 6 msec1; and at Pasni the peak months are April, May and June [17] as these months show
the maximum wind speed of
8.5 msec1 whereas annual average is 6.3 msec1 and the lowest observed value is 3.9 msec1.
The coastal areas exhibit strong variations during their seasonal cycle: the wind speed being
lower during September to January, and high from February to August. This trend is peculiar for
the coastal locations as also shown by Rehman [18] and Ramachandra et al. [4] for coast of
Saudi Arabia and Southern India. The annual wind speed pattern is shown in Figure 4. Among
annual averages, Pasni shows higher value of wind speed, and thus can be rated a better choice
for wind energy utilization in comparison to other coastal sites such as Ormara, Jivani and
Karachi. Table 5 shows the shape and parameters k and c for these stations under study, whereas
Figure (5) shows the monthly variation of k for all these coastal stations. From figure it is
apparent that for Karachi, Ormara and Pasni the shape factor k does not remain stable throughout
the year. The fluctuation is high. For Karachi, the minimum k is 3.1 in the month of January and
maximum value is 17.4 for August. For Ormara the minimum is 2.2 in December and the
maximum is 8.4 in June, while for Pasni minimum is 6.7 in March and maximum is 12.6 in June.
For Jivani the wind speed remains smooth throughout the year. The minimum k is 2.6 in March
and maximum is 4.6 in April. From Figures (6) and (7) It is observed that a 4 KW wind machine
can work efficiently for all the coastal stations whereas
20 KW wind machine will only be useful for Pasni and Jivani since the wind speed for Karachi
and Ormara is below the cut-in speed of the machine.
82
83
84
7.3.2 Conclusion
Start here next from the assessment of wind power potential for four coastal locations of Sindh
and
Baluchistan (Karachi, Ormara, Jivani and Pasni) it is observed that the annual wind speed pattern
in
Karachi is same (though on the lower side); and Pasni and Jivani are observed to have the higher
wind speeds. The expected power output of slow and fast wind machines is also higher for these
stations.
Although a 4 KW wind generator can be used efficiently throughout the year for all locations,
there is a limitation for the use of 20 KW generators. This generator can only be used for Pasni
and Jivani, as it requires high wind speed for operation. In the final conclusion, Pasni and Jivani
are recommended as the most prospective sites for use with a 4 KW and 20 KW wind machines.
The locations of Karachi and
Ormara can utilize wind power throughout the year using 4 KW wind machines only.
Utilization of wind energy potential for the coastal sites to optimal conversion, using proper wind
machine will be beneficial and economically feasible for water lifting and small scale power
generation.
7.4 Acknowledgement
The Authors are thankful to Pakistan Meteorological Department, Karachi Office, for providing
wind data for coastal areas.
85
7.5 References
[1] Pakistan Energy Year Book, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resources, Hydrocarbon
Development Institute of Pakistan, (Govt. of Pakistan. 2004).
[2] W. E Alnaser and A. Al. Karaglisuli, Renewable Energy, 21, (2000), 247.
[3] W. E Alnaser, Renewable Energy, 3(2/3), (1993), 185.
[4] T. V. Ramachandra, D.K. Subramanium and N.V.Joshi, Renewable Energy, 2, (1997), 585.
[5] J. A. Khan, Rehber Publisher, The Climate of Pakistan, (Pakistan. 1993).
[6]
P.
J.
Musgrove,
Solar
and
Wind
Technology,
4,
(1987),
37.
[7]
M.
Rizk,
Solar
and
Wind
Technology,
4,
(1987),
491.
[8] A. Betz, Windenergie und Ihre Anwendung Durch Wind Muhler Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht,
(Gottingen. 1942).
[9] Wentink, Final Report, (1976), Report no.
NSF/RANN /SE/AER 74-0039 /R-76/1, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska.
[10] B. Justus, W. R. Hangraves and A. Yaleen, J. Appl. Meteor., 15, (1976), 673.
[11] F. I. Peterson, I. Frocus, S. Frandsen and K. Hedyard., Wind Atlas for Denmark, RISO,
(Denmark. 1981).
[12] Sha_qur Rehman, T. O. Halwani and Tahir Hussain, Solar Energy, 53, 6, (1994), 473.
[13] M. J. Stevens and P. T. Smulders, Wind Engg., 3, (1979), 132.
[14] J. P Hennessey, Wind Engg., 2, (1978), 156.
[15] Dessire LE, Gouries Wind Power Plant, Theory & Design, (Pergamon Press, New York,
U.S.A. 1982), p. 47.
[16] M. M. Pandey and P. Chandra, Solar & Wind Technology., 3, (1986), 135.
[17] M. Akhlaque Ahmed and Firoz Ahmed, Journal of Research Science, 15, 4, (2004), BZU,
455.
[18] Sha_qur Rehman and Aftab Ahmed, Energy, 29, (2004), 1105.
86