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NIGERIAN JOURNAL

OF
SOIL SCIENCE
VOLUME 25
2015

ISSN 1597 4488


Published by the Soil Science Society of Nigeria

MEMBERS OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD


Editor-in-Chief

Prof. S. O. Ojeniyi

Deputy, Editor-in-Chief

Prof. T. A. Okusami

Deputy, Editor-in-Chief

Prof. D. O. Asawalam

Editor

Dr. J. A. Odofin

Business Manager

Prof. Akin Olayinka

Other members

Prof. U. C. Amalu
Dr (Mrs) F. I. Oluwatoyinbo
Prof. J. D. Kwari
Prof. A. S. Fasina

Editorial Assistant/ICT

Dr. B. S. Ewulo

OFFICERS OF THE SOIL SCIENCE SOCIETY OF NIGERIA 2014 2015


President

Prof. V. O. Chude

Vice President

Prof. O. O. Agbede

General Secretary

Prof. J. A. Adediran

Assistant General Secretary

Prof. D. O. Asawalam

Treasurer

Prof. B. A. Raji

Financial Secretary

Prof. M. A. N. Anikwe

Editor-in-Chief

Prof. S. O. Ojeniyi

Business Manager

Prof. Akin Olayinka

Ex-officio Members

Prof. I. E. Esu
Chief C. O. Ezendu
Dr. (Mrs.) O. T. Ande

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Department of Crop Soil and Pest Management, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.

ii

GUIDE TO CONTRIBUTORS
Contributors are invited from all parts of the world in any field of Soil Science and should be
original works which have not been published, accepted or submitted for publication in any other
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Abstracts should be fully intelligible without reference to the body of text and should not exceed
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Reference should be arranged in alphabetical order of authors names at the end of the paper.
Each should be given in the following form: authors name, year of publication, title of paper, title
of journal in full, volume number, first and last page e.g.
Braimah, A.K. (2000). Land evaluation for sorghum. Nigerian Journal of Soil Science 12:4-11.
Kilmer V. J. (1990). Handbook of Soils and Climate in Agriculture. CRC Press, Boca Ratio. In
the text, reference should be given by the name of the author followed by the year of publication
in brackets.
The letters, a, b, etc. should be used to distinguish between papers published by the same author
in a single year
Authors are advised to consult latest issue of Nigerian Journal of Soil Science.
As a result of high cost of printing, cost of publications of articles is borne by contributors.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Members of the Editorial Board.....................................................................................

ii

Guide to contributors.....................................................................................................

iii

Table of contents............................................................................................................

iv

Aknowledgement...........................................................................................................

vi

Some physical properties of soils overlying limestone parent material in Southeastern


Nigeria...........................................................................................................................

Yield decline of major crops induced by erosion on the ultisols of Owerri, Southeastern Nigeria: Maize response to natural erosion............................................................

Yield decline trends of eroded ultisols in Owerri, Southeastern Nigeria: Maize


response to artificial erosion.........................................................................

20

Phosphorus status in some soils of Mid-western Agro-ecological zone of Nigeria......

31

Heavy metal status in soils and Amaranthus cruentus from farmland on the bank
of Orogodo River, Agbor, Delta State, Nigeria.................................................................. 38
Fertility baseline study of major cocoa growing soils of Nigeria and implication for
cocoa production in Nigeria...........................................................................................

45

Profile distribution of crystalline and amorphous sesquioxides in talc overburden


soils of Southern Ginea Savanna ecology in Nigeria.....................................................

58

Changes in a tropical ultisol under different management systems in Southeastern


Nigeria: 1. Soil physical and hydrological properties................................................... 70
Impact of composted oil palm wastes on soil physical properties, organic matter content and growth of oil palm seedlings under different moisture regimes..........................

iv

80

Impact of open cast mine land use on soil physical properties in Enyigba, Southeastern Nigeria and the implication for sustainable land use management.........................

95

Soil boron and bio-accumulation in raphia palm...........................................................

102

Phosphorus sorption by some hydromorphic soils of Southern Nigeria........................

108

Effects of variation in N:K ratio in soils on the growth, nutrient availability and yield
of maize (Zea mays L.)....................................................................................................

116

Suitability assessment of soils supporting oilpalm plantations in the coastal plains


sand, Imo state, Nigeria..................................................................................................

125

Distribution and concentration of cadmium in automobile polluted soils in Owerri


Southeastern Nigeria......................................................................................................

135

Combined application of urea and sawdust ash in okra production effects on yield
and nutrients availability................................................................................................

146

Characterization, classification and land suitability evaluation of soils derived from


diverse parent materials in central Cross River State of Nigeria for arable cropping.......

155

Morphological, physicochemical and mineralogical properties of soils developed


from basalt at Ikom, Cross River State, Nigeria........................................................
168
Pedological study of soils developed on schist in Biase Local Government Area,
Cross River state, Nigeria..............................................................................................

180

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Editor-in-Chief acknowledges the contributions of the following colleagues, researchers and
scientists who reviewed papers submitted to the Nigerian Journal of Soil Science.
Prof. M. T. Adetunji UNAAB
Prof. F. K. Salako UNAAB
Dr. J. K. Adesodun UNAAB
Dr. J. O. Azeez UNAAB
Dr. G. A. Ajiboye UNAAB
Prof. O. O. Ajayi FUTA
Prof. M. A. K. Smith FUTA
Dr. S. O. Agele FUTA
Prof. M. O. Alatise FUTA
Dr. O. P. Aiyelari FUTA
Prof. L. L. Lajide FUTA
Dr. Ayodele Ajayi FUTA
Dr. B. S. Ewulo FUTA
Dr. M. A. Awodun FUTA
Prof. A. O. Ogunkunle UI
Dr. S. O. Oshunsanya UI
Prof.A. S. Fasina UNAAD
Dr. B. Osundare UNAAD
Dr. O. J. Ayodele UNAAD
Dr. L. B. Taiwo IART Ibadan
Prof. T. Ibia Uni Uyo
Dr. P. Ogban Uni Uyo
Prof. O. O. Agbede Landmark University
Prof. V. O. Chude NPFS, Abuja
Prof. A. Olayinka OAU
Prof. J. A. Adediran IART, Ibadan
Prof. O. Osonubi UI
Dr. A. J. Odofin FUT Minna

vi

NJSS 25, 2015

SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS OVERLYING LIMESTONE


PARENT MATERIAL IN SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA
Aki, E. E.1 and Antigha, N.R.B.2
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria.
Phone No: 08067280549. E-mail: eneakita@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The physical properties of nine (9) pedons of soils derived from limestone parent materials in South
Eastern Nigeria were investigated. The percentage of total sand generally decreased with increase
in profile depth with total sand for the surface horizons of 61% and 47% for the subsurface horizons. Silt percentage for the surface horizons range between 7.0 % and 48%, for subsurface 7.0%
and 48%. The percentage clay generally increased with increase in profile depth in some pedons
and fluctuates in some pedon of these soils. The surface layers were generally sandy loam to sandy
clay loam in texture. The bulk density of the top soils ranged between 1.20 and 1.62g/cm3, for
sub-soils 1.33 and 1.82g/cm3. Particle densities ranged between 2.42 and 3.10g/cm3 respectively
and total porosity for the surface and subsurface ranged between 49.7 and 50% respectively for all
the soils. Soils with these physical properties may be suitable for the cultivation of arable and tree
crops and dry season farming. The erodibility of the soils can be minimized by the incorporation of
crop residues.
INTRODUCTION

southern part of the state at boundary between


the Calabar flank and the Precambrian Oban
Massif (Akpan, 1990). These formations represent one of the oldest and major known marine
carbonate sequences. They are cenomanian to
mid-albian in age (Peters, 1982).

Consolidated products of calcareous sands,


limy mud and crushed shells constitute limestone (Anatole, 1996). Soils derived from limestone are calcimorphic in nature being formed
from calcareous parent materials on uplands and
slopes (Bridges, 1970). Soils of limestone origin
are usually productive and, in most populated
areas have been intensively cultivated (Webster
and Wilson, 1980).

Keywords: Physical properties, Soils, Limestone, Parent Material.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Limestone deposits in Cross River State are


impure limestone such as marls found at New
Netim and pure limestone formation found at
Mfamosing. It fringes the sand stones known as
Awi formation which again fringes the basement
complex. They are found concentrated at the

Nine (9) profiles chosen from limestone deposits area in Cross River State with (Latitude
4O27and 6O45N and Longitudes 7O15 and
7O28E), were dug. Three profiles were dug in
each of the following locations (Fig. 1) Oduk1

Physical properties of soils in Southeast Nigeria.

Aki and Antigha

pani (Od-1, Od-2 and Od-3); Mfamosing (Mf4, Mf-5 and Mf-6); and Abini (Ab-7, ab-8 and
Ab-9). These sites constitute areas with extensive limestone deposits in Southern Cross River
State. The mean annual rainfall of the study
area ranged between 1,300-3000mm, with uniformity of temperature throughout the year with
monthly temperature ranges between 210-320OC
(Okonkwo and Mbajioru, 2010). The study areas
fall into forest eco-climatic region and contain

four vegetation zones (Mangrove forest, fresh


water, swamp communities, lowland rainforest)
with major crops consisting of banana, cassava,
pepper, cocoyam, potatoes, pineapple, maize,
rice and yam (annual crop) and perennial crops
such as pawpaw, bush mango, pears, mango,
raphia palm and palm trees. These profiles were
dug three (3) in each study site, at the summit,
shoulder and backslope/toes position.

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

LABORATORY STUDIES

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Soil samples brought from the field were airdried and sieved through a 2.00mm sieve for the
following analyses. Particles size analysis was
determined by methods described by Soil Survey Staff (2002) using sodium hexametaphosphate (Calgon) as a dispersant. The percentage
sand, silt and clay were determined by using the
Bouyoucos hydrometer by allowing progressive
sedimentation of the various separates within
intervals.

Results of particle size distribution are shown


in Table 1 and its summary.The textures of the
soils are between sandy loam to sandy clay
loam. The total sand contents of the soils decreased with increase in soil depth for all the
soil. The surface horizons had total sand fraction
result ranging from 36.30% to 86.30% with an
average of 61% while the sub-surface horizons
values ranged between 33% and 69% with an
average of 59% and 47%.

The total sand was collected, air-dried and


sieved into two sizes, coarse sand (250-2000m)
and fine sand (50-250). Using the percentage
sand, silt and clay results, the textures were
determined using the USDA textural triangle
(NSSC, 1995). Bulk density was determined by
collecting undisturbed core samples from each
horizon using (100cm3) metal rings. These were
latter oven-dried at 105OC to constant weight
and the bulk densities calculated as described by
(Black, 1965; Agbede, 2009). Particles density
was determined as described by Bowles, (1992);
Soil Survey Staff, (2006) using pycnometer.
Total porosity was mathematically determined
from the result of bulk and particles densities.

The silt fraction on the whole ranged between


7% and 50% with a mean of 28 %. The topsoil
horizons had results between 12% and 50% with
an average 28% and the sub-surface horizon
ranged from 7% to 48% with an average 24%.
Pedon Od-1, Od-2 and Od-3 show high silt content of 50% in top soil and 48% for subsurface
soils.

Porosity

The clay fractions of the soils increased with


increase in profile depth in Pedon Od-1 to Od-3
while other pedon fluctuated in clay content.
This is an indication of clay migration by lessivage in the process of illuviations. Observation of this clay sequence pariparsu with the total sand suggests that the soil forming sequence
in these soils may be from a variety of origins
(Esu, 1999). The surface horizons had clay fractions ranging between 1% and 50% with a mean

= 1 Bulk density x 100

Particle density

Physical properties of soils in Southeast Nigeria.

Aki and Antigha

of 19% and subsurface ranged between 11%


and 50% with a mean value of 32%. All the soils
can be described as high textured because of
their predominant clay and sand related textures
(Esu, 2010). These clay and sandy texture of the
soils account for the moderate permeability of
the limestone derived soils. According
to
Lal (1994) and Ikemefuna (2010), when the silt/
clay ratio is 5 (none), 3 (moderate), 2 (high) and
1 (very high), the soil can be rated for degradation and vulnerability potential.All the horizons
with silt/clay ratios = 5 have no potential for
degradation and vulnerability.

tion and have low vulnerability potential (Vp).


Most of the soils are prone to SDR/VP. Such
soils represented by profile Od-2 (Bt, Bt2horizon) have high SDR and Vp; also profile Od-3
(AB, Bt and Bt2) have high or very high degradation rate and vulnerability potential. These
imply that the soils should be beefed up with a
lot of organic materials in order to strengthen
the structure and so raise up the silt/clay ratio to
possible 3 or more.
The results of bulk density are shown in Table 2 and its summary. The results are for seven
(7) profiles during the study. The results show a
common trend of increase in bulk density with
increase in soil depth. The bulk density of the

In the study areas, soils with profile (Od-1),


(Od-2), Mf-4 and Mf-6 are not prone to degrada4

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

top soil ranged between 1.20 and 1.62 g/cm3.


The subsurface horizon values ranged between
1.33 and 1.82 g/cm3 with a mean of 1.52 g/cm3.
The bulk density of the surface horizons is ideal for agronomic practice. This is because top
soil containing a good amount of humus with a
crumb structure should have a bulk density of
1.2 g/cm3 or even lower as in organic soils. For
the subsoil, the bulk density would be 1.5-1.6
g/cm3 in compacted or indurate horizons (Ahn,
1993) and the results of this study are similar to

that of Essoka and Esu (2001) who stated that


the bulk densities in basement complex soils
varies between 1.0 and 2.0 g/cm3 and increase
with depth. All the sampled soils have no problems of excessive high bulk densities because
bulk densities less than 1.8 g/cm3 may not offer
mechanical impedance to root penetration. Even
more favourable are results of the top soil horizons that are between 1.2 and 1.62 g/cm3, since
soils with values of 1.6-1.8 g/cm3 indicate that
aeration and water movement will be too low for

Physical properties of soils in Southeast Nigeria.

Aki and Antigha

optimum root growth (NSSC, 1995; Soil Survey


Staff, 2006).

Akpan-Idiok, A. U. and Esu, I. E. (2009). Soil


fertility evaluation in three southern States
(Cross River, Edo and Rivers) consultancy
report submitted to the FMAWR Abuja 149
pp.

The particle densities of all the soils were


between 2.42and 3.10g/cm3 with an average of
2.76 g/cm3(Table 2). These increase with an increase in soil depth for all the pedons. The soil
showed minimal particle density of 2.66 g/cm as
obtained by Akpan-Idiok and Esu (2009). Total
porosity of the soils is shown in Table 2. The soil
porosity ranged between 49.7 and 50% and generally increased with increase in profile depth.
The surface soils have good porosity values
(with a mean of 50.10%). Kachinkii (1965) suggested over 50%for good soils, between 45-50%
satisfactory soils, while 40-45% unsatisfactory
soils, under 40% and below for poor soils.

Anatole, D. (1996). Physical Geology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.


Blake, G. R. (1965). Bulk density. In C. A. Blake
(ed) methods of soil analysis, Agronomy No.
9 Madison: American Society of Agronomy.
Bowles, J. E. (1992). Engineering properties
of soils, 9th Edition, New York: Macmillan
Company Incorporated.
Bridges, E. M. (1970). World Soils. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Essoka, A. N. and Esu, I. E. (2001). Physical
properties of inland valley soils of Central
Cross River State, Nigeria. In Management
of Wetland Soils for Sustainable Agriculture
and Environment, Proceedings of the 27th
Annual Conference of the Soil Science Society of Nigeria, University of Calabar, Calabar.

CONCLUSION
The soilsoverlying limestone parent materials are texturally sandy loam to sandy clay loam
and would be very suitable for cultivation of varieties of arable crops and tree crops, because of
their good structure and abundant pores. Based
on physiography of soils of this kind, the soils
may be suitable for all year round farming. Irrigation may offer tremendous advantage and soil
erodibility may be reduced by the incorporation
of the organic matter.

Esu, I. E. (1999). Fundamentals of Pedology,


Stirling Horden Publishers, Pp 136.
Esu, I. E. (2010). Soil characterization, classification and survey. HEBN Plc. Pp. 232.
Ikemefuna, E. P. (2010). An evaluation of spatial variability of soils of similar lithology
under different land use types of degradation
risks in a Savannah Agroecology of Nigeria.
A Workshop organized by the Abdul Salam
International Centre for Theoretical Physics.
30th August 10th September, 2010. Stradada Costiera 11. 34157. Irieste, Italy.

REFERENCES
Ahn, P. M. (1993). Tropical soils and fertilizer
use. United Kingdom: Longman Scientific
Technical.
Akpan, E. B. (1990). Trace fossils and the depositional environments of the Mfamosing
limestone, Calabar, flank, S. E. Nigeria. In C.
O. Ofoegbu (ed.). The Benue Trough, Structure and Evolution. Friedr. Viewg and Sohn,
Braunschweig.

Kachinskii, N. A. (1965). Soil Physics: P. I.


Moscow, In: Zonn, S. V. (1986). Tropical
and sub-tropical soil science: Moscow: Mir
6

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

Publishers.

Engineering International. The CIGR Electronic Journal. Manuscript 1304. Vol. 12; Pp
1-15.

Lal, R. (1994). Methods and guidelines for assessing sustainability use of soil and water
resources in the tropics. Soil Management
Support Services Technical Monograph No.
21: 1-78.

Petters, S. W. (1982). Central West African Cretaceous Tertiary benthic foraminifera and
stratigraphic paleontography. American petroleum Geology Bulletin, 199:104-113.

National Soil Service Center (N.S.S.C.) (1995).


Soil Survey Information Manual; Soil survey
Report No. 45, Version 1, 305pp.

Soil Survey Staff (2002). Field Book for describing and sampling soils. Version 2.0 National
Soil Survey Center, Natural Resources Conservation Service, USDA Lincoln Nebraska,
1-1: 9-13.

Nwajiuba, C. and Oyeneke, R. (2010). Effects


of climate on the Agriculture of sub-Saharan
Africa: Lessons from South East Rainforest
Zone of Nigeria. Oxford Business and Economic Conference Program. June 28-29, Pp
1-18.

Soil Survey Staff (2006). Soil Survey Manual.


US Depts. Agric Handbook 18 U.S. Govt.
Printing Office, Washington.

Okonkwo, G. I. and Mbajiorgu, C. C. (2010).


Rainfall intensity-duration-frequency analysis and South Eastern Nigeria. Agricultural

Webster, C. C. and Wilson, P. N. (1980). Agriculture in the tropics. England: ECBS Longman Group, UK Ltd.

NJSS 25, 2015

YIELD DECLINE OF MAJOR CROPS INDUCED BY EROSION ON


THE ULTISOLS OF OWERRI, SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA:
MAIZE RESPONSE TO NATURAL EROSION
Nnenna Nnannaya Oti
Department of Soil Science and Technology,
Federal University of Technology, Owerri.
ogeriibeenwo@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Few studies have been made to quantify the yield decline trends of major stable crops induced by
erosion (natural and artificial) on the ultisols of Southeastern Nigeria, it is known that erosions
impact on soil productivity is crop, environment and soil specific. This paper reports an aspect
of a larger body of research work conducted between 1996 and 2002 to document erosion induced productivity decline in ultisols of Southeastern Nigeria. The specific objective of the study
was to quantify the impact of various levels of in situ erosion on maize yield and yield attributes.
Field studies were conducted on non eroded (NE), slightly (S), moderately (M) and severaly (Sv)
eroded phases of a fine, loamy, kaolinitic isohyperthermic Typic Tropohymult, which included two
croppings of maize in 1998 and 1999. Statistical design was a Completely Randomized Design
(CRD) with four replications. Maize yields and yield attributes declined significantly with increasing severity of erosion at both croppings. The blanket application of NPK fertilizer and improved
management practices boosted yields of the second crop without masking the effects of erosion.
The relative yields of maize grain in 1998 were 100:23:16:10 for NE:S:M:Sv eroded sites, and the
corresponding yield values were 3.8, 0.86, 0.59 and 0.39 Mg ha-1 respectively. The best-fit regression equations, with six soil variables explained 47.3% of variability in maize grain yield and soil
organic matter content (SOC) was the most important indicator. Mean linear yield decline Rates
per centimeter of soil lost was 0.290 for Slight, 0.159 for moderate and 0.113 Mg ha-1 for severely
eroded. The calculated half-life of the soils under current management systems is 18 to 25 year.
INTRODUCTION
Important soil biological, chemical and physical properties for plant production have degraded
as a soil erodes causing a reduction in crop productivity (Lal, 1987; Oti et al, 2007, Oti 2002). Different researchers working in different environments,
soil types and with different crops have associated yield declines induced by erosion to various
altered soil properties. The loss of rooting depth,

changes in soil texture and associated changes in


water holding capacity, were identified as having
the most profound impact by Swan et al., (1987),
Andraski and Lowery, (1992) and Arriaga and
Lowery (2003) in temperate environments. However, in tropical soils, diminished organic matter
levels and nutrient pools, nutrient imbalance
and aluminium toxicity were reported as key
8

Yield decline of crops.

Nnenna Oti

factors for erosion induced productivity decline.


(Oti, 2002, and Mbagwu et al., 1984).

son (October). Rainfall pattern is bimodal with


a short interval in August known as August
break.

Tenge et al. (1998), reported increasing reductions of maize yield as the severity of erosion increased, Mokma et al., (1992) observed
maize yield decline of 21% between slightly and
severely eroded phases. In fact a comprehensive
review of the global impact of soil erosion on
productivity published by den Biggelaar et al.,
(2004) confirmed that erosion not only leads to
yield declines of major crops, but its impact is
magnified by four to five orders in soils of the
tropics (Africa, Asia, Latin America). They also
established that very little work has been done
in these regions to quantify erosions impact
on the yield of major crops like maize. Without
such data, economic loss estimates arising from
erosion cannot be authenticated. This study was
conducted with these specific objectives:

Soil type of the four eroded phases selected


for study was fine, loamy, kaolinitic isohyperthermic Typic Tropohumult (Ultisols) Table 1.
Preliminary Field Survey/Sites Selection.
A detailed preliminary survey was conducted
in 1996 and 1997 to select and delineate the four
distinct eroded phases on toposequences within
the Otamiri catchment area. Three levels of erosion were identified based on topsoil depth as
the primary criterion as recommended by USDAs Soil Survey Manual (1993) and USDAs
Soil Conservation Service (1975). The four erosion phases were as follows:
Non eroded (NE): wooded Plateau with average slope 0.71 1.30% (estimated age 30
35 years). Average A horizon depths 40 45cm.
severed as the reference plots.

(1) To quantify maize yield decline trends


associated with different levels of natural erosion on Owerri Ultisols.

Slightly eroded (S): upper slopes of selected


toposequneces. Average slopes 3 3.60%. Average A horizon depth 32 35cm (had lost about
22% of the A horizon to natural erosion)

(2) To establish the cause and effect relationship between erosion severity and maize
yield decline.

Moderately eroded (M): middle slopes of


selected toposequenses. Average slopes of 3
3.62%. Average A horizon depths 18 20 cm
(about 54 56% of A horizon lost to natural erosion).

MATERIALS AND METHODS


Study Area
This study was carried out at the Otamiri
watershed basin in Owerri zone, Imo state, (5!
100 - 6! 300 N, 6! 450, 7! 450 E), Southeastern,
Nigeria. It is within the humid tropics ecological zone with mean daily temperature of about
27OC, night and day, and monthly variations are
minimal. The annual average rainfall is about
2,400mm. The rains come as intensive violent
showers of short durations especially at the beginning (April) and the end of the raining sea-

Severely eroded (Sv): lower slopes of selected toposequences. These sites were characterized by surface stoniness/sandiness, runoff tracks, sparse vegetation and exposure of
subsoils at some portions, steep slopes of 4.12
8.82% terminated at the Otamiri River. Average A horizon depths 8-10 cm (about 78% of A
horizon lost to past erosion).

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

Experimental Design and Agronomic Practices.

minimize variations of soil depth within each


erosion phase. Other crops beside maize were
sown, result of which will be reported separately. All sites were under 4-6 years old fallows.

The total land areas delineated for study at


each location were fields of 20 m length and 50
m width. Lengths of plots were kept narrow to

In early march 1998, all the experimental

10

Yield decline of crops.

Nnenna Oti

sites were subjected to the same land clearing


and preparation activities. The traditional slash
and burn was employed. All operations were
manual.

weeks, total leaf area per plant was computed


using the method of Mckee (1964). Final harvest
was done at 14 weeks when cobs were mature.
Harvested cobs were separated into stover and
grain. Grain yields are reported at 10% moisture
content, expressed as g/plant, kg/ha or Mg/ha.
Harvest index (HI) was computed as the ratio
between grain and straw.

The statistical design was a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four replications.
The CRD was chosen despite some of its shortcomings. It is the preferred experimental design
employed by researchers who study erosion
crop production relations using the erosion
phases approach (Ebeid et al, 1995; Fahnestock
et al, 1995; Arriaga and Lowery, 2003). All plots
were treated the same way with regards to all
agronomic practices associated with maize cultivation like weeding, minimum tillage, etc.

Yield decline rate (YDR) was computed as


the difference in maize grain yields between the
non eroded (NE) and the next level of erosion
(x) divided by the depth of the soil lost d(cm)
YDY = NE x
d(cm)
Soil sampling/Analysis

First Maize Cropping (April July 1998)

Composite samples from 10 subsamples from


each soil horizon were used. Standard laboratory procedures and techniques were used for
analysis of chemical and physical properties.
Sampling of the top 0 20 cm soil layer for the
analysis of select soil chemical properties were
done before planting in March 1998 and 1999.
Results are reported in Table 2.

Maize variety, IITA farz 27, was used. Plant


spacing was 25 cm x 75 cm giving plant population of 50, 000 plants per hectare.
Second Maize Cropping (April July 1999)
After routine land clearing activities, delineation of plot boundaries, a blanket dose of NPK
fertilizer (20:10:10) was applied on all plots to
prevent total crop failure. All other activities
were same as for the 1998 crop.

Data analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to
evaluate erosion effect on maize performance
and mean separation of significant effects was
based on Least Significant Difference (LSD)
at 5% probability level (Steel and Torrie, 1980)

Harvesting and yield computation


At four, six and eight weeks after planting (WAP), percentage plant establishment,
plant height and total dry matter accumulation
(TDMY) was assessed. Sampling was based on
24 randomly selected inner rolls plants at each
site. Each plant was uprooted, and all the roots
within a depth of 0 20 cm and circumference
of 0 10 cm from plant were extracted with
a hand trowel. The plants were separated into
leaves, stems and roots and dried at 600OC to
constant weight for biomass assessment. At 7

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


Soil properties and study sites.
The classification of study sites as fine, loamy,
kaolinitic, isohyperthermic, Typic Tropohumult
is based on Table 1 and detailed profile study
and description. All the sites were well-drained,
with no water logging at any time of the year.
11

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

All the soils had very low silt content (2 4%)


sandy, low soil organic matter (highest level
1.55%), acidic pH, low CEC, low base saturation and nutrient pool. Table 2 shows selected
soil properties of the soil before planting in 1998
and 1999. Bulk density (BD) falls within the

medium range, and so was available water capacity (AWC). Aluminium Saturation (Al+++)
increased in 1999, after just one cropping cycle
of maize, Relatively the Non eroded (NE) sites
were more fertile than the eroded plots and details of these differences in soil chemical and
12

Yield decline of crops.

Nnenna Oti

1998 Cropping

physical properties have been published in other


papers (Oti, 2002 and Oti, 2007).

Percentage Plant Establishment (PE %),


Harvest Index (HI), Total Dry Matter Yield
(TDMY), Dry Grain Yield (DGY) and Fresh
Cob Yield (FCY) and there relative values are
shown in Table 3.

Natural Erosion Impact on maize yield and


yield variables.

The general trend for most of these attributes


was in the order NE>S M Sv. For instance the
TDMY was 3765 kg/ha for non eroded, 936 kg/
ha for slightly eroded, 650 kg/ha for moderately
eroded and 481 kg/ha for the severely eroded sites.
However, these values were only significantly different between the non eroded phases and all the
other three phases. Among the slight, moderate
and severely eroded phases there were no statistical differences. Because the maize variety used
was an improved high yielding, variety, the grain
yield values obtained in the non-eroded sites (3,
765 kg/ha) was much higher than the average grain
yield of Owerri zone during the same period (1950
kg/ha; source Imo State Agricultural Development

Corporation, yield records, 1998). However, average yield value for all the sites combined (1401 kg/
ha) was lower. The implication of these trends is
that the soil plant system is greatly traumatized
by the initiation of erosion. For instance, the initial
loss of 10 cm of the A horizon between the non and
slightly eroded sites led to a 50% loss in leaf dry
matter yield, whereas the loss of about 30cm of the
same A horizon in the severely eroded soil site led
to 72% loss in leaf dry matter production, an additional impact of only 22%.
The leaf/stem ratio, an indicator of dry matter
partitioning in plants was a rather stable parameter, not influenced by soil degradation. It was
more a function of plant age.
13

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

The relative grain yield was in the other


100:32:25:26 for non eroded: slightly eroded:
moderately eroded: severely eroded plots respectively. The superior performance of grain
fresh cob yields in the non eroded sites was a
function of both higher percentage plant establishment (96%) in NE, and higher grain yields
per plant relative to the eroded sites.

yields per plant. The relative grain yield values


were 100:49:46:14 for non eroded: slight: moderate: severe erosion phases, while mean grain
yields per plant was 140.00g for NE; 66.70g for
S, 60.90g for M and 18.85g for Sv.
Leaf Area Index (LAI) determined at 7 WAP
was assessed as an indicator of canopy cover.
Erosion led to significant decreases in LAI between the non-eroded and the eroded sites.

Yield per se, was more adversely affected


by erosion than yield indicators. Harvest Index (HI), and shelling ratio (SR), showed only
minimal variations, across the different erosion
phases. These attributes, strongly controlled by
genetic constitution of the plant, are not good
indicators in understanding or characterizing the
impact of erosion on crop production.

In the two cropping seasons of maize, erosion led


to consistent decline in maize establishment, stunted
growth, poor biomass accumulation, and grain yields.
Reductions of maize yields were a function of reduced plant performance, confounded by diminished
plant populations. Several researchers here reported
similar effects of erosion on maize yield and yield parameters (Tegene, 1992, Nill, 1993, Shumacher et al.,
1994) the application of fertilizer and management
inputs did not make the negative impacts of erosion
as also reported by several scholars (Olson and Carmer, 1990, Frye et al., 1982) in the USA.

Erosion led to severe yield decline in all the


eroded phases and the values depending on the
yield parameter was as high as 89% (grain yield
reduction of severe erosion sites, kg/ha), in some
cases. Even the loss of less than 25% of the A horizon as found in the slightly eroded plots led to over
60% loss in fresh cob and dry grain yields.

The percentage reductions of 60% - 80% in


maize yield is much higher than values reported for
temperate soils 8-18% (Fahnestock, 1995b; Weesies et al., 1994). This dramatic decline in maize
yields is caused by the concentration of most of the
plant available nutrients in the top few centiments
of the soil intricately bond to organic matter. Once
this top nutrient-rich layer is lost to erosion, the
productive capacities of these soils decline rapidly.

1999 Cropping.
Table 4 shows the performance of maize in
1999. In general dry matter yields were in the
order of non eroded>slight>moderate>severe
erosion for all plant components. Trends were
similar to the 1998 maize crop. Significant differences were observed only between the non
eroded sites and all the other three erosion
phases. Among the eroded plots, differences in
maize performance were only marginal. Despite
the application of a blanket dose of 120 kg/ha of
NPK fertilizer to all plots, plants in the eroded
phases had stunted growth. However, as compared to the 1998 maize crop when no fertilizer
was used, yield levels in 1999 were much better.
This increased yield was a result of higher grain

Erosion maize yield relationships


a.

Linear functions of maize grain yield.

Linear functions of grain yield reductions are


contained in Table 5. Mean yield decline per
centimeter of soil lost was 290kg for the slight,
159kg for moderate and 113 kg.ha for the severely eroded sites. As erosion intensified, the
rate of yield per unit of soil lost reduced. The ad14

Yield decline of crops.

Nnenna Oti

dition of fertilizer in the 1999 cropping season


increased the rate of productivity loss per unit
of soil eroded to 308 kg, 190 kg and 153 kg/ha
for slight, moderate and severe erosion classes,
respectively. That eroded lands tend to have diminished buffering capacity, soil resilience and
fertilizer use efficiency has been reported by
Chegere and Lal (1995) and Tegere (1992).

et al., (1988) derived from bare runoff plots on


9% slope loamy sand in an Owerri Ultisol as the
maximum annual rate of soil loss, we predict the
half-life of study sites, based on the following
assumptions:

If we assume that the yield of the non-eroded


phase (3765 kg/ha) is the maximum possible
in these soils after 5 years of restorative fallow, under low input farming system, then the
half-life of these soils is attained, and in fact
exceeded by, the slight erosion phase level. The
half-life in this context is defined as the time
taken for yields to decrease to 50% of their original level on non eroded soil.

1.

Average bulk density = 1.50 Mgm-3

2.

Linear rate of soil loss

3.

No conservation measures in place

4. High soil loss values, results from a


combination of very erosive rainfalls and highly
erodible sandy soils and
5. The soil loss of 250t/ha/yr is equivalent
to a loss of 1.67cm of topsoil annually.
Therefore, it will require a minimum of 6
years i.e. (10 cm depth of soil lost)

1.67 cm

Using the soil loss rate, 250t/ha/yr of Boers

for the non eroded site to shift to the slightly erod15

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

ed phase which leads to a yield decline of 50%.


However, in practice using a linear model to
predict erosion rates gives highly exaggerated
values which are not representative as erosion
rates even within a cropping or fallow period is
highly variable.
Soil loss (y) is only linearly related to time (x)
for non-vegetated plots (bare soil) in the form:

state mean moderated by soil resilience and


environmental factors. If, we therefore modify
our earlier calculations of half-life based on a
linear model, by assuming that each disturbance
year (cultivation) is followed by 3 years of fallow (restoration phase), we get a new half-life
which falls within 18 to 25 years for these soils.

We therefore, predict that without conservation efforts, the bare soils of study environment
Y = Ax B (Tengberg et al., 1998) where, A
have a half-life of 6 years that is time taken
represents the relative rate of erosion and B the
for yields to decrease to 50% of their values on
time lag for the onset of erosion.
non eroded lands. The average half-life of the
In traditional farming systems, fallows (soil cultivated lands, under the current traditional
protection and reconstitution phase with mini- farming systems 18 to 25 years.
mal soil loss rates approaching zero) are punctub. Correlation relationships between
ated by land clearing/cultivation activities (perimaize yield and soil properties.
ods of maximum perturbation and very intense
Simple and multiple correlation and regressoil loss rates equivalent to the maximum values
from bare plots). On fallow plots, the best fit re- sion equations derived from step-wise regression analysis, between maize grain and dry matlationship is one that takes a logarithm form.
ter yields and selected soil properties are shown
A wholistic approach to assessing erosion dein Tables 6 and 7. Dry grain yield and TDMY
cline rates should take into account the cyclic
were significantly correlated with soil organic
oscillations of erosion rates around a steady

16

Yield decline of crops.

Nnenna Oti

carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN) and depth of


A horizon only. Multiple correlations, indicated
that maize grain yield was significantly correlated to SOC, TN, CEC, BS, Al Sat, and sum of
bases. Additional factors included depth A horizon, AWC, BD and (Ca + Mg)/(Al+H) ratio.

ratio (an indication for nutrient imbalance), AWC,


BD and A horizon depth as predictor variables with
R value of 0.99. These six factors explained 57.5%
of the variability in TDMY amongst the eroded
phases. A ranking of the factors in decreasing order is as follows: SOC (32%), A horizon (10.4%),
AWC (6.7%), Al sat (5.5%), BD (2%) and lastly
(Ca + Mg)/(Al + H) ratio (0.9%).

The best-fit regression equation for maize dry


grain yield is the one based on SOC, TN, BN, Al
Sat, and the sum of basic cations, with R value
of 0.99; and these factors account for 47.3% of
the grain yield variability. Soil organic carbon
content alone explained 17.6% of grain yield
variability.

CONCLUSION
The emphasis of this study was to qualify the
effects of accelerated erosion on maize yield
declines of the major agricultural soils found in
Owerri, on maize yield and to establish empirical relationships between altered soil factors and
yield loss. Erosion led to significant reductions

The best-fit model for maize dry matter yield at


6WAP is regression equation based on soil organic
carbon, aluminium saturation, (Ca + Mg)/(Al + H)

REFERENCES

in maize biomass and grain yields, due primarily


on its negative impacts soil organic matter and
nitrogen levels, aluminium toxicity, nutrient imbalance and diminished rooting depth. The mare
addition of fertilizers did not compensate for
this loss. Yield reductions per centimeter of soil
lost is highest for the topsoil layer and estimated
half-life of these soils is 18 25 years. Management strategies should target the prevention
of erosion on these fragile soil systems.

Andraski, B.J, and Lowery, B. (1992). Erosion effects on soil water uptake and corn growth. Soil
Science Society Annaul J. 56:1911-1919.
Boers, T. M., H.O Maduakor, and D.P Tee,
(1998). Controlling erosion in southeastern
Nigeria. Courier119:38-40.
den Biggelaar, C.D., Lal, R., Wiebe, K and V.
Breneman. 2004. The Global Impact of Soil
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Erosion on Productivity. Advances in Agronomy, Vol. 81. Academic Press DOI

Fahnestock, P., R. Lal and G. F. Hall. (1995a).


Land use and erosional effects on two Ohio
Alfisols: 1. Soil Properties. J. of Sustainable
Agric. 7: 63 83.

Ebeid, M.M., Rilal, G.F. Hall and E. Miller.


(1995). Erosion effects on soil properties
and soybean yield of a Miamian soil in western Ohio in a season with below normal rainfall. Soil Tech. 8: 97- 108.

Fahnestock, P., R. Lal and G. F. Hall. (1995b).


Land use and erosional effects on two Ohio
Alfisols: 11. Crop Yields. J. of Sustainable
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Agric. 7: 85 100.

tropical ultisols. Int. J. Agric. And Rural Development. 10; 183 187

Frye, W. W., O. L. Bennett, and G. J. Buntley.


(1985). Restoration of crop productivity on
eroded soils P 335-356. In: Follett and Stewart (eds.) Soil Erosion and Crop Productivity.
ASA - CSSA - SSSA, Madison, WI.

Schumacher, T. E., M. J. Lindstorm, D. L. Mokma, and W. W. Nelson. (1994). Corn yield/


Erosion relationships of representative loess
and till soils in the North Central United
States. J. Soil Water Cons. 49: 77 - 81.

Lal, R. (1987b). Effects of soil erosion on crop


productivity. Crit. Rev. Plt. Sci. 5:303-367.

Soil Survey Staff, (1993). Soil Survey Manual: USDA


Handbook No. 18, USDA, Washington, D. C.

Larney, F. J., R. C. Izaurralde, H. H. Janzen,


B.M. Olson, E. D. Solberg, C. W. Lindwall,
and M. Nyborg, (1995). Soil erosion - crop
productivity relationships for six Alberta
soils. J. Soil Water Cons. 50: 87- 91.

Soil Survey Staff, (1975). Soil taxonomy, a basic system of soil classification for making
and interpreting soil surveys. 754P. Agriculture Handbook No. 436. Washington, DC.

Mbagwu, J. S. C., R. Lal, and T. W. Scott. (1984b).


Effects of desurfacing Alfisols and Ultisols in
southern Nigeria. II. Changes in soil physical
properties. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 48 : 834- 838.

Steel, R. G. D., and J. H. Torrie. (1980). Principles and


procedures of statistics, a biometrical approach.
Second Edition. McGraw Hill Book Co.
Swan, J. B., M. J. Shaffer, W. H. Paulson, and A.
E. Peterson. (1987). Simulating the effects
of soil depth and climatic factors on corn
yield. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 51: 1025 -1032.

Mckee, G. W. (1964). Coefficient for computing


leaf area in hybrid corn. Agron. J. 56 : 240 241
Mokma, D. L., and M. A. Sietz. (1992). Effects
of soil erosion on corn yields on Marlette
soils in south - central Michigan. J. Soil Water Cons. 47: 325 - 327.

Tegene, B. (1992). Effects of erosion on properties and productivity of eutric nitisols in Gunumo area, Southern Ethiopia. In: H. Hurni
and K. Tati (eds.), Erosion conservation and
small scale farming. Geographica Bernensia, Berne, Switzerland, 229 242.

Nill, D. (1993). Soil erosion from natural and


simulated rain in Forest, Savannah and Humid to Sub Humid West Africa and influence of management. Lehrstuhl fur Bodenkunde Technische Universitet Munchen
Weihenstephan. 270 p.

Tengberg, A., Stocking, M. and S. C. A. Dechen.


(1998). In: Towards sustainable Landuse Vol.
I. Blume H. P. et al. (eds.) Advances in Geoecology 31: 355 362.

Olson, K. R. and S. G. Carmer. (1990). Corn


yields and plant population differences between eroded phases of Illinois soils. J. of
Soil and Water Cons. 45: 562 566.

Tenge, A.J., Kaihura, F. B. S., Lal, Rad, Singh,


B.R. (1998). Erosion effects on soil moisture
and corn yield on two soils at Mlingano, Tanzania. Am. J. Alternative Agric. 13: 83 89.

Oti N.N. (2002). Discriminant functions for


classifying erosion degraded lands at Otamiri
Southeastern Nigeria

Weesies, G. A., S. J. Livingston, W. D. Hosteter,


D. L. Schertz. (1994). Effect of soil erosion
on crop yield in Indiana: results of a 10 year
study. J. Soil Water Cons. 49:597 - 600.

Oti N.N, G.E. Osuji, Mbagwu, J.S.C. (2007).


Models for erosion induced yield decline in
19

NJSS 25, 2015

YIELD DECLINE TRENDS OF ERODED ULTISOLS IN OWERRI,


SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA:
MAIZE RESPONSE TO ARTIFICIAL EROSION
Nnenna Nnannaya Oti
Department of Soil Science and Technology,
Federal University of Technology, Owerri.
Ogeriibeenwo@Yahoo.Com
ABSTRACT.
The artificial incremental removal of surface soil to varying depths to simulate erosion followed by
subsequent evaluation of crop growth and performance under uniform management is a common agronomic technique to study erosion/soil productivity relationships. However, because its results tend to
exaggerate yield decline rates it is being replaced by the more complex erosion phase approach. This
paper is part of a series of elaborate studies conducted between 1996 and 2002 to document erosion
induced productivity decline in Ultisols of Southeastern Nigeria. Specifically it evaluated the impact of
mechanical topsoil removal, in 1998 and 1999 cropping seasons on maize yield performance and compares the two methods of assessment. Three levels of topsoil removals (2.5, 5.0, 7.5 cm) were imposed
on the non-eroded reference plateau of the erosion phase experiment reported in paper I. Topsoil removal
led to significant increases in bulk density, 1.64 Mgm-3 where 7.5 cm of topsoil was removed, 1.5 and
1.47 Mgm where 2.5 and 5.0 cm were removed respectively, 1.44 Mgm-3 in undisturbed plots. Declines
in exchangeable acidity (from 3.4 Cmol/kg in control plots to 2.8 Cmol/kg in plots where 2.5 cm of topsoil was excavated) were observed in 1999. Significant reductions in soil organic carbon, by as much as
47% in all desurphased plots, and available P (27.05 Mg/kg in 0 cm and 11.90 Mg/kg in the other treatments) were recorded. In both cropping seasons, artificial soil loss effects on maize yield parameters were
significantly affected. Most yield variables were similar among the 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 cm depths of desurphased
plots. However, significantly higher values were obtained in the undisturbed sites in the order 0>2.55.07.5
cm depths of topsoil removal. Relative grain yields in 1999 were in the other 100:41:9:6 for 0:2.5:5.0:7.5 cm
depths of soil lost. The corresponding values were 5.18 t, 2.03 t, 0.48 t and 0.29 t/ha respectively. There was
total crop failure in 1998 in plots from which more than 2.5cm of topsoil was excavated. Leaf Area Index
(LAI) an indicator of canopy cover and photosynthetic efficiency was also negatively impacted by incremental soil loss. Shelling ratio (SR) was not affected by simulated erosion. Desurphasing technique exaggerated
the magnitude of maize yield decline by a factor of 4. The erosion phase approach is recommended.
INTRODUCTION
Erosion-induced loss of crop production is
the hidden face of erosion, and is severe in Nigeria, Ghana and other parts of Africa (Lal, 1994).

Lal (1995) estimated the mean productivity


loss due to past erosion in Africa to be 9%, and
2-40% for Sub-saharan Africa. Dregne (1990)
20

Yield decline trends in Owerri

Nnenna Oti

estimated that soil productivity in some parts of


Africa has declined by as much as 50% due to
the combined effects of erosion and desertification, and if erosion continues unabated, mean
productivity decline in Sub-saharan Africa may
reach 14.5% by the year 2020.

(i) Desurfacing to simulate varying degrees


of erosion (Lindstorm et al., 1986; Lal, 1987a;
Pierce, 1991; Thompson et al., 1991). While this
method is rapid, simple, and cheap, and gives
information for many situations, its major limitation is that the results have only relative value.
(ii) The erosion phase technique based on
past in situ erosion. While not completely errorproof, it assesses erosion as it has occurred under natural forces.

The degree to which a unit quantity of erosion


reduces productivity is dependent on a range of
soil, crop and environmental factors. In tropical
Altisols and Ultisols with concentrated nutrients
on the topsoil tied to organic matter, topsoil loss
leads to rapid yield declines (Stocking 1984;
Mbagwu 1984a, b, Lal, 1985; 1979,). In fact,
Rehm (1978) observed that in the Cameroons,
the removal of 2.5 cm of topsoil caused a 30%
drop in maize yield, while, when 7.5 cm was removed, the exposed subsoil became completely
unproductive. Yost et al., (1983) reported similar results for desurphased soils in Hawaii. Most
reports confirm that topsoil loss by whatsoever
means in fragile tropical soils, under low input
based farming systems results in severe yield
declines (Miller, 1976, Langdale et al; 1979, Oti
et al., 1999, den Biggellaar; 2004.)

The results reported in this paper are a part


of a large body of research work conducted between 1996 2002, to evaluate erosions impact
on the productivity of the Ultisols of Owerri
ecological zone, establish cause-effect relationships, quantify yield decline trends of selected
crops; and compare the two methods of assessment. The specific objective of this was to
a. assess the appropriateness of using desurphasing techniques to estimate erosion induced maize yields decline and
b. to compare the results with the erosion
phase approach reported in paper I.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Loses in agricultural productivity are not known


for most areas prone to accelerated erosion, like
Southeastern Nigeria (Lal, 1995), even though its
effect tends to be location and crop specific. den
Biggelaar, (2004) in a comprehensive review of
the Global impact of soil erosion on productivity,
identified only 9 reported studies on ultisols.

In spite of obvious limitations, artificial removal


of topsoil remains a standard procedure for erosion
induced productivity decline studies (Batchtell et
al., 1956, Sandler, 1980; Lal, 1976).
Study Location, land preparation and field
layout

One of the major reasons for the scarcity of


information on erosion productivity relationships is the difficulty in conducting such experiments, especially in establishing the cause-effect dynamic. Also methods of assessment often
produce estimates that differ by a factor of 3
to 5 (Lal, 1994). Apart from modeling, the two
main experimental approaches commonly used
in erosion/productivity studies are

This study was situated on the non-eroded


(NE), landscape within the same contiguous
field used for the erosion phase experiment reported in paper I. Care was taken to demarcate
the field as uniform as possible in topography
and soil type (variation in slope within the experimental plots was less than 0.5%).
The site was under 4-5years fallow, land
21

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

clearing was done by the traditional slash and


burn method in March 1998. Wood debris was
removed from site after burning.

of 50, 000 plants per hectare. All routine farm


maintenance activities thinning down, weeding, etc were same as for the erosion phase experiment of paper 1.

The experimental plots were arranged in a


simple Completely Randomized Design (CRD)
format with depth of topsoil removed (0, 2.5, 5.0,
and 7.5 cm) as the only treatment. After marking out plots of sizes 10 m x 10 m, specified soil
depths were removed at random. Since the field
was essentially a flat plateau with a mean A- horizon depth 45 cm, of uniform topography, the
CRD was considered sufficiently sensitive and
appropriate. Moreover, to simplify comparisms
with the erosion phase data of paper I, the same
experimental design was replicated four times.
There was a total of 16 plots, each enclosed by
small dykes to prevent run-on and run-off.

Harvest and Yield Computations


At four, six and eight WAP, plants were sampled for height measurements and total dry matter yield accumulation assessments (TDMY).
Leaf Area Index (LAI) was also assessed. Details of methodology was described in paper 1.
Experiment ended at 14 WAP with the final harvest of mature cobs.
Soil Sampling/Analysis
Initial Soil properties of study site (NE) is reported in paper I. The specific effects of desurphasing on soil properties was assessed one year
after various levels of topsoil had been mechanically removed. Composite soil samples obtained
from four subsamples were analyzed in pairs
and mean values reported.

Excavation of desired depths was manually


done with hand shovels.
First Season Maize Cropping (April July,
1998)
Early maturing maize variety IITA farz 27 was
sown on the 24th of April 1998. Plant spacing was
25 cm x 75 cm giving a total plant population of
50, 000 plants per hectare. All farming operations
were done at the same time and sequence as for
maize planted on natural eroded plots of paper I.
Second Season Maize Cropping (April July,
1999)
After routine land clearing activities (slash
and burn), plants were demarcated by remolding of the separation dykes. A blanket dose of
120kg/ha of compound NPK (20:10:10) was applied by the broadcast method. Surface crusts
were manually broken with a garden fork and
fertilizer worked into soil.
Maize variety farz 27 was sown on the 3rd of
April 1999, at a population density equivalent
22

Physical properties: Particle size distribution


was determined by the hydrometer method of
Bouyoucos (1926), as modified by Day (1956),
Bulk Density (BD), by core method of Blake and
Hartge (1986) using cores of 50 mm diameter
and 50 mm height, porosity by the relationship
between BD and particle density assumed as
2.65 g/cm3, soil water relation potentials ranging from saturation (0 cm) to tensions of 1000
cm measured by a combination of Tension Table
and pressure plate extractors (Klute, 1986). The
available water capacity (AWC) was computed
as the difference in volume moisture content at
field capacity (0.1 bar) and permanent melting
point (15 bar). Water stable aggregates (WSA)
was determined on 5 to 25 mm aggregate using
multiple screen wet sieving procedure of Yoder
(1937) as described by Kemper and Roseneau
(1986) and mean weight diameter (MWD) was

Yield decline trends in Owerri

Nnenna Oti

calculated by the method of Van Bavel (1949)


and Youker and McGuiness (1956).

water and soil/0.1kcl ratio of 1:2:5, using a Beckman pH meter. The soil was extracted with neutral
M NH4OAC and exchangeable Ca, Mg, K, Na
and other cations determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Cation exchange capacity
(CEC) was obtained by summation of NH4OAC
exchangeable bases plus KCL exchangeable acidity. Potassium Chloride acidity (H+ and AL+++)
was determined by titration with 0.05N NaOH. Total
nitrogen (N%) was determined by the Kjeldahl digestion method, soil organic carbon content by the
method of wet combustion (Walkley Black, 1934).
Available P was measured by the Bray II method
(Bray and Kurtz, 1945). The analytical procedures
used followed the guidelines of Daye et al. (1982),
methods of Soil Analysis Part II.

Chemical properties: All samples were airdried, and passed through a 2 mm sieve. Soil pH
was measured in a soil suspension with a soil/

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to


evaluate treatment effects on maize performance
and mean separation of significant effects was
based on the Least Significant Difference (LSD)
at 5% probability level.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Detailed soil properties of the study site are reported in Tables 1 and 2 of paper 1. Soil physical
properties of desurphased plots at the beginning of
1999 (after the 1998 cropping season) are shown
in Table 1. Total aggregation remained high (82
90%), with a preponderance of medium sized
aggregates (75%). Observed bulk density values
which ranged from 1.44 Mg m-3 in undisturbed
plots to 1.64 Mg m-3 in plots were 7.5 cm of topsoil where excavated, are higher than values of
1.38 to 1.41 Mg m-3, typically recorded for ultisols (Dourado Neto et al., 2010). Mean weight
diameter, even though lowest in plots that lost 7.5
cm of the topsoil (0.41) had irregular trend.
The chemical properties of the experimental
plots are as shown in Table 2. The soils were
acidic, and in plots were 5.0 cm or more of top23

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

Maize performance 1998

soil was removed, pH was as low as 3.3. The


soil had low organic carbon content, total nitrogen, base saturation, CEC and available P. This
necessitated the addition of NPK compound fertilizer to avoid total plant failure. The nutrient
profile levels are typical for the Owerri ecological zone (Unamba Oparah, 1985; Unamba
Oparah et al., 1987 and Maduakor, 1997).

Plant establishment and Height


The effect of mechanical topsoil removal on
plant population and height in 1998 indicates
that plant height (a) was both a function of topsoil loss and age. Desurphasing led to stunted
growth, and the effect was more evident as
the growing season progressed. The order was

24

Yield decline trends in Owerri

Nnenna Oti

0>2.55.07.5 cm. Plant growth and vigor were


best on the undisturbed site.

characterizes the growth of most living forms.


Maize performance 1999

Plant populations expressed as percentage


stand count at different ages (b) were drastically
reduced by the removal of soil surface layers.
There was a progressive dying-off of seedlings
which secondary replanting of seeds could not
correct. The major impact of topsoil removal
was to prevent seedling establishment. While
the undisturbed plots maintained consistently
high plant populations (100 89%), the values
were 85 30%, 70 10%, 50 10% for 2.5 cm,
5.0 cm and 7.5 cm depth removal respectively,
between 14 DAP and 56 DAP.

Plant establishment and height.


Desurphasing led to stunted growth and reduced plant populations. The application of
compound NPK fertilizer, in 1999 season, improved general crop performance without masking the negative impact of topsoil removal.
The percentage plant establishment was about
80% for 0 cm, 62% for 2.5 cm soil depth, 58%
for soil depth and 40% for 7.5 cm soil depth removed 28 DAP.
Dry matter biomass, grain yield and yield
variables.

The reason for this dramatic effect of topsoil


loss on seedling survival is not quite clear but
may be related to the truncation of the microbial
mechanisms that regulates nutrient dynamics of
low input based farming systems not dependent on artificial soil amendments.

In Table 4 is shown the effect of topsoil remove


on dry matter, dry grain, fresh cob, Leaf Area Index (LAI) and shelling ratios. Desurfacing had no
impact on some of the yield indicators like shelling ratio (SR), whereas it had significant impact
on some others like root weight, total dry matter,
grain yields and LAI. Most attributes were similar
among 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 cm depths of desurphased
plots. However, significantly higher values were
obtained in the undisturbed site. Values were in the
order 0>2.55.07.5 cm depths of topsoil removal.
Relative grain yields were in the order 100:41:9:6
for 0:2.5:5.0:7.5 cm depths of topsoil lost. The corresponding yield values were 5.17 t, 2.02 t, 0.48 t
and 0.29 t/ha respectively.

Dry matter biomass, grain yield and yield


variables. Table 3 shows maize dry matter, grain
and yield variables in 1998. Artificial soil loss
led to pronounced significant reductions in the
dry matter production of all plant components.
There were no significant differences among the
three levels of topsoil loss. Once the first 2.5 cm
surface soil layer was removed, the productive
capacity of the soil declined rapidly.
There was total crop failure on sites from
which 5 and 7.5 cm layers of topsoil were excavated. Even on sites from which only 2.5 cm
of soil was removed; relative yield was only
8% of the value of the undisturbed soil. Erosion
only affected the magnitude of biomass fixation
and not the trends, which were similar in all the
four sites. Soil regulated factors in the growth
and development of maize are more evident in
the quantity of dry matter fixed more than in the
modification of the sigmoid curve pattern that

Differences in grain yields observed among


the disurphased treatments and the undisturbed
sites were due largely to higher yields of individual maize plants and higher LAI. Plant populations played a secondary role. Shelling ratios
(SR) and in fact other plant part ratios were not
confounding factors, and are therefore not good
indicator variables in the soil loss productivity
decline relationships.
25

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

In general, data from the two maize crops,


indicate the following trends:

Maize crops sown in 1999 performed much better than the 1998 crops in all variables evaluated
due mostly to the compensating effects of fertilizer
application. In sites where 2.5 cm of soil depth was
removed for instance dry matter yields in 1998
were only about 20% of the 1999 data.

(i). topsoil removal had severe negative impact


on seedling emergence and establishment, unit
plant biomass production and other growth parameters were also affected by even the marginal

26

Yield decline trends in Owerri

Nnenna Oti

removal of 2.5 cm of surface soil. There was total


crop failure when 5 cm or more of the topsoil was
removed. For an Ultisol in southern Cameroon,
Rehn (1978) observed 50% decline (against 92%
recorded in these studies) when 2.5 cm of topsoil
was removed and complete failure occurred by
the scraping off of 7.5 cm topsoil. Mbagwu et al.
(1984a) and Lal (1987a) have also reported very
drastic reductions in crop yields induced by the removal of 5 cm or more of surface soil layers, in
altisols and ultisols.

Results of these studies show long term natural


erosion had drastic effects on the reduction of A
horizon depth and higher surface soil bulk densities. Topsoil removal had minimal effects on these
parameters. Also soil chemical properties and
probably soil biological functions were more adversely affected by desurphasing than natural erosion which is a gradual process. The abrupt loss of
soil by desurphasing traumatizes the soil system
more than the natural erosion process, and therefore, the former tends to have immediate impact
on productivity, unlike the more incipient, gradual
loss associated with natural erosion.

(ii) Improved residue management and the application of fertilizer in the second season crop led
to better plant populations, growth performance,
higher biomass production, and greater grain and
cob yields in all the treatments. These improvements partially compensated for the loss of topsoil,
without completely ameliorating the loss,

Generally, mechanical topsoil removal delayed


seedling emergence and tassling, reduced plant
populations, and induced immediate nutrient deficiencies, particularly of nitrogen leading to very
stunted growth more than was observed for eroded
phases. Gollany et al., (1992), made similar observations. The essential differences between the two
approaches is their relative impact on organic matter pools, the dynamics of nutrient cycling, impact
on soil biological functions and the diminished
available nutrient thresholds. Linear functions of
rate of maize yield decline indicates that desurphasing exaggerated the impact of erosion by factor of II for maize grain.

(iii) even though the removal of 7.5 cm of


topsoil in this experiment did not expose the B
horizon of the desurphased plots, yet significant
yield declines occurred, attributable to the loss
of soil organic matter, soil organisms, the disruption of nutrient cycling dynamics, and greatly
diminished available nutrient pools (den Biggelear et al., 2004; Oti et al., 2007), and hence the
inability of inorganic fertilizers to totally compensate for crop yield declines.

Caution should be exercised on the use of


desurphased experiment generated data, particularly in using such information to predict or
model soil productivity/soil loss relationships
as this technique would appear not to correctly
simulate the erosion process. Their use should
be minimized and limited to specific situations
like when assessing the impact of land clearing
machines which scrap off topsoil surfaces.


The linear functions of maize yield decline (Table 5) for each centimeter of topsoil
removed mechanically was very high (1.26 t/
ha/cm); in 1999, in fact four times higher than
the rate for naturally eroded soils (0.29 t/ha/cm).
The upper 2 cm of topsoil is the most critical
soil layer influencing the overall productivity of
these soil systems.
Comparative Analysis of natural versus
simulated erosion approach to erosion-induced productivity decline studies.

CONCLUSION
Topsoil removal, led to drastic reductions in maize
yield and yield variables, which improved manage27

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

ments practices and the application of fertilizers


did not completely emoliorate. The simulation
of erosion effect on soil properties and overall
soil function and productivity, through mechanical topsoil removal exaggerates the impact of

erosion on productivity, and does not accurately


simulate the natural erosion process. Data generated from this technique should be used with
caution. The natural erosion phase approach is
therefore recommended.
28

Yield decline trends in Owerri

Nnenna Oti

REFERENCES

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depth and desurfacing effects on properties and
productivity of a Typic Argiustoll. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. 56:220-225.

Bachtell et al. 1956 Bachtell, M. A. , C. J. Willard


and G. S. Taylor, (1956). Building fertility on
exposed subsoil. Ohio Agr. Expt. Station Res.
Bull. 782. P 35.

Kemper, W. D. and R. C. Roseneau. (1986). Aggregate stability and size distribution. In: Methods of
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Blake, G. R. and Hartge, K. H. (1986). Bulk density.


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Klute, A. and C. Dirksen. (1986). Hydraulic conductivity and diffusivity: laboratory methods.
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SSSA. Madison. Wisc.

Bouyoucos, G. J., (1926). Estimation of the colloidal


material in soils. Science 64: 362.
Bray, R. H. and Kurtz, L. T. 1945. Determination of
total, organic and available forms of phosphorus
in soils. Soil Sci. 59: 39 41.
Day, P. R. (1956). Report of the committee on
physical Analyses. 1954 55. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. Proc. 20: 167 169.

Lal, R. (1976a). Soil erosion on Alfisols in


western Nigeria. V. The Changes in physical
Properties and the response of crops. Geoderma 16: 419 431.

den Biggelaar, C.D., Lal, R., Wiebe, K and V. Breneman. (2004). The Global Impact of Soil Erosion
on Productivity. Advances in Agronomy, Vol. 81.
Academic Press DOI

Lal, R. (ed.). (1979b). Soil tillage and crop production Proc.. Series 2.Int. Inst. Tropical Agr.,
Ibadan, Nigeria. p361.

Dregne, H. E. (1990). Erosion and soil productivity


in Africa. J. Soil Water Cons. 45:431-436.

Lal, R. (1985a). Soil erosion and sediment transport research in tropical Africa. Hydrological
Sci. J. 30:239-242.

Gollany, H. T., T. E. Schumacher, M. J. Lindstorm, P.

Lal, R. (1985b). Soil erosion and its relation to


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productivity in tropical soils. In W. C. Moldenhauer, S. A. El-Swaify, and Andrew L. (eds.).


Soil Erosion and Conservation. Soil Cons. Soc.
Am. Ankeny, Iowa, p237-247.

tropical ultisols. Int. J. Agric. And Rural Development. 10; 183 187
Page, A. L., Miller, R. H. and D. R. Keeney. (eds.)
(1982). Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2
Chemical and Microbiological properties 2nd
Ed. ASA SSSA. Agron. No. 9.

Lal, R. (1994). Global overview of soil erosion.


In: Soil and Water Science: Key to understanding our global environment. SSSA Pierce, F. J. 1991. Erosion productivity impact
Spec. Publ. Madison, U.S.A.
prediction. In: soil management for sustainLal, R. (1995). Erosion crop productivity relaability, R. Lal and F. J. Pierce (eds.). Pp35- 52.
tionship for soils of Africa. Soil Sci. Soc. Rehm, S. (1978). Land development in the huAm. J. 59: 661 - 667.
mid tropics. In: International Symposium
Langdale, G. W., J. E. Boy Jr., R. A. Leonard, A.
P. Barnett, and W. G. Fleming. (1979). Corn
yields reduction on eroded southern Piedmont
soils. J. Soil Water Cons. 34: 226-228.

for Agron-Mechanisierung der Dtsch. Landwirtscn. Ges. Frankfurt.


Sadler, J. M. (1980). Effects of Soil degradation
under intensive potato production on soil productivity. Agron. Abst. 1980. P. 191.

Lindstorm, M. J., T. E. Schumacher, G. D.


Lemme, and H. M. Gollany. (1986). Soil
characteristics of a mollisol and corn (Zea
mays L.) growth 20 years after topsoil removal. Soil Tillage Res.7: 51-62.

Stocking, M. (1984). Erosion and soil productivity. A review. Soil Conservation Program, Land
and Water Development Division. AGLS,
FAO. Consultants Working Paper No. 1.

Mbagwu, J. S. C., R. Lal, and T. W. Scott. (1984a).


Effects of desurfacing Alfisols and Ultisol in
southern Nigeria. I. Crop performance. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. J. 48 :828- 833.

Thompson, A. L., C. J. Gantzer, and S. H. Anderson. (1991). Topsoil depth, fertility, water
management, and weather influences on yield.
Soc.Sci. Am. J.55: 1085- 1091.

Mbagwu, J. S. C., R. Lal, and T. W. Scott. (1984b).


Effects of desurfacing Alfisols and Ultisols in
southern Nigeria. II. Changes in soil physical
properties. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 48: 834- 838.

Unamba Oparah, I. (1985). Potassium status of


the sandy soils of northern Imo State, Nigeria.
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Miller, M. H. (1976). Soil erosion in Ontario. A


report for the Ontario. Soil Mgt. Res. Committee, Land Resource Science, Univ. of Guelph,
Ontario.
Oti, N. N, N. Ozara and J.O. Ajayi. (1999). The impact of erosion on soil properties and yield attributes of cowpea in Southeastern Nigeria. Journal of
Erosion and Envir Degrad. (JEED) 1: 135 147.

Van Bavel, C. H. M. (1949). Mean weight diameter of soil aggregates as a statistical index of
aggregation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 14: 20
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Yoder, R. E. 1937. The significance of soil structure in relation to the tilth problem. Soil Sci. 36
Soc. Am. Proc. 2: 21 23.
Youker, R. E. and J. L. McGuiness. (1956). A
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Oti N.N, G.E. Osuji, Mbagwu, J.S.C. (2007).


Models for erosion induced yield decline in
30

NJSS 25, 2015

PHOSPHORUS STATUS IN SOME SOILS OF MID-WESTERN


AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONE OF NIGERIA
Orhue, Ehi Robert and John Kingsley
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Benin,
Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
Corresponding author email: orhuerob@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The trial was carried out to determine the status of various forms of P in soils formed on 3 types of
parent materials in Southern Nigeria. Soil samples were obtained from3 ha area in each of the locations at 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm depth and then subjected to routine physical and chemical analysis.
Result revealed that the sand component of the soils which ranged from 771 gkg-1 to 892 gkg-1
decreased with increased soil depth. The highest sand content was obtained at 0-15 cm top soil of
coastal plain sand parent material. The clay and silt fractions ranged from 75 gkg-1 to 155 gkg-1 and
33gkg-1 to 74 gkg-1 respectively. Both the clay and silt increased with increased soil depth in all the
parent materials. The soil pH, organic carbon and organic matter also decreased with increased soil
depth ranging from 5.50 to 6.60, 2.10 gkg-1 to 3.15gkg-1 and 5.52gkg-1 to 9.40 gkg-1 respectively.
The available P by Bray P-2 extractant was higher in the soils of the 3 parent materials compared to
that of Bray P-1 extractant. The various P forms also decreased with increased soil depth. The Al-P,
Fe-P, Sal-P and Red-P were higher in 0-15 cm top soil of alluvium parent material while the Res-P,
Ca-P, Occ-P, Org-P and Total P were higher in the 0-15 cm topsoil of basement complex soil. Of
all the various forms of P, Org-P occupied a higher percentage in the total P component of the soil.
The soil pH positively significantly correlated with Occ-P, Res-P and Org-P while organic carbon
positively significantly correlated with Occ-P and Res-P. The organic matter positively significantly
correlated Occ-P, Res-P, Org-P and Total P. The clay and silt fractions positively significantly correlated with Al-P whereas the sand component of the soil positively significantly correlated with
the Ca-P.
Keywords: Alluvium, Basement complex,Distribution, Parent materials, Phosphorus, Shale.
INTRODUCTION
Phosphorus (P) is one of those major elements required for biological activity in plants.
Although the total P content in most soils can be
large , only a small fraction is available or in an
organic form for biological utilization because
it is bounded either to incompletely weathered
mineral particles, adsorbed on mineral surfaces
or over the time of soil formation, made avail-

able by secondary mineral formation(Yang et


al, 2013). Sometimes, it is precipitated by dissolved Al or Fe at low pH. The forms and distribution of P in agricultural soils may indicate
soil P processes and possibilities for sustainable
production using the soil P reserves(Ulenand
Snall, 2007). The relative distribution of P varies with climate, vegetation, parent material and
31

Phosphorus status in some soils

Orhue et al

soil types (Indianti and Sharpley, 1998) and that


the distribution of P is closely related to the
pedogenetic evolution of soils with the mature
soils having low P status (Kleinman et al, 1999)
The P exists in soils in organic and inorganic forms. The organic forms of P are found
in humus and other organic materials. The P
in organic materials is released through mineralisation process involving soil organisms.
The inorganic forms exist as calcium phosphate
(Ca-P), Aluminium phosphate(Al-P), iron phosphateFe-P), reductant soluble phosphate(Red-P)
Saloid-bound phosphate(Sal-P),and occluded
phosphate (Occ-P). The relative abundance of
inorganic P forms is indicative of the degree
of weathering sequence being in the order of
Ca-P >Al-P> Fe-P>Occluded-P (Westing and
De-Brito, 1969). The distribution of active P
fraction namely Al-P, Fe-P and Ca-P and their
abundance in soil are dependent on pH, the
solubility product of the different phosphate,
parent material, cations present and degree of
weathering(Kleinmanet al, 1999).
Information on P fertility status is of great
importance since it helps determine the level of
fertilizer to be applied to crops. The information
is equally useful for P fertilizer distribution and
planning at both local and national levels of the
country. The forms in which P exists determines
the relative availability to crops and also it enables determine the speciation and management
of such soils. Therefore,the trial was conducted
to determine the various forms and distribution
of P as well as factors influencing their distribution in the selected soils.

and Sapele in Delta State of Nigeria. The Sobe,


Ekpoma and Sapele represent alfisol, ultisol and
oxisol respectively. At each location, a 300 m x
300 m area dimension was measured and points
to be sampled were determined without considering the vegetation and slope of the area.
Sobe sampling site is about 102 km from
Benin City the State capital and is located at an
elevation of 70 m above sea level. The area is
situated in the derived savannah of Nigeria. The
area lies between Latitude 6O 59N and longitude
5O 42'E. It is an agrarian town in derived savannah zone. Soils from this area are derived from
basement complex
Sapele is located in the latitude 5O 55'N and
longitude 5O 42'E. Its geographical coordinates
lies in the rainforest zone with bimodal rainy
season. The peak of rainy season is June with
a break in August. The dry season starts in October till early March. The major occupation
include fishing farming and trading. Sapele has
alluvium as parent material
Ekpoma geographical coordinates is latitude
6 45'N and longitude 6O 08'E. The town is a
transition zone between rainforest zone and savannah zone. It is situated at 332 m above sea
level. The dry season lasts between November
and March while the rainy season lasts between
March and October with a peak at July and a
break in August. It is also an agrarian town. Ekpoma soil is formed on coastal plain sand
O

Laboratory Analysis
The soil samples collected were air-dried at
room temperature for about a week, crushed
to pass through a sieve of 2 mm. The particle
size distribution was determined by methods of
Gee and Or (2002). The pH was determined in
KCl solution at a ratio of 1: 2 (Soil:KCl) using
a glass electrode meter. The organic carbon was

MATERIALS AND METHODS


Forty-two(42) soil samples were obtained
from 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm depth at three locations namely Sobe and Ekpoma in Edo State
32

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

determined by methods of Udo et al (2009). The


value obtained in organic carbon was multiplied
by a factor of 1.729 to achieve organic matter
component of the soil. The available P was determined by both Bray P-1 and Bray P-2 extractions (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) while the sequential fractionation of inorganic phosphorus and
the organic P forms were carried out by methods
of Udo et al (2009). The P in the extracts was
determined calometrically by the molybdenum
blue colour method of Murphy and Riley (1962).
The mean and standard deviation calculated and
correlation coefficient between some soil properties and forms of P were determined.

gkg-1 while that of the silt ranged from 33 to 74


gkg-1. The clay and silt content of the soils increased with increased soil depth in all the locations with the highest clay and silt components
recorded at alluvium parent material. The low
clay content at surface 0-15 cm depth may be
due to the sorting of soil materials by biological
and agricultural activities, clay content migration or combination of these activities as earlier
reported by Malgwi et al (2000) and Adegbenroet al (2011). While the low silt content in all the
surface soils of the three locations is in line with
the reports of Okusanmi and Oyediran(1985)
and Adegbenroet al (2011).
The pH of the soils also decreased with increased soil depth and the soil pH ranged from
5.50 to 6.60. The highest pH value of 6.60 and
6.50 were obtained in 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm
soil depth respectively at basement complex parent material compared to other parent materials.
The acidic conditions in the coastal plain sand
and alluvium parent materials could be attributed to the presence of higher exchange acidity
and higher rainfall in the area which render the
soil prone to erosion and high base leaching as
reported earlier by Udo et al (2009) and Adeg-

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


Physico-chemical properties of the soils used
in the trial
Some physico-chemical properties of soils
used are shown in Table 1. The sand component
ranged from 771to 892 gkg-1 and decreased with
the corresponding increase in the soil depth in
all the locations. The highest sand content was
however achieved in the 0-15 cm topsoil of Ekpoma coastal plain sand. The clay section of the
soils under investigation ranged from 75 to 155
33

Phosphorus status in some soils

Orhue et al

benro et al (2011). The basement complex soil


at Sobe on the other hand is located in derived
savannah region with reduced bse leaching capacity.

the soils could be due to the fixation of P by Fe


and Al sesquioxides and pH status of the soil as
earlier reported by Uzoho and Oti (2004) and
Adegbenro et al (2011).

The organic carbon content of the soils indicated a decrease with increased soil depth and
ranged from 1.86to 3.15 gkg-1. The highest organic carbon component was obtained at Sobe
basement complex 0-15 cm surface soil compared to other locations. The organic matter
component the soils decreased with increased
soil depth in all the locations.The organic matter
ranged from 5.52 to 9.40 gkg-1 with the highest
organic matter component recorded at Sobe.

Forms and distribution P in the soils


The forms and distribution of P are shown in
Table 2. The saloid P ranged from 0.10mgkg1 from 0.27 mgkg-1 and decreased with corresponding increase in the soil depth. The highest saloid P was however obtained at 0-15 cm
depth of alluvium soil. The reductant soluble P
also decreased with increased soil depth in all
the locations. Again, the alluvium soil in Sapele
had the highest reductant P compared to basement complex and coastal plain sand soils. The
residual P which decreased with increased depth
ranged from 1.21 to 3.06 mgkg-1.The highest
values of residual P were achieved at basement
complex soil at Sobe.

The Bray P-2 available P ranged from 4.88to


8.57 mgkg-1 while that of Bray P- 1 available
P range from 4.36 to 7.93 mgkg-1 in all the soil
types. In both extraction methods the alluvium
type of soil had the highest available P. Generally, the extractable available P decreased with
corresponding increase in soil depth. The higher
extractable P in the surface 0-15 cm soil depth
in all the 3 types of soil could be ascribed to
the presence of higher organic matter content
of the soils. The available P contents in all the
soils were however below the critical limit of
10 mgkg-1 (Enwezor et al 1989,Uponi and Adeoye, 2000). This low available P component of

The inorganic P such as Al-P, Fe-P, Ca-P and


occluded P decreased with increased soil depth.
The Al-P, Fe-P, Ca-P and occluded-P ranged
from 0.25 to 160 mgkg-1, 0.47 to 3.60 mgkg-1,
0.10 to 1.60 mgkg-1 and 0.13 to 0.95 mgkg-1 respectively. Of all the inorganic P reported, the
Fe-P was found to be higher in all the soils probably due to the presence of abundant Fe in the
parent materials. This higher Fe-P obtained is
34

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

similar to the report of Adegbenroet al (2011).

be attributed to the presence of hydrous metal


oxides of iron and aluminium and clay and the
pH status of the soils.

The organic P which deceased with increased


depth of the soil ranged from 3.16 to 6.33 mgkg-1.
The organic P constituent in the total P at the top
0-15 cm depth soils in basement complex, alluvium and coastal plain sand soils were 44.58%
34.76% and 42.64% respectively while the 1530 cm depth were 56.20%, 44.49% and 47.02%
for basement complex, alluvium and coastal
plain sand soils respectively. The abundance of
organic P in the total P was due to the higher
amount of soil organic matter. This result is similar to that of Adegbenro et al (2011) and further
strengthens that of Omotoso and Wild (1976)
who reported that organic P components ranged
from 20-70% of the total P in South Western Nigeria.

Correlation coefficient between some soil


properties and forms of P in the soils
Table 3 shows the correlation coefficient between some soil properties and the forms of P in
the soils under investigation. The soil pH positively significantly correlated with occluded P
(r = 0.867), residual P (r = 0.797) and organic
P (0.964) indicating that soil pH has a greater
on these forms of P. The result further revealed
that the organic carbon positively significantly
with occluded P (r = 0.622) and residual P (r=
0.722) while the organic matter positively correlated with occluded P (r = 0.630), residual P
(r = 0.730), organic P (r = 0.590) and total P (r=
0.690). The sand fraction of the soils positively
correlated with Ca-P (r = 0.850) while the positively significant value between silt and Al-P
was r = 0.501. The clay content of the soils was
also positively significant with Al-P(r = 0.635.
The exhibition of positive correlation between
occlude P, residual P, Organic P, Total P and organic matter is an indication that organic matter have greater influence on organic P as well
as the entire soil P component. Similar results
have earlier been reported by Agboola and Oko
(1976) and Ohaeri and Eshett (2011).

The Total P which decreased with increased


soil depth in the 3 locations ranged from 6.72to
14.53 mgkg-1 with 0-15 cm top soils having the
highest total P constituent probably due to high
organic matter level. The total P components
obtained in this trial were low compared to the
values of 418.70 to 763.10 mgkg-1 obtained by
Adegbenro et al(2011) in Mica schist soil, 217
to 638 mgkg-1 reported by Uzuet al (1975) in
basement complex soil and 191 to 243 mgkg-1
discovered by Laganathan and Sutton (1987) in
sedimentary soil. The low level of total P may
35

Phosphorus status in some soils

Orhue et al

CONCLUSION

Kleinman, P. J. A; Bryant, R. B. and Rad, W.


S. 1999. Development of pedotransfer functions
to quantity phosphorus saturation of agricultural soil. Journal of Environmental Quality 28:
2026-2030

The trial reveals that the P forms and distribution varies with parent materials and also decreased with increased soil depth. The total P in
this trial was however below the critical limit
suggesting that fertilizer could be used to boost
the level of P in the soils under investigation.
The result further showed that organic matter has
greater influence on the P component of the soils
and that higher available P could be extracted
from the soils using the Bray P-2 extractant.

Lagnanathan, P. and Sutton, P. M. 1987.


Phosphorus fractions and availability in soils
formed on different geological deposits in the
Niger Area of Nigeria. Journal of Soil Science
143: 16-25
Malgwi, W. D., Ojanuga, A. G. Chude, V. O,
Kparmwang, T. and Raji, B. A. 2000.Morphological and physical properties of some soils at
Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria.Nigerian Journal of Soil
Research: 58-64

REFERENCES
Adegbenro, R. O., Ojetade, J. O. and Amusan,
A. A. 2011. Effect of topography on phosphorus
forms and distribution in soils formed in schist
in Ife area. Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary
Sciences 5 (1): 86-105

Murphy, J. and Riley, J. P. 1962.A modified


single solution method for determination of
phosphorus in natural waters.Analytical Chemistry 27: 31-36

Agboola, A. A. and Oko, B. 1976. An attempt


to evaluate plant available P in Western Nigeria
soils under shifting cultivation. Agronomy Journal 68: 798-801

Ohaeri, J. E. and Eshett, E. T. 2011. Phosphorus forms and distribution in selected soils
formed over different parent materials in Abia
State of Nigeria. Agro ScienceVol 10 (3): 28-37

Bray, R. H. and Kurtz, L. T. 1945. Determination of total organic and available forms of
phosphorus in soils.Soil Science 59: 39-45

Okusami, T. A. and Oyediran, G. O. 1985.


Slope-Soil relationship on an aberrant toposequence I Ife area of Southwestern Nigeria: Variabilities in soil properties. Ife Journal of Agriculture 7: 1-15

Enwenzor W.O; Udo, B.J; Usoroh, N.J;


Ayotade, K.A; Adepetu, J.A; Chude, V.A and
Udegbe C.A 1979.Fertilizer use and management for crops in Nigeria.Series 2, pp 163.

Omotoso, T. I. and Wild, A. 1971. Content of


inositol phosphate in some English and Nigeria
soils.Journal of Soil Science.Vol 21 (2):216-223.

Gee, G. W and Or, D. 2002. Particle size distribution: In Dane J.H., Topp G.C. (eds). Methods of soil analysis Part 4 Physical methods.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am Book series No. 5 ASA and
SSSA, Madison WI 225-293

Udo, E. J., Ibia, T. O., Ogunwale, J. A., Anuo,


A. O. and Esu, I. E. 2009.Manual of soil, plant
and water analysis.Sibon books Ltd, Lagos, Nigeria.

Indiati, R. and Sharpley, A. N. 1998. Changes in distribution of inorganic soil phosphorus


forms with phosphate desorption by iron oxideimpregnated paper stripes. Communication in
Soil and Plant Analysis. 29 (5 and 6): 625-634

Udo-Bassey, U. U., Kufre, E. I., Monday, T.


and Iduggafa, M. A. 2009. Fertility assessment
of some inland depression and floodplain (wet36

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land) soils in AkwaIbom State. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, Food, Environment and ExtensionVol 8 (1): 14-19

western Nigeria soils.Prceedings of the 29th annual Conference of the Soil Science Society of
Nigeria, Abeokuta, Nigeria 121-130

Ulen, B. and Snall, S. 2007. Forms and retention of phosphorus in an illite-clay soil profile
with a history of fertilisation with pig manure
and mineral fertilisers Geoderma 137: 455-465

Uzu, F. O., Juo, A. S. R. and Fayemi, A. A.


1975.Forms of phosphorus in some important
agricultural soils of Nigeria.Soil Science 120:
212-218

Uponi, J. I. and Adeoye, G. O. 2000.Keys to


soil taxonomy.United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 9thed 263-285

Yang, X., Post,W. M., Thornton,P. E.and Jain,


A. 2013. The distribution of soil phosphorus
for global biogeochemical modelling.Bio geosciences 10: 2525-2537.

Uzoho, B. U. and Oti, N. N. 2004.Phosphorus absorption characteristics of selected South-

37

NJSS 25, 2015

HEAVY METAL STATUS IN SOILS AND AMARANTHUS CRUENTUS


FROM FARMLAND ON THE BANK OF OROGODO RIVER, AGBOR,
DELTA STATE, NIGERIA.
Orhue, Ehi Robert1, Edosa, Ifeyinwa Valerie1 and Iyagbaye, Louis2
1
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Benin,
Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
2
Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Life Sciences,
University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
Corresponding Author: orhuerob@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the status of heavy metals in the soil and Amaranthus cruentus on the farmland at
bank of Orogodo River at Agbor, Delta State, Nigeria. Soil and plant samples were collected at an area
of 8000 m2. The soil samples were collected at a depth of 0-15 cm, 15-30 cm and 30-45 cm while the
plant samples were also sampled along with the sampling of the soil in December 2013. Both the soil and
plant samples were analysed using an appropriate laboratory methods. Results showed that the Cr, Cd
and Pb content of the soils at both sites decreased with increased soil depth and that these Cr, Cd and Pb
content at the river bank soils were significantly (P< 0.05) higher than those of the control. However, at
the control site the Cd content of the soil was fairly stable with the increased soil depth. The Cu, Fe and
Mn which increased with increased soil depth were significantly higher at the river bank soils than the
control. With the exception of Cd and Cr, significantly higher Cu, Fe, Mn and Pb content were recorded
at the river bankAmaranthus cruentus compared to control. The Cr was however not detected at the river
bank plants. Significantly(P < 0.05) higher Transfer Factor was attained by the Cd compared to other
heavy metals. The silt positively significantly correlated with Fe, Cu and negatively significantly correlated with Cr. The soil pH negatively significantly correlated with Fe, Cu and positively significantly
correlated with Cr. The sand and organic matter neither positively nor negatively significantly correlated
with the heavy metals studied.
Keywords: Heavy metals, Status, River bank, Farmland, Amaranthuscruentus
INTRODUCTION
dry season is used as a mean of irrigation and the
sediment and water from the river have been reported by Issa et al (2011) to contain numerous
heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, Ni, Mn,Zn, Cu and
Fe. Heavy metals in general are not biodegradable, have long biological half-lives and have the
potentials for accumulating in the different body

Orogodo River is the major river that transverses the entire Agbor community and agricultural activities in the area are carried out along
the bank of the river. Agricultural wastes, fertilizers, pesticides including sewage are discharged
directly into the river as a run-off (Rim-Rukeh
et al, 2006). Water from this river especially in
38

Heavy metal status in soils

Orhue et al

organs leading to unwanted side effects (Sathawara et al 2004).The excess content of these
metals in food is associated with etiology of a
number of diseases especially with cardiovascular, kidney, nervous as well as bone diseases
(Eslamic et al 2007).One of the ways these heavy
metals can enter the food chain is via the consumption of the vegetables irrigated or treated with the
water containing these metals.

hydrometer method of Gee and Or (2002) while


the soil pH was measured potentiometrically in 1:
1 soil-water ratio. The soil organic carbon, N, P,
K, Mg, Ca, Na, Pb, Fe, Cu, Mn, Cr and Cd were
determined by methods of Udo et al (2009). The
ground plant samples (< mm) were digested using 30 ml concentrated mixture of HNO3, HCIO4
and H2SO4 in 2: 1: 1 ratio. When the clear digested
solution was achieved, the contents were allowed
to cool and transferred to a 50 ml volumetric flask
and made to mark. The Pb, Fe, Cu, Mn, Cr and Cd
content of the plant were determined by Atomic
absorption spectrophotometer. The Transfer Factor
(TF) for each metal was calculated according to
the formula of Harrison and Chirgawi(1989): TF
= Ps (ugg-1 dry wt/St (ugg-1 dry wt) where Ps =
Plant heavy metal content originating from soil.
St = metal content in soil. Data obtained was analysed by Genstat Statistical Version. The Duncan
Multiple Range Test was used in separating the
means at 5 % level of probability.

The leafy vegetable in question (Amaranthus


cruentus) grown on the bank of Orogodo river
contains a lot of vitamins and is commonly consumed by the inhabitant even outside the community. Information on the heavy metal content
before consumption and introduction to the market is scarce. Therefore, the purpose of this trial
was to determine the level of heavy metal in the
river bank soil and the cultivated Amaranthuscruentus plant.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out on Amaranthuscruentus farm land occupying an area of 8000 m2 on
the bank of Orogodo River in Agbor, Delta State,
Nigeria. Orogodo River lies between latitude 5o
12 and 5o 31 and longitude 6o 20 and 6o 13.
Soil samples were collected at 0-15 cm, 15-30 cm,
and 30-45 cm soil depth at 10 locations giving a
total of 30 samples. The Amaranthus plants were
also collected from the corresponding spots. Similar soil samples along with 10 plant samples were
collected at Emuhu town about 5 km away from
the river bank to serve as the control.Samplings
were carried out in December, 2013. And the collected soil and plant samples were taken immediately
to the laboratory for analysis. The plant samples were
however washed with tap water and thereafter rinsed
with distilled water, oven-dried at 78OC for 48 hours.
Soil samples from each site were air-dried for 7 days.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


Physical and chemical properties of the studied soil
The soil physico-chemical properties of the
sites are shown in Table 1. The soil pH of the river
bank significantly (P< 0.05) increased with soil
depth while that of the control site significantly decreased with soil depth. Both soils from each location were moderately acidic. The organic carbon
and organic matter content of both sites decreased
significantly (P< 0.05) with increased soil depth.
The organic matter in both sites was deficient
when compared to the critical level of 20-30gkg1
reported by Enwezor et al (1989). The Ca content of the river bank soil had no significant corresponding increase with the soil depth. Although
the Ca component of the control soil increased
with increased soil depth, significant differenc-

The particle size analysis was determined by


39

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

bank and control soils significantly increased with increase soil depth. The N in the top soil of river bank
soil fall within the critical level of 1.5 gkg-1-2.0 gkg1
(Sobulo and Osiname, 1981) while P of both soils
at various depths represented deficiency considering
10-16 mgkg-1 being the critical level for crop production (Adeoye and Agboola, 1985). The textural class
revealed sandy loam for both soils at the sites.
Heavy metal content of the studied soils
Table 2 reveals the heavy metal content of the
study soils. The Cd of the river bank soil decreased
significantly with the soil depth while that of the
control soil was fairly stable with increased soil
depth. The Cr and Pb in both soils decreased with
increased depth of the soil while the Cu, Fe and
Mn increased with corresponding increase in soil
depth in both sites. The value of these heavy metals in the river bank soils were significantly (P<
0.05) higher than those of the control sites. The
occurrence of heavy metals in the river bank soils
showed that Cu > Fe >Pb>Mn> Cr > Cd whereas
in the control site, the trend was in order of Fe > Cu
>Mn>Pb>Cr > Cd. The presence of these metals
in both the river and control sites showed common
sources of these metals which could be related to
known geochemical association between the metals as earlier reported by Orhue and Izunwanne
(2013). The values of these metals when compared to values reported by international regulatory body, the mean of the Cu and Pb were above
the permissible level of 0.27 mgkg-1 and 0.006
mgkg-1 respectively (WHO/FAO, 2001) while the
Fe and Cd components were below the permissible limits of 100 mgkg-1 (USEPA, 1986) and 3
mgkg-1 (MAFF,1992) respectively. The mean Cr
content at the river bank soil was above the 0.3
mgkg-1 permissible limit reported by WHO(1984)
but at the control sites, the mean value of Cr was
discovered to be below the permissible level of
WHO(1984). The mean values of Mn in both the

es were not attained. The Ca content of both the


control site and the river bank soils were deficient
considering the 2.5 cmolkg-1 as the critical level
reported by Akinrinde and Obigbesan (2000). The
K and Mg increased non-significantly with soil
depth while Na significantly increased with the
depth of the soil in the two locations. The K and
Mg content of the soils were adequate considering
the 0.16-0.25 cmolkg-1 and 0.2-0.4 cmolkg-1 critical
levels respectively as earlier reported by Adeoye and
Agboola (1985). The N and P component of the river
40

Heavy metal status in soils

Orhue et al

river bank and the control soils were above the 0.3
mgkg-1 permissible level of WHO(1984). The persistent level of those heavy metals below the critical limit could result in high accumulation in the
soil with time and this high accumulation could
lead to higher concentration in plants cultivated on
the soil. This result further confirms that of Orhue
and Izunwanne(2013) who recorded accumulation
of heavy metals in fluted pumpkin cultivated on
Ikpoba River bank in Benin City.

above the WHO/FAO (2001) permissible limits


of 0.3 mgkg-1. The Cr was however not detected
in crops grown at the river site. The Fe and Cu
concentrations in the control plants were above
the WHO/FAO (2001) permissible limits of 0.3
mgkg-1, while Mn and Pb were below WHO/
FAO(2001) permissible limit of 0.3 mgkg-1. The
Cr content was also below WHO/FAO (2001)
permissible limit of 2.30 mgkg-1 while the Cd
content was equivalent to the WHO/FAO (2001)
permissible level of 0.3 mgkg-1. Similar results
of high concentration of heavy metals in crops
grown by the river bank have earlier been reported by Kashif et al (2000), Lawal and Audu
(2011) and Orhue and Izunwanne (2013).

Concentration of heavy metals in the Amaranthuscruentus


The concentrations of heavy metals in the
Amaranthus cruentus are depicted in Table 3.
The result showed higher accumulations of
heavy metals were achieved in the plants cultivated on the river bank compared to control
sites. The mean heavy metal concentration at
the river bank plants were in the order of Fe >
Cu >Pb>Mn> Cd > Cr. The Cr was however not
detected in the river site plants. At the control
site, the mean value of heavy metal concentration was in order of Fe > Cu >Pb>Mn> Cd =
Cr. The heavy metal content of the Amaranthus
at the river site when compared to permissible
limits set aside by international organisations, it
was revealed that Fe, Cu, Mn, Cd and Pb were

Transfer Factors (TF) for heavy metals from


soil to the Amaranthuscruentus
Table 4 shows the Transfer Factor (TF) of
the heavy metals from soil to the plant. Significantly higher TF was achieved in Cd compared
to other heavy metals. The TF was in order of
Cd >Mn>Pb> Fe >Cu > Cr. Generally, all the
heavy metals determined fall below Klokeet al
(1984) suggested ranges of 1-10. One of the key
compounds of human exposure to metals through
food chain is the Transfer Factors. The TF was
determined to quantify the relative differences in
41

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

Orhue and Izunwanne (2013).


Correlation coefficient between the heavy
metal concentration in the Amaranthuscruentusand some soilproperties
Table 5 shows the correlation coefficient
between the heavy metal concentration in the
Amaranthuscruentus and some soil physical
and chemical properties. Although sand nonsignificantly correlated negatively with Fe,
Cu, Mn and Cd, it non-significantly correlated
positively with Cr and Pb. The silt significantly
correlated positively with Fe and Cu and significantly correlated negatively with Cr. While
the clay non-significantly correlated negatively
with Fe, Cu, Pb and non-significantly positively
correlated with Mn, Cr and Cd. The pH also significantly correlated negatively with Fe, Cu and
significantly correlated positively with Cr. Nonsignificantly negative correlation was achieved
between pH and Mn, Cd as well as Pb. With the
exception of Cr which non-significantly correlated negatively with organic matter, the Fe,
Cu, Mn, Cd and Pb non-significantly correlated
positively with organic matter.
CONCLUSION
This study showed heavy metal accumulation in the river banks soils and the cultivated
amaranths compared to control soils and plants.
The significant relationship between the heavy
metals and some soil properties shows the importance of these soil properties in the availability of heavy metals studied. Conclusively,
continuous cultivation of this crop at the bank of
the river may bring about increased accumulation of the heavy metals in the plants and regular
consumption of this vegetable could lead to a
long term health problems to the people of that
community and the environs.

bioavailability of metals to plant or efficiency of


plant species to accumulate a given metal. Therefore, high Cd TF suggested that Cd uptake by the
Amaranth is higher. This further showed that Cd
is less retained in the soil than other metals. The
ability of the amaranth to accumulate the metals
in question may be due to some soil factors such
as sand, silt, clay, pH and organic matter as shown
by the correlation coefficient as earlier reported by
42

Heavy metal status in soils

Orhue et al

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mission.Food additives and contaminants.


Joint FAO/WHO Food standards programme,
ALINORM 01/12A, 1-289

Adeoye, G. O. and Agboola, A.A. (1985). Critical


levels of soil pH, available P, K, Zn and Mn
and maize ear leaf content of P, Cu and Mn
in sedimentary soil of Southwest Nigeria Fertilizer Research 6: 65- 71

Gee, G. W and Or, D. (2002). Particle size distribution: In Dane J.H., Topp G.C. (eds). Methods of soil analysis Part 4 Physical methods.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am Book series No. 5 ASA and
SSSA, Madison WI 225-293

Akinrinde, E.A. and Obigbesan, G. O. (2000).


Evaluation of fertility status of selected soil
for crop production in five ecological zones of
Western Nigeria.Proceeding of the 26th Annual
Conference of Soil Science Society of Nigeria.
University of Ibadan. October 30- November
3. 279-288

Harrison, R. M. and Chirgawi, M. B.(1989). The


assessment of air and soil as contributors of
some trace metals to vegetable plants 1, Use of
a filtered air flow cabinet. Science of the Total
Environment 83: 13-38

Enwezor, W. O; Udo, E. J; Usoroh, N. J; Ayotade,


K.A; Adepetu, J.A; Chude, V. O. and Udegbe,
C. I. (1989).Fertilizer use and managementpractices for crops in Nigeria.Series No 2.Bobma Publishers Ibadan, Nigeria 163pp

Issa, B. R., Arimoro, F. O., Ibrahim, M. Birma, G.


J. and Fadairo, E. O. (2011).Assessment of sediment contamination by heavy metals in River
Orogodo, Agbor, Delta State, Nigeria.Current
World EnvironmentVol 6(1): 29-38

Eslami, A., Jahed-Khaniki, G. R., Nurani, M.,


Merhashi, M., Peyda, M. and Azimi, R. (2007).
Heavy metals in edible green vegetables grown
along the sites of the Zanjanrood River in Zanjan, Iran.Journal of Biological Sciences 7(6):
943-948

Kashif, S. R;Akram, M; Yaseen, M and Ali, S.


(2009). Studies on heavy metals status and
their uptake by vegetables in adjoining areas of
Hudiara drain in Lahore.Soil and Environment
28(1): 7-12
Kloke, A; Sauerbeck, D. R. and Vetter, H. (1984).
The contamination of plants and soils with

FAO/WHO, (2001).Codex Alimentarius Com43

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

try and Ecotoxicology Vol. 3(6): 142-148


MAFF and Welch Office Agriculture Department(1992).Code of good agricultural practice
for the protection of soil. Draft Consultation
Document, MAFF London.
National Environmental Protection Measures
(NEPM) (1999). Assessment of site Contamination. National Environment Protection Council: Adelaede http://www.ephc.gov.aulnepus/
cs/consikshtml.
Orhue, E. R. and Izunwanne, C. L. (2013). Heavy
metals of soil and their uptake by fluted
pumpkin(Telfairiaoccidentalis Hook F) cultivated
along Ikpoba River Bank, Benin City. Nigerian
Journal of Soil ScienceVol 23 (1): 102-109
Rim-Rukeh, A., Ikhifa, O. G. and Okokoyo, A. P.
(2006). Effect of agricultural activities on the
water quality of Orogodo river, Agbor, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences Research 2(5):
256-259
Sathawara, N. G., Parikh, D. J. and Agarwal, Y.
K. (2004).Essential heavy metals in environmental samples from western India.Bulletin of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
73: 756-761
Sobulo, R.A. and Osiname, O. A. (1981).Soils and
fertilizer use in Western Nigeria.Research Bulletin. No 11. I.A.R.T University of Ife.
U. S. E. P. A (United State Environmental Protection Agency)(1986). Test Methods of evaluation for solid waste USERAS/W846, U. S E P
A Washington D. C

heavy metals and transport of metals in terrestrial food chain in changing metal cycles and
human health report of Dahlem Workshop
on changing metal cycles and human health,
Berlin, Germany. (Ed Nriagu, J. O.) SprngerVerlag, Berlin. 113-141

Udo, E. J; Ibia, T. O; Ogunwale, J.A; Anuo, A. O.


and Esau I. E. (2009) Manual of soil, plant and
water analyses.Sibon Books LTD, Lagos. 183p

Lawal, A. O. and Audu, A. A. (2011). Analysis of


heavy metals found in vegetables from Some
cultivated irrigated gardens in the Kano metropolis, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Chemis-

WHO (World Health Organization) (1984).Guidelines for soil, water and plant quality.Vol. 1
Recommendation W.H.O. Geneva 130p.
44

NJSS 25, 2015

FERTILITY BASELINE STUDY OF MAJOR COCOA GROWING


SOILS OF NIGERIA AND IMPLICATION FOR COCOA PRODUCTION
IN NIGERIA
Ajiboye G. A.1, Jaiyeoba, J. O.2, Olaiya, A. O.1 and Hammed L. A.1
1
College of plant Science and Crop Production, Federal University of
Agriculture Abeokuta Abeokuta Ogun State Nigeria
2
Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nassarawa State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Field and laboratory studies were conducted to evaluate the fertility status of the soils of three major
cocoa producing States in Nigeria. Survey of the selected Local Government Areas was carried out
and soil samples were collected at 0-30 and 31-60 cm depths. The physico-chemical properties of
the soils were assessed in relation to cocoa nutritional requirements using standard methods while
descriptive statistics was used to interpret the results. The physical properties of the soils indicated
that the mean sand, silt and clay content of the soils were 64.84%, 9.09% and 26.09% respectively.
The average texture of the soils (sandy clay loam) was assessed to be adequate for cocoa production. However, the soil pH in water (pHw) which ranged from 4.25-6.90 was considered sub-optima
especially in Cross River State where the mean pHw was <5.0. The exchangeable Mg, Ca and K
which averaged 0.62, 4.21 and 0.17 cmol kg-1 respectively were also considered inadequate for
cocoa production. Furthermore, the soil total nitrogen (TN) and available P (Bray-1 P) contents
which averaged 0.11% and 2.77 mg kg-1 were also not adequate for cocoa production. While the
level of the copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn) and Boron (B) which had mean values of 9.0, 0.49 and 1.34 mg
kg-1 were considered adequate, the soil average content of iron (243.60 mg kg-1) and manganese
(363.00 mg kg-1) were considered toxic. It was therefore concluded that due to the low effective
cation exchange capacities (ECEC <10 cmol kg-1) of these soils, sustainable cocoa production on
these soils will require split application of appropriate inorganic fertilizers.
Keywords: Soil fertility, Micronutrients, Particle size distribution, Cocoa producing areas, Nigeria
INTRODUCTION
cocoa and the rest being mainly the Amelonado
variety (Olaiya, 2006). Cocoa is produced by
small-scale farmers on small farms ranging in
size between 1 5 hectares and relying mainly
on family labour (70%), hired labour (20%) and
caretaker labour (10%) (Hamzat et al., 2006).

Nigeria is the worlds fourth largest producer


of cocoa and produced 170,000 tons of cocoa
in 2005/2006 which accounted for about 5% of
global production (Amoa-Awua, et al; 2007).
Cocoa accounts for about 30% of Nigerias Agricultural Gross Domestic Product with the Amazon variety accounting for about 70% of the

Cocoa is the single largest agricultural export


45

Fertility of Cocoa soils

Ajiboye et al

commodity crop in Nigeria and worth more than


120 billion naira in terms of trading. There are
over five million people employed in Nigerian
Cocoa Industry ranging from peasant farmers
to processors and exporters driving its value
chain. Cocoa is one of the major sources of revenue to its fourteen producing states that has
been grouped into three according to the level
of production (Hamzat et al., 2006). However,
the production of this important export crop in
Nigeria has suffered a decline in the recent years
as a result of a number of factors such as low
yield arising from old and poor planting material; depletion of humid rainforest and decline
in soil fertility; and lack of good agricultural
practices in the management of Cocoa plantation (Iremiren et al., 2012). There is the need for
improvement in all the series of activities from
site selection to primary processing that will ensure sustainable Cocoa farming in Nigeria.

up of at least ten (10) to fifteen (15) random


samples taken within the established soil series.
The collected soil samples were air dried,
sieved using 2 mm sieve and analyzed for the
soil physical properties, macro and micro nutrient contents.
Particle size distribution was determined by
the hydrometer method (Buoyoucos, 1962) after the removal of organic matter with hydrogen
peroxide and dispersion with sodium hexametaphosphate (IITA, 1979). The pH was determined with glass electrode pH meter in soil:
water and soil: KCl media, each at ratio 1: 1.
Exchangeable cations (calcium, magnesium,
potassium and sodium) were extracted with
neutral normal sodium acetate (NH4OAc at pH
7.0). Calcium and magnesium in the ammonium
acetate extract were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, while potassium
and sodium were determined by flame photometry. The effective cation Exchange capacity
(ECEC) was determined by the summation of
the exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, Na and K) and
exchangeable acidity.

As a first step towards revitalization of cocoa


production in the country, it is the objective of this
study to carry out the fertility baseline study of the
major cocoa producing areas of the country.

The organic carbon content of the soils was


determined by the modified wet oxidation
method (Shamshuddin et al., 1995), available P
was extracted with Bray-1 solution and P concentration in the extract was determined colorimetrically by the method of Murphy and Riley
(1962). Available Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in the soils
were extracted with 0.04M EDTA and their concentrations determined by atomic absorption
spectophotometry. The data generated were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS


Three major cocoa producing states were selected for this study based on the report of cocoa
production survey carried out between 2005 and
2007 (Iremiren et al., 2012). The selected states
were Ondo, Cross River and Osun states in order of production. In each state, the Local Government Area with the highest production record
was selected. These Local Government Areas
are Idanre LGA in Ondo State, Etung LGA in
Cross River State and Atakumosa West LGA in
Osun State. In each of the LGA, thirty (30) bulk
samples were collected from established soil series; fifteen (15) each from 0 30 cm and 31
60 cm depth. Each composite sample was made

RESULTS
Soils of Etung LGA, Cross River State
The soils of Etung local government in Cross
46

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

river state consist of Agbokim Series (RED) and


Ajassor Series (WHITE). The farmers are more
favourably disposed to the use of the Agbokim
series than Ajassor series in the production of
Cocoa. The major differences that exists between these two soil series is the clay and gravel
contents of the soils. Agbokim series has higher
clay and lower gravel contents than the soils of
Ajassor series. Also, the soils of Agbokim series
has rhodic colour while those of Ajassor has yel-

lowish colour. This is likely to translate to differences in their iron oxide mineralogy.

tions were 17.15, 7.39 and 10.27 for sand, silt


and clay, respectively (Table 1). However, the
soils of Agbokim series had sand particle size
fraction that ranged from 48.40 to 77.00% while
the silt size fraction ranged from 7.40 to 16.40%
and the clay fraction had values that ranged from
9.60 to 40.80% with a mean value of 28.44%.
The variability in the distribution of the particle
size fraction in the soils of Agbokim series was
higher than those of Ajassor series. The variance

of the distribution of the particle size fractions


were 147.57, 9.84 and 13.31 respectively for
sand, silt and clay.

The physical and chemical characteristics of


the samples taken from 0-30 cm is presented in
Table 1. Characteristically, the soils of Ajassor
series had sand particle size fraction that ranged
from 73.00 to 82.40% whereas the silt fraction
of the soils ranged from 4.80 to 10.40% and the
clay fraction ranged from 12.80 to 21.60%. The
variance of the distribution of particle size frac-

The reactions of the soils in distilled (pHw)


ranged from extremely acid to strongly acid.
The soils of Ajassor series had pH that ranged
from 4.25 to 5.75 while Agbokim soil series had
pH which ranged from 4.40 to 5.35 (in water).
The distribution of the pH of the two soil series
was fairly uniform with a variance of 0.33 and
47

Fertility of Cocoa soils

Ajiboye et al

0.12 in the soils of Ajassor and Agbokim series


respectively. The pH values of the soils of Ajassor and Agbokim series in CaCl2 (pHc) were expectedly lower than the pH in water (pHw) and
ranged from and 3.85 to 5.10 in Ajassor series
but ranged from 3.75 to 5.05 in Agbokim series.

TN ranged from 0.03 to 0.11% in the soils of


Ajassor series while the soils of Agbokim series
had TN content that ranged from 0.03 to 0.24%
The magnesium content of the soils was very
low and ranged between 0.34 and 0.54 cmol
kg-1 in Ajassor series and between 0.58 and 0.76
cmol kg-1 in the soils of Agbokim series. Also,
the calcium (Ca) contents of the soils ranged
from very low to moderate. The of Ca content
of the soils of Ajassor series ranged from 0.91
and 5.32 cmol kg-1 with a mean of 2.10 cmol
kg-1 while that of Agbokim soil series ranged
between 0.57 and 8.75 cmol kg-1 with a mean
of 2.22 cmol kg-1. The potassium (K) content
of the soils also ranged very low to moderate
and ranged from 0.12 to 0.42 cmol kg-1 in Ajassor soil series while Agbokim soil series had potassium contents that ranged from 0.10 to 0.27
cmol kg-1.

Organic carbon (OC) content of the soils was


generally low to moderate and ranged from 0.94
to 1.22% in Ajassor series but ranged from 1.4 to
3.21% in the soils of Agbokim series. The mean
value of the OC content of the two soil series
were 1.08% for Ajassor series and 1.78% for
Agbokim series while the variance of the distribution of the OC content of the soils were 0.02
and 1.06 respectively for Ajassor and Agbokim
series.
The mean total nitrogen (TN) content of the
soils was very low and the variation in spatial
distribution was equally small. The values of

48

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

The range of other nutrients content of the


soils of Ajassor series were 1.40 to 3.56 mg kg-1
for available phosphorus (P), 78.40 to 381.50
mg kg-1for iron (Fe), 5.90 to 97.20 mg kg-1 for
manganese (Mn), 0.17 to 1.42 mg kg-1 for copper (Cu), 0.04 to 7.70 mg kg-1 for zinc (Zn) and
0.59 to 3.03 1.34 mg kg-1 for boron (B). Similarly the soils of Agbokim series had available P
that ranged from 1.34 to 7.52 mg kg-1, Fe that
ranged from 61.20 to 701.60 mg kg-1 and Mn
contents that ranged from 1.10 to 571.50 mg kg1. Furthermore, the Cu content of the soils of
Agbokim series ranged from 0.96 to 22.31mg
kg-1 while the Zn and B contents ranged from
0.07 to 1.60 mg kg-1 and 0.15 to 4.21 mg kg-1
respectively.
At 31- 60 cm depth, the characteristics of the
two soil series were similar to those of 0 30
cm depth in trend but the absolute values differed. Generally, the quantity of sand and silt
were lower at 31 - 60 cm depth in both soil
series (Ajassor and Agbokim) but the clay contents were higher than those of 0 30 cm depth
(Tables1 and 2). For example, the mean sand,
silt and clay contents of the soils of Ajassor series at 31 60 cm depth were 69.16%, 6.36%
and 24.48% respectively (Table 2) as against
76.16% sand, 6.96% silt and 16.88% clay (Table
1) observed at 0 30 cm depth. This same trend
was observed for the soils of Agbokim series.

< 10 to >50%.
For the soils of Agbokim series, apart from
the Na content and ESP, the mean values of all
the other soil chemical properties at 31 60
cm depth were lower than the values of these
properties at 0-30 cm depth. And as observed
in the soils of Ajassor series, the differences in
the mean values of these properties at 0-30 cm
and 3160 cm depth ranged in most cases from
<10 >50%
Soils of Atakumosa West LGA, Osun State
In Atakumosa West LGA of Osun State, the
three soil series identified in the cocoa producing areas were Itagunmodi, Owena and Araromi
series.
The soils have sandy loam to sandy clay loam
texture on the surface (0 30 cm depth). The
soils of Itagunmodi series had 69.00 81.00%
sand, 7.40 11.40% silt and 11.60 21.60%
clay. Similarly owena soil series had sand content that ranged from 63.00 75.00%; 7.40
13.40% silt and 13.60 23.60% clay while the
particle size composition of the soils of Araromi
series was 69.00 72.40% sand, 7.40 8.80%
silt and 18.80 23.60% clay (Table 3).
Itagunmodi soil series had pHw that ranged
from extremely acid to neutral (4.40 6.90) and
pHc that ranged from extremely acid to slightly
acid (3.85 6.30). For the soils of Owena series,
the soil reaction in water (pHw) ranged from
very slightly acid to slightly acid (4.85 6.25)
while the pH in CaCl2 (pHc) was slightly acid
(5.05 5.40). The pHw of the soils of Araromi
series ranged from moderately acid to slightly
acid (5.65 6.25) whiles the pHc ranged from
slightly acid to moderately acid (5.40 5.60).

Comparing the mean values of other soil


properties at 0 30 cm with those of 31 60
cm, the values of OC, TN, K, Na, BS, ESP, Fe,
Mn, Zn and B at 31 60 cm depth in the soil of
Ajassor series were lower than those of 0 30
cm depth. However, the mean values of TEA,
Mg, Ca, ECEC, P and Cu at 31 60 cm depth
were higher than those of 0 30 cm depth. The
differences in the values of all the soil properties
at 0 30 cm and 31 60 cm depth ranged from

The OC content of the three soil series ranged


from very low to high (0.15 2.04%). Among
49

Fertility of Cocoa soils

Ajiboye et al

the three soil series, Itagunmodi series had the


highest OC content followed by Owena series
while Araromi series ranked the least in OC
content. The OC content of the soils of Itagunmodi series ranged from 1.26 to 2.04%, that of
Owena series ranged from 0.79 to 1.44% while
the Araromi series had OC content that ranged

from 0.15 1.48%.


The values of total nitrogen (TN) observed
in the soils of Itagunmodi, Owena and Araromi
series followed the same pattern of distribution
as that of OC distribution. As such the TN content of these soils were generally low (0.04
0.16%). The values of the TN ranged from 0.11
50

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

to 0.16%, 0.08 to 0.12% and 0.04 to 0.13% respectively for Itagunmodi, Owena and Araromi
series respectively.

0.55 0.74 cmol kg-1, 0.43 0.75 cmol kg-1


and 0.69 0.71 cmol kg-1 respectively for Itagunmodi, Owena and Araromi series. Although
the exchangeable Ca content of the soils at Itagunmodi and Araromi series were above the
critical requirement (5 cmol kg-1) for Cocoa
production, the variability in the spatial distribu-

The mean Mg content of the soils were fairly


uniformly distributed but lower than the critical
requirement of 0.9 cmol kg-1 for cocoa production. The Mg content of the soils ranged from
51

Fertility of Cocoa soils

Ajiboye et al

tion of the Ca content of the soils was very high


in the soils of Itagunmodi series (mean = 8.79
cmol kg-1 and variance = 45.20) . The mean Ca
content of the soils of Owena series was however lower than the critical requirement for Cocoa
production. The Ca content of the soils ranged
from 0.63 20.09 cmol kg-1 in Itagunmodi,
3.08 6.99 cmol kg-1 in Owena and 4.61 6.10
cmol kg-1 in Araromi series.
The K content of the soils ranged from very
low to low (0.10 0.31 cmol kg-1) but the lowest
K value was observed in the soils of Araromi series where the value of available K ranged from
0.15 to 0.17cmol kg-1. The soils of Itagunmodi
series had available K that ranged from 0.10 to
0.30 while Owena series had K that ranged from
0.14 to 0.31 cmol kg-1.
The exchangeable sodium (Na) content of the
soils ranged from low (0.22 cmol kg-1) to high
(0.89 cmol kg-1). The spatial variation in the
value of Na was highest in the soil of Itagunmodi series where the Na content ranged from
0.22 to 0.89 cmol kg-1 and least in the soils of
Owena series were the Na content ranged from
0.22 to 0.30 cmol kg-1
The effective cation exchange capacity
(ECEC) of the soils were very low. The ECEC
of the soils ranged from 2.23 to 21.25 cmol kg-1
in Itagunmodi series, 4.31 to 8.28 cmol kg-1 in
Owena and 6.10 to 7.28 cmol kg-1 in Araromi
series.
The soils of Atakumosa West LGA were deficient in available-P (Bray-1). The P content of
the soils ranged from 1.28 to 6.28 mg kg-1 in
the soils of Itagunmodi, 1.28 to 1.38 mg kg-1 in
Owena and 1.28 to 2.37 mg kg-1 in Araromi
series.
The micronutrients content of the soils of
AWLGA were moderate to high. In Itagunmodi
52

soil series, the ranges of the micronutrients were


123.60 to 324.80 mg kg-1for iron (Fe), 299.40
to 536.90 mg kg-1 for manganese (Mn), 4.56 to
38.62 mg kg-1 for copper (Cu), 0.31 to 1.47 mg
kg-1 for zinc (Zn) and 0.22 to 2.69 mg kg-1 for
boron (B). Similarly the soils of Owena series
had Fe that ranged from 196.90 to 306.10 mg
kg-1, Mn contents that ranged from 453.10 to
552.60 mg kg-1, Cu content which ranged from
4.80 to 27.11 mg kg-1 while the Zn and B contents ranged from 0.34 to 1.74 mg kg-1 and 1.39
to 2.79 mg kg-1 respectively. Furthermore, the
soils of Araromi series had Fe that ranged from
157.50 to 167.20 mg kg-1, Mn which ranged
from 499.40 to 503.30 mg kg-1 while the Cu
content ranged from12.37 to 15.33 mg kg-1.
Also, in the soils of Araromi series, the Zn content ranged from 0.22 to 0.84 mg kg-1 while the
B content ranged from 1.74 to 2.08 mg kg-1.
A comparison of the physical and chemical
properties of the soils of Itangunmodi series
at 31 60 cm depth with those at 0 30 cm
depth shows that apart from the clay, available
P, Zn, B, ECEC, base saturation and ESP, which
had higher mean values at 31 60 cm depth,
the mean values of all the other properties had
lower values at 31- 60 cm depth. Similarly, it
was the mean values of the clay, ESP, available
P and B that were higher at 31-60 cm depth in
the soils of Owena series while in the soils of
Araromi series, the mean clay, pHw, OC, TN,
Mg, K, P and ESP were higher at 31 60 cm
depth (Tables 3 and 4).
The soils of Idanre LGA, Ondo State
Three soil series namely Fagbo, Ondo and
Oba were selected in the cocoa producing area
of Idanre Local Government Area of Ondo State.
The fertility status of these soils was inadequate

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

for sustainable high productivity of cocoa in the


area.

spectively for the soils of Fabo, Ondo and Oba


series. Similarly, the Ca content of the the soils
of Fagbo ranged from 4.95 - 7.41 cmol kg-1,
Ondo series had Ca that ranged from 3.14 - 11.94
cmol kg-1 while the Ca content of the soils of
Oba series ranged from 6.80 - 10.12 cmol kg-1.
Furthermore, the values of K ranged from 0.14 0.47 cmol kg-1, 0.14 - 0.35 cmol kg-1 and 0.11
- 0.22 cmol kg-1 for Fagbo, Ondo and Oba soil
series respectively. Equally, the exchangeable
sodium (Na) content of the soils ranged from
0.21 - 0.37 cmol kg-1, 0.23 - 0.30 cmol kg-1
and from 0.23 - 0.25 cmol kg-1 respectively for
Fagbo, Ondo and Oba series.

Characteristically, the soils of Fagbo series


had sand content that ranged from 68.40 to
78.40%, silt content that ranged from 6.80 to
10.80%, and clay content, which ranged from
14.80 20.80, The soil texture ranged from
sandy loam to sandy clay loam. Oba soils on
the other hand had soil texture that ranged from
sandy loam to sandy clay loam. The particle
size fractions had sand content that ranged from
53.00 to 79.00%, silt content which ranged
from 9.40 to 13.40%, and clay content that
ranged from 11.60 to 33.60%. The soils of Ondo
series had sand content which ranged from
70.40 to 79.00%, silt contents that ranged from
7.40 to 10.80% and clay contents between 13.60
and 18.80% (Table 5).

The effective cation exchange capacities


(ECEC) of the soils were very low. The ECEC
of the soils ranged from 6.16 to 8.60 cmol kg-1
in Fagbo series, 4.26 to 13.40 cmol kg-1 in Ondo
and 7.93 to 11.44 cmol kg-1 in Oba series.

The pHw of the soils ranged from 5.10 to


5.60, 5.35 to 6.20 and 5.60 to 5.85 respectively for Fagbo, Ondo and Oba series. The pH of
these series of soils in CaCl2 (pHc) were lower
than pHw and ranged from 4.55 to 5.45, 4.95 to
5.40 and 5.00 to 5.40 respectively for the soils of
Fagbo, Ondo and Oba series.

The soils of IDLGA were deficient in available-P (Bray-1). The P content of the soils ranged
from 1.28 to 1.84 mg kg-1 in the soils of Fagbo,
1.59 to 2.21 mg kg-1 in Ondo and 1.28 to 1.73
mg kg-1 in Oba series.

The Organic carbon (OC) content of the soils


which ranged from 0.80 - 1.55%, 0,29 - 2.34%
and 1.27 - 2.09% respectively for Fagbo, Ondo
and Oba series were considered moderate for
cocoa production. Also, the total nitrogen (TN)
content of the soils were very low and ranged
from 0.08 to 0.13% in the soils of Fagbo series,
from 0.05 to 0.18% in the soils of Ondo series
while the soils of Oba series had TN content that
ranged from 0.11 to 0.17%

The micronutrient content of the soils of Fagbo ranged from 167.10 to 172.60 mg kg-1 for
iron (Fe), 372.60 to 429.90 mg kg-1 for manganese (Mn), 2.61 to 23.31 mg kg-1 for copper
(Cu), 0.12 to 0.43 mg kg-1 for zinc (Zn) and
1.28 to 2.07 mg kg-1 for boron (B). Similarly
the soils of Ondo series had Fe that ranged from
148.90 to 194.60 mg kg-1, Mn that ranged from
432.60 to 492.00 mg kg-1, Cu that ranged from
2.87 to 30.12 mg kg-1, Zn which ranged from
0.19 to 0.36 mg kg-1

The exchangeable cations content of the soils


were generally very low. The Mg content of the
soils ranged from 0.68 - 0.73 cmol kg-1, 0.59
- 0.78 cmol kg-1 and 0.69 - 0.76 cmol kg-1 re-

Comparing the mean values of the physical


and chemical properties of these soils at 0 30
cm with those of 31 60 cm indicated that in the
soils of Fagbo series the mean clay, pHw, TEA,
53

Fertility of Cocoa soils

Ajiboye et al

Na, ESP, available P and Fe content of the soils


were higher at 31 60 cm depth while the mean
values of all the other properties were lower at
31 60 cm depth. In the soils of Ondo series
however, it was the mean clay, OC, available P,
Zn and B content that were higher at 31 60 cm
depth. The other soil characteristic had lower

values at 31 60 cm depth. Oba soil series had


higher mean values of clay, pHw, Ca, Na and
ESP at 31- 60 cm depth.
DISCUSSIONS
Ibiremo et al., (2011) quoting from different authorities indicated that for cocoa produc-

54

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

tion the soil critical requirement were 0.9 g/kg


N, 30.0 g/Kg OC, C/N ratio of 9; pH in water
ranging from 5 8; 10.0 mg/Kg P, 0.30 cmolc/
Kg K, 5 cmolc/Kg Ca, 0.9 cmolc/Kg Mg, base
saturation of 60% and Ca/Mg ratio of 1 3. FFD
(2011) indicated that Zinc deficiency can affect
Cocoa seedling while Boron was only recom-

mended at the rate of 30 g of Borax per plant


in mature F3 Amazon. In terms of the physical
characteristics of the soils required for optimum
cocoa production, cocoa require a deep (> 100
cm), fine to medium textured soil ( Sandy clay,
clay, silty clay), well drained soils with high water holding capacity (Ritung et al., 2007).

55

Fertility of Cocoa soils

Ajiboye et al

The optimum pH for good performance of


Cocoa ranges from 6.0 to 7.0 (pH in water). The
pH of the two soil series of Etung Local Government Area were lower than this critical requirement and therefore, fertilizers application should
aim at increasing the pH toward neutrality.

The mean Ca contents of the soils of Oba


(7.10 cmol kg-1) and Ondo (7.00 cmol kg-1)
were higher than the critical requirement of 5
cmol kg-1 but lower in the soils of Fagbo (4.92
cmol kg-1) series. The value values of Mg in the
soils were however lower than the critical value
of 0.90 cmol kg-1 requires for Cocoa production. The available phosphorus content of the
soils was below the critical soil requirement of
10-12 mg kg-1for cocoa production. The very
high level of copper found in the soils of Oba
and Ondo series could probably have resulted
from accumulation of Cu on the soil surfaces as
a result of the application of copper based fungicides used in the control of Black pod disease of
Cocoa. Both Cu and Boron concentration in the
soils are higher than the critical values of 0.51.0 mg kg-1 and 4-10 mg kg-1 respectively for
boron and copper. The soil content of Fe and Mn
were far above the critical requirements of 50
100 mg kg-1 and 2 - 20 mg kg-1 for Fe and Mn
respectively.

The exchangeable magnesium (Mg), Ca, and


K content of the soils were also lower than the
critical soil requirements of 0.90, 5.0, and 0.30
cmol kg-1 respectively for Mg, Ca and K. Thus
the application of moderate- high quantities of
Mg, Ca and K fertilizers will be required to raise
the soil content of these elements above the critical soil requirement for coca production.
Furthermore the available P content of both
Ajassor and Agbokim soil series were below the
critical soil requirement of 10 12 mg kg-1 for
cocoa production. The levels of copper and Boron were higher than the critical values of 0.5
1.0 mg kg-1 and 4 10 mg kg-1 respectively
for boron and copper and were adequate in the
soils of Agbokim series but deficient in the soils
of Ajassor series. The soil content of Fe and Mn
were far above the critical requirements of 50
100 mg kg-1 and 2 -20 mg kg-1 for Fe and
Mn respectively. The levels of Fe and Mn in the
soils of Ajassor series were considered adequate
but toxic in the soils of Agbokim series. Although there had never been any reported case
of Fe and Mn toxicity in the soils, most soils
currently used for coca plantation in Nigeria
have an averagely high concentration of these
two micro-nutrients and the soils have been supporting good cocoa yields.

A critical review of the properties of the soils


of Atakumosa West Local Government Area
(AWLGA) also showed that apart from the level
of exchangeable Ca (7.47 cmol kg-1) the level
of all other macronutrient elements were inadequate for cocoa production. Also, level of Zn
was inadequate while the soil Fe and Mn contents were considered toxic.
CONCLUSION
The low fertility status of these soils could
be one of the factors responsible for the current
low yields ( 400 kg/ha) obtained in the farmers
field (Iremiren et al; 2012). To achieve sustainable good yield ( 1000 kg/ha) of cocoa from
these soils, it will be highly necessary to apply
appropriate fertilizers in split because of the low
ECEC of the soils.

In Idanre Logal Government Area (IDLGA),


the macronutrients content of the soils were lower
than the minimum requirements for cocoa production. The CEC, exchangeable bases, available
phosphorus and pH of the soils fell below the critical requirements for cocoa production.
56

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

REFERENCES

Iremiren, G. O.; Oduwole, O. O.; Obatolu, B.


O.; Aigbekaen, E.; Sanusi, R. A.; Shittu, T.
R.; Emaku, L. E.; Ibiremo, O. S.; Aikpokpodion, P.; Agbeniyi, S. O.; Ndubuaku, T. C.
N.; Adeogun, S. and Olaiya, A. (2012). Cocoa Production Survey in Nigeria. Report
published by Cocoa Research Institute of
Nigeria. ISBN : 9789785065664. Pages: 84.

Amoa-Awua,W.F, Madsen,M., Takramah J.,


Olaiya A.O., Ban-Kofi,L and Jakobsen M.
(2007). Quality manual for production and
primary processing of Cocoa. Published by
Food Research Institute, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Ghana. Pages
: 113.

Murphy J, Riley, J. P. (1962). A modified single solution method for the determination of
phosphate in natural waters. Anal Chemical
Acta. 27:3136.

Buoyoucos C. J. (1962). Hydrometer method


improved for making particle size analysis of
soils. Agronomy Journal. 54:464465.
FFD (Federal Fertilizer Department) (2011).
Fertilizer use and management practices for
crop production in Nigeria. 4th Edition; eds
V. O. Chude; S. O. Olayiwola; A. O. Osho
and C. K. Daudu, Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Abuja, Nigeria. ISSN 115-554X.

Olaiya, A. O. (2006). Effects of Boron, Naphthalene acetic acid and Gibberellic acid spray on
pod development and yield of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L). Submitted to the department
of Agronomy in the Faculty of Agriculture
and Forestry, University of Ibadan. For the
award of Ph.D in Agronomy.

Hamzat, R.A.; Olaiya, A.O.; Sanusi, R.A and


Adedeji, A.R. (2006). State of cocoa growing, quality and research in Nigeria : Need
for intervention. Published by Distinct Global Concepts Company,Lagos,Nigeria. ISBN:
9780732599. Pages :52.

Ritung S, Wahyunto, Agus F, Hidayat H. (2007).


Land Suitability Evaluation with a case map
of Aceh Barat District. Indonesian Soil Research Institute and World Agroforestry Centre, Bogor, Indonesia. Pp 42
Shamshuddin J, Jamailah I, Ogunwale J. A.
(1995). Organic carbon determination in acid
sulfate soils. Pertanika Journal of Tropical
Agricultural Science. 17(3):197200.

Ibiremo, O.S.; Daniel, M.A.; Iremiren, G.O.


and Fagbola, O. (2011). Soil Fertility Evaluation for Cocoa Production in Southeastern
Adamawa State, Nigeria. World Journal of
Agricultural Sciences 7 (2): 218-223
International Institute for Tropical Agriculture
(IITA) (1979). Selected methods for soils
and plant analysis. 3rd ed. Ibadan (Nigeria):
IITA. 34 pp.

57

NJSS 25, 2015

PROFILE DISTRIBUTION OF CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS


SESQUIOXIDES IN TALC OVERBURDEN SOILS OF SOUTHERN
GUINEA SAVANNA ECOLOGY IN NIGERIA
Ajiboye*, G.A.1, Ogunwale, J.A.2 and Aduloju, M.O.2
1
Department of Soil Science and Land Management, COLPLANT, University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta, Ogun State. Nigeria.
2
c/o Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin,
Kwara State. Nigeria
*Corresponding Author: Dr. G. A. Ajiboye; email: ajiboye_godwin@yahoo.com
Telephone: +2348051226166.
ABSTRACT
The stage of development of soils developed over talc overburden in two locations (Ejiba and OdoOgbe) within the Southern Guinea Savanna Agro-ecology of Kogi State, Nigeria, were evaluated
using the dithionite and oxalate extractable Fe, Al oxides and the ratios of silt : clay and silt : silt
+clay of the soils. Soil samples collected from the pedogenic horizons of nine profile pits dug in
the two sites were analyzed using standard procedures. The soils had higher values of dithioniteextractable Fe and Al oxides (Fed, Ald) than oxalate- extractable forms (Feo, Alo), indicating that
these soils had higher content of the crystalline forms of these sesquioxides. The pattern of profile
distribution of the sesquioxides and clay sized particles were similar, resulting in a significant correlation (P<0.5) between Fed and clay content of the soils (r = 0.736 for Ejiba and 0.533 for OdoOgbe). The plinthite (Fe-Mn concretions) content of the soils at the first location (Ejiba) was significantly (P<0.01) correlated with the Fed (r = 0.537). The ratio of Feo/Fed as well as the pedogenic Fe
oxide content of the soils indicated that the soils were at an advanced stage of development. There
were, however, conflicting results in the evaluation of the stage of development of the soils using
the silt: clay and silt: silt + clay ratios. While the silt : clay ratio indicated low to moderate stage
of development, the silt : silt + clay indicated an advanced stage of soil development in agreement
with the Feo/Fed ratio and pedogenic Fe content of the soils. It was concluded that using the Feo/
Fed, silt: silt + clay ratios as well as the pedogenic Fe oxide content of the soils gave a better evaluation of the stage of soil development.
Keywords: Crystalline sesquioxides, Amorphous sesquioxides, Weathering ratio, Pedogenesis,
Guinea Savanna
INTRODUCTION
ent fertility status of soils through the supply of
many of the nutrients that enable plants to grow.
Soil develops during chemical alteration or de-

Wilson (2004) defined weathering as the processes responsible for the formation of soils and
playing a central role in controlling the inher58

Profile distribution of sesquioxides

Ajiboye et al

composition, movement and redistribution of


certain mineral components of the rock or superficial deposits and is often accompanied by
a change in colour due to the formation of iron
oxide minerals (Delvigne, 1998). The process of
changes that occur during weathering is a continuous and complex combination of destruction, transformation and synthesis of minerals.
The ease, nature and rate of the weathering process clearly depend upon the nature of the primary minerals themselves (Wilson, 2004).

these authors, the ratio is a measurement of the


quantity of iron liberated from iron-bearing silicate minerals by chemical weathering relative
to the total amount of iron present. The DCB
extractable iron is mainly pedological in origin
(Singer et al., 1995; Hunt, et al., 1995). The ratio
of free Fe2O3 (Fe-D) extractable by DCB method (Mehra and Jackson, 1960) to total Fe2O3
(Fe-Ox) extracted in acid (McKeague, 1981)
dissolved samples (Fe-D/Fe-Ox) is said to be
a better reflection of the pedogenic intensity of
weathering than Rb/Sr ratio by these authors.

As the weathering advances, the amount of


weatherable minerals in the soil reduces. At a
very advanced stage of soil development, especially in the tropical environment like Nigeria,
the only minerals left in the soil are mainly kaolinite, oxides of aluminum and iron and clay size
quartz (Kronberg and Nesbitt, 1981). At this
stage, the native fertility of the soils becomes
very low because of the low CEC resulting from
the predominance of the low activity clays and
sesquioxides.

In Nigeria, Ogunkunle and Onasanya (1992) indicated the crystalline form of iron and aluminum
oxides as the dominant oxyhyroxides in the basement complex soils of southwestern Nigeria. They
concluded that the predominance of the crystalline
form of the sesquioxide represent a more advanced
stage of soil development than the presence of the
amorphous forms that are mobile in the soil and
could be associated with organic matter.
Ojanuga (1985) reported that the crystalline
forms of Fe were goethite and hematite and occurs
either singly or in association within the hard nodules and concretions in the soil environment. The
level of the crystalline form of Fe can thus serve
as an estimate of the degree of soil development
and formation of hard nodules and concretions.
Obi et al., (2009) concluded that the dominance or
higher proportion of the crystalline form of Fe will
lead to structural distortions with implications for
anion retention which affects the surface area and
leads to hardness of the soil. Higher crystalline Fe
content of the soil will affect both the physical and
chemical properties of the soils as well as its management and land use. This study is specifically
important because the study area covers a large
proportion of the irrigable land of Kampe-Omi irrigation project.

Identification of the stage of soil development


becomes a good tool at predicting soil fertility.
Several ratios exist for the measurement of the
stage of soil development (intensity of weathering). These ratios include the silt to clay ratio
(FAO, 1988; Stewart et al,.1970), silt to silt +
clay ratio (Stewart et al., 1970; Azeez, 1998),
calculation of ratios of more soluble to less
soluble elements in the soil profile (Birkeland,
1989), and measurement of the ratio of DCB-extractable iron to Oxalateacid extractable iron in
soils (Ogunkunle and Onasanya, 1992; Hao and
Guo, 2001; Agbenin, 2003; Obi et al., 2009 ).
Hao and Guo (2001) used the ratio of Dithionite-Citrate-Bicarbonate (DCB) extractable free Fe2O3 and the total Fe2O3, an index
widely used by pedologist (Duchaufour, 1983),
to evaluate weathering intensity. According to

The objective of this work is to determine the


59

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

profile distribution of both Dithionite-CitrateBicarbonate (DCB) and Acid Oxalate (Ox) extractable Iron and Aluminum in soils developed
over talc; evaluate the stage of development of
the soils using the calculated ratios of Feo/ Fed,
silt: clay and silt: silt + clay and to determine the
relationships between the different forms of Fe
and the level of Fe-Mn concretions of the soils.

acid according to the procedure of McKeague


(1981). The Oxalic acid-extractable Fe2O3 and
Al2O3 were digested with 50 % hydrogen peroxide on a sand bath for an hour to break down
all the organic materials present in the extract.
Similarly, the DCB extract was digested in a
mixture of concentrated nitric acid and perchloric acid to destroy all sulphides present in the
extract.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Determination of Al2O3 in all the digests


was done by the Xylenolorange colorimetric
method using a spectrophotometer (McKeague,
1981). The Fe2O3 was determined colorimetrically using the Ortho-phenathrolin method
(Mehra and Jackson, 1960).

Soil samples used were collected from the


pedogenic horizons of nine profile pits dug in
soils formed over talc in two locations within the
southern Guinea savanna Agro-ecology of Kogi
State of Nigeria. One of the locations is within
the confines of Kampe Irrigation Project at Ejiba (Latitude 8 18N and Longitude 5 39 E),
while the other is within Kampe forest reserves
at Odo-Ogbe (Latitude 8 25 N and Longitude
5 46E). The two sites represent intensively
used and virgin or unused lands respectively.
The sites lie across two main geological materials: undifferentiated meta-sediments and undifferentiated basement complex (NGSA, 2004),
having commercial deposits of talc in association with varying quantities of biotite and mica
schists, granite gneiss and quartz-schist.

RESULTS
The colours of the soils were very dark grayish brown (10YR) to very dark gray (5YR) in the
surface, but had different shades of gray, brown
and red colours in the subsurface horizons. In most
of the somewhat poorly drained profiles, mottling
occurred right from the second horizon through to
the last horizon (Table 1). The mottles ranged in
colour from yellowish red (5YR 4/6) to yellowish
brown (10YR 6/8) while the colour of the horizons
varied from gray (2.5 Y) to light olive gray (5 Y).
The well-drained pedons, however, had subsurface
colour in the red range (2.5YR). Where mottling
occurred in the well-drained pedon, the mottles
were brownish in colour.

Collected soil samples were are airdried and


sieved with a 2-mm sieve. The particle size analysis was done by using the modified Bouyoucous hydrometer method (1962). Determination
of organic carbon was done using the wet oxidation method (Shamshuddin et al., 1995) while
the pH was determined in distilled water (1:1
soil: water ratio) using a glass electrode pH meter. Extraction of Dithionite-Citrate-Bicarbonate
(DCB) extractable iron (Fed) and aluminum
(Ald) was carried out according to the procedure
of Mehra and Jackson (1960) while the total iron
(Feo) and aluminum were extracted with oxalic

The soils had sand-sized particles ranging


from 606 g kg-1 to 906 g kg-1(Table 2). Generally, the values of these sandsized particles
were highest at the surface horizons and decreased irregularly down the profile with the
lowest sand value occurring at the subsurface
horizons of all the profiles. In most cases, the
differences between the sand content of the first
(surface) and last (subsurface) horizons were
60

Profile distribution of sesquioxides

Ajiboye et al

greater than 10 %. The silt-sized particles were


comparatively lower than those of the sand and
clay sized fractions. There was no consistent pat-

tern of distribution of silt in all the profiles. The


surface horizons had silt-sized particles ranging in value between 34 g kg-1 and 134 g kg-1,

61

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

while the subsurface horizons had silt contents


that ranged from 60 g kg-1 to 184 g kg-1. The
clay-sized particles of the soils increased down
the profile with some horizons having argillic

properties. The soils clay content ranged from


34 g kg-1 to 80 g kg-1 in the surface horizons
and from 94 g kg-1 to 274 g kg-1 in the subsurface horizons. A characteristic feature of the

soils is high sand and low silt contents. The textures of these soils were largely determined by
the relative proportion of sand and clay. Thus,
the soils had textural classes that ranged from
sand to sandy clay loam. The soils had structures that ranged from granular (GR) and finesub-angular blocky (FI, SB) in the surface hori-

zons to coarse-sub-angularblocky (CO, SB) in


the sub soils. More than 90 % of the subsurface
horizons had medium sub-angular blocky (ME,
SB) structure. The plinthite content of the soils
does not have a definite pattern of distribution;
however it ranged from 3.5 g kg-1 to 568.3g kg1. However, pedon OD3 had no plinthite.
62

Profile distribution of sesquioxides

Ajiboye et al

Distribution of Iron and Aluminum oxides

lower in value than Fed and in value ranged from


009 g kg-1 to 0.61g kg-1, with a mean of 0.32 g
kg-1 and standard error of 0.02 g kg-1. An estimate of pedogenic or inorganic iron (Fep), that is
the Fe sequestered in crystalline Fe oxides, was
calculated as the difference between Fed and Feo
(FedFeo) (Allen, 2005) and ranged in value from
1.61 19.56 g kg-1. The pattern of distribution of
Fep was similar to the pattern of distribution of the
clay particle size in all the pedons. The B horizons
had the highest values of Fep in all the pedons except pedon OD4 that had the highest value at the
last horizon. Similarly, the first horizon of all the
pedons had the lowest values of Fep apart from
pedon EJ1 where the lowest value occurred at the
last horizon.

The values of dithionite-extractable iron (Fed)


and aluminium (Ald) were higher than those of oxalate-extractable iron (Feo) and aluminium (Alo)
in all the horizons, pedons and locations (Table 3).
The Fed ranged from 2.03 g kg-1 to 20.54 g kg-1,
with a mean of 7.89 g kg-1 and standard error of
0.791 g kg-1. In most of the pedons, the highest
Fed value occurred in the B horizons. However, in
pedon OD4 and EJ4, the highest value of Fed was
observed at the lowest horizon.
Oxalate extractable Fe (Feo) which is essentially a measure of poorly crystalline (amorphous)
and organically bound Fe in the soil (Parfitt and
Childs, 1988, Obi et al., 2009) ranged from 0.39
g kg-1 to 4.35 g kg-1 with a mean of 1.31 g kg-1
and standard error of 0.189 g kg-1. The pattern of
distribution of Feo within the profiles was similar
to the pattern of Fed distribution, with the highest
values of Feo occurring in the B horizons. However, the horizons that had the highest value of Feo
did not correspond with the horizons having the
highest value of Fed in most cases. In pedon EJ3,
OD1, OD2 and OD3, the highest values of Feo and
Fed occurred in the same horizons while the lowest value of Feo in all the pedons except EJ2 and
OD1 occurred in the surface horizons.

The Fed/clay ratios were calculated to determine whether the Fed was associated with the
clay fraction (Blume and Schwertmann, 1969;
Rebertus and Buol, 1985). This ratio ranged from
0.01 0.27, with a mean of 0.08, stand error of
0.01 and decreased with increasing soil depth in
pedons EJ1, EJ2, EJ6 at Ejiba and pedon OD3 at
Odo-Ogbe. In pedons OD1, OD2 and OD4 the
values of the Fed/clay ratio were highest in the
B horizon but lowest either at the surface horizon (OD4) or at the last horizons (OD1 and
OD2). In pedon EJ4 however, Fed/clay ratio increased irregularly down the profile, appearing
as if two profiles were combined to make up the
profile. Pedon EJ3 on the other hand had a constant value of Fed/clay throughout the profile.

The quantity of Ald, that is, Al substitution in


Fe oxides, and organic matter-bound Al (Parfitt
and Childs, 1988) in the soils was lower than Fed
and ranged from 1.56 g kg-1 to 3.36 g kg-1 with a
mean of 2.41 g kg-1 in Ejiba, but ranged in from
1.50 g kg-1 to 3.41 g kg-1 with a mean of 2.80 g
kg-1 in Odo-Ogbe. The pattern of distribution of
Ald was similar to the pattern of Fed distribution
with the same horizons having the highest values
of both Fed and Ald. However, the total pedogenic aluminum (Alo), which is an estimate of the
poorly crystalline (amorphous) Al and Al associated with humus (Parfitt and Childs, 1988) was

The first location (Ejiba) had more plinthite


occurring in pedon EJ2, EJ3, EJ4 and EJ6 than
in the second location which had plinthite only
in pedon OD4. The plinthite (Fe-Mn concretions) content of the soils at the first location
(Ejiba) was significantly (P<0.01) correlated
with the values of Fed (r = 0.537) and Feo (r
= 0.545) (Table 4). However, in the second lo63

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

cation (Odo-Ogbe), the correlation between the


Fed or Feo and the plinthite content of the soils
was not significant (p<0.05). Furthermore, there

was significant correlation between Fed and


quantity of clay sized particle fraction of the
soils of both location with r values of 0.736**

64

Profile distribution of sesquioxides

Ajiboye et al

and 0.533* respectively for the first (Ejiba)


and second locations (Odo-Ogbe). In addition,
the Feo content of Ejiba soils was significantly (P<0.01) correlated (r=0.637) with the clay
sized particle fraction of the soils while a significant positive correlation (p<0.01; r=0.640) was

also observed between Fed and Alo. Moreover,


in Odo-Ogbe, the Feo was significantly correlated with Fed (r=0.824**), Alo (r=0.515*) but
significant and negatively correlated with the
soil pH (r = -0.526*).

Evaluation of the stage of development of


the soils

profile did not follow any specific pattern. The values of silt: clay ratios were lowest in the horizons
with some evidence of clay accumulation. Similarly, Odo-Ogbe soils had silt: clay ratios ranging
between 0.49 and 2.82. Also, the surface horizons
had higher values of silt: clay ratio than the subsurface horizons and there was irregular decrease
in these values down the profile with the last horizon in most cases having the lowest value of silt:
clay ratio. The observed silt: clay ratio pattern may
be due to the absence of clay illuviation in most
pedons in Odo-Ogbe.

The stage of soil development, soil age and


some relic properties of soil have been evaluated
in the past using simple weathering ratios. These
weathering ratios included silt/clay (FAO, 1988),
silt/silt + clay (Stewart et al., 1970); silica/alumina (Mohr et al., 1972); Fed/FeT (Hao and Guo,
2001); Rb/Sr (Cheng et al., 1999); quartz/feldspar
(Ojo-Atere and Ogunwale, 1982) and (zircon +
tourmaline)/(amphibole + pyroxene) (Ojo Atere
and Ogunwale, 1982). However, the most commonly and easily calculated ratios (silt/clay, FAO,
1980 and silt/silt + clay, Stewart et al., 1970) were
used here to evaluate the stage of the development
of these soils.The calculated silt: clay ratio in all
the profiles across the two sites ranged between
0.24 and 3.24 (Table 3). In Ejiba, it was observed
that the weathering ratio values of silt: clay was
higher in the surface soils than in the subsurface
soils. However, the decrease in value down the

The second weathering ratio (silt: silt + clay ratio) ranged in value between 0.20 and 0.76 in Ejiba
soils. The highest value of 0.76 was recorded in
the surface horizon (Ao) of profile EJ6 while the
lowest value was recorded in the subsurface soils
of profile EJ1. In Odo-Ogbe, the values of this
index ranged between 0.31 and 0.73. The values
of silt:silt + clay ratio of these soils were < 0.7,
except in the surface horizon of pedons EJ6 and
65

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

OD1. According to Stewart et al., (1970) and


Azeez (1998), silt: silt+ clay ratio of 0.7 indicates
moderate weathering, < 0.7 for severe weathering
and > 0.7 for incipient weathering. Generally, the
higher values of this index were recorded in the
surface horizons while the subsurface horizon had
the lower values with the lowest values occurring
in horizons with the highest quantity of clay. Since
these values were lower than 0.70, the soils could
be said to have been severely weathered (Stewart
et al, 1970; Azeez, 1998).

al., (2009) for some basement complex soils in the


southwestern Nigeria soils but lower than those reported by Igwe (2005) for the soils of river Niger
floodplain in Eastern Nigeria.
The pattern of distribution of the Fed was similar to those of clay particle size in all the profiles.
The significant correlation between Fed and clay
and the observed Fed/clay ratio indicated comigration of Fe and clay in some of the profiles,
especially at Ejiba (Obi et al., 2009; Ogunsola et
al., 1989) while in some other profiles Fed, accumulation is independent of clay; that is, the Fed
accumulation is a product of weathering and not
necessarily the translocation of clay with Fe and
Al (Allen, 2005). However, the colours of the horizons having the highest values of Fed were not
all redish, but some had colour variations between
gray and dark brown. This suggests that the crystalline Fe forms in these soils are not only hematite (red colour) but could also be goethite (brown
colour) especially in the poorly drained pedons as
observed by Ojanuga (1985).

DISCUSSION
The subsurface colours of these soils reflected
their drainage conditions. The grayish subsurface colours were associated with mottling and
occur in profiles that were imperfectly drained
or laid close to seasonal rivulets and at the lowest portion of the toposequence (valley bottom).
The values of Fed and Ald that was found to be
higher than those of Feo and Alo indicates that a
considerable fraction of the Fe and Al were present
in crystalline form. The quantity of Fed in the soil
provides an estimate of the degree of soil development, since Fed represents the total pedogenic
Fe (Blume and Schwertmann, 1969; Birkeland,
1999), an increase in the concentration of free
Fed invariably corresponds with increased in situ
weathering (Buol et al., 1997; Allen, 2005). Active
Fe ratios (Feo/Fed) which constitute an index of
the proportion of the amorphous and crystalline
iron content of the soils (Allen, 2005; Obi et al.,
2009) were low ( 0.4). Since this ratio is used as
a relative measure of the degree of crystallinity of
free Fe oxides (Blume and Schwertmann, 1969),
the ratios confirmed that most of the Fe in these
soils was crystalline. The values of Fed and Feo
obtained in this study further suggests that the degree of crystallinity of the Fe and Al fraction of
these soils is higher than those reported by Obi et

It was also observed that the pedons which had


values of Fep > 10g kg-1 in Ejiba were those having argillic horizons and high plinthite contents.
The significant correlation coefficient values
between Fed and plinthite and the substantially
higher Fep content of these pedons is indicative
of their advanced stage of development. The highest plinthite content corresponded with the highest
value of Fed in Ejiba soils but in Odo-Ogbe, apart
from pedon OD4, the crystalline Fe forms in the
soils may not have occurred in association with the
plinthite nodules. The mineralogy of these soils indicated the predominance of goethite in the clay
mineral fraction of pedon OD4 of Odo-ogbe and
apart from pedon OD4, the crystalline Fe forms
in the soils may have existed more in form of hematite in pedons OD2 and OD and as goethite in
pedon OD4 (Ajiboye et al., 2008).
66

Profile distribution of sesquioxides

Ajiboye et al

The Ald values were comparable with those


reported by Obi et al., (2009) for the basement
complex soils of southwestern Nigeria, but lower
than values of Ald reported by Obi et al., (2008)
in termite-infested Alfisols in the Guinea savanna
agro-ecology of Nigeria. The crystalline form of
Al-oxides is thought to be substituted into crystalline Fe-oxide in goethite and hematite (Holgen, 1967). The effect of such substitution is the
structural distortion of crystalline Fe oxides with
implication for anion retention (Schwertmann and
Herbillon, 1992) leading to higher P sorption in Alsubstituted goethite. However, Igwe (2005) noted
that the oxides of Fe and Al were not correlated
significantly with available phosphorus but correlated significantly with total P. He further noted
that the correlation between Al oxides and total P
were not significant but total P and Fe oxides were
significantly correlated. Thus Fe oxides may be accounting for more fixation of P than Al oxides.
The total pedogenic Al (Alo) had values that were
lower than those reported by Obi et al., (2008) in
termite-infested Alfisols in the Guinea savanna agroecology of Nigeria but slightly higher than those reported by Obi et al., (2009) for the basement complex
soils of southwestern Nigeria. However, the amount
of Alo was higher than in most incipient soils (Graham et al., 1988). The moderate pH, medium texture,
and the low organic matter content of the soils may
have resulted in situation where almost all the Al in
these soils occurred as inorganic form since there
were no increased Alo values nearer the soil surface
where organic matter was high.

tio is higher than 0.15 in younger soils; below 0.15


in old soils and 0.15 in moderately weathered soils.
Comparing the soils of the two sites, Ejiba soils seem
to have lower values of silt: clay ratio than Odo-Ogbe soils; indicating that Ejiba soils might slightly be
more weathered than Odo-Ogbe soils.
Although the values of silt + clay : clay ratio were
lower than those of silt: clay ratio, the trend was similar in all the profiles and in both locations. The low
to moderate values of this index is an indication that
some proportion of the silt had weathered to clay
(Adegbite and Ogunwale, 1994). This result agrees
with those of Feo/Fed ratios, which were very low
(< 0.4), and suggests that the soils have been highly
weathered but at variance with the result of the evaluation of the stage of development of these soils using
the silt: clay ratio. The silt: clay ratios of these soils
were greater than 0.15, indicating that the soils have
not been severely weathered. Thus, it seems that the
silt: silt + clay and Feo/Fed ratios of these soils presented a better picture of the stage of development
(Ogunsola et al., 1989; Pai et al., 2004) of the soils
than the silt : clay ratio.
CONCLUSION
Using the Feo/Fed, silt:silt + clay ratios as well
as the pedogenic Fe oxide content of the soils gave
a better evaluation of the stage of development of
the soils studied. The significant correlation coefficient values between Fed and plinthite and the
substantially higher pedogenic Fe content of these
pedons is indicative of their advanced stage of development. Most of the Fe in these soils was crystalline. The Fed and Ald values were comparable
with those reported for the basement complex soils
of south-western Nigeria, but lower than values reported for the Alfisols of the Guinea savanna agroecology of Nigeria

The values of silt: clay ratios (> 0.15) obtained for


most of the horizons in this study indicates that the
soils have not been subjected to severe weathering
but were relatively young with a lot of weatherable
minerals. Young (1980) showed that the silt: clay ra-

67

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

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Cambridge University Press, New York.
69

NJSS 25, 2015

CHANGES IN A TROPICAL ULTISOL UNDER DIFFERENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA: 1. SOIL PHYSICAL
AND HYDROLOGICAL PROPERTIES
Omenihu A.A and Opara-Nadi O.A.
Department of Soil Science,
Abia State University, Umuahia, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
Five soil management practices were compared to evaluate their effects on soil physical and hydrological properties in a cassava/maize intercrop. The management practices compared over four years
(2003 2006) at Umudike in the rainforest zone of southeastern Nigeria were fallow-grazing-cropping
(FGC), traditional farming (TF), no-tillage (NT), minimum tillage (MT) and conventional tillage (CT).
The FGC practice involved one year establishment of grass-legume fallow followed by one year grazing by goats followed by two years cropping using traditional tillage system. The TF treatment involved
clearing, burning of the thrash and planting on flats using hoe; NT treatment involved no disturbance of
any form on the land, while MT treatment involved ploughing the soil once. The CT treatment involved
disc ploughing followed by harrowing. Management practices did not affect the soil texture. The highest sand contents of 81.8% and 80.8% were obtained in the 0 0 cm and 10 20 cm depths of the CT
treatment respectively. The highest clay loss of 8.8% (compared to the initial clay content) also occurred
in the 0 10 cm depth of the same treatment. Bulk density averaged over the study period showed that
FGC treatment produced the lowest value of 1.51 Mg m-3, while CT treatment had the highest value of
1.57 Mg m-3 for the 0 10 cm depth. Highest mean total porosity of 41.7% was obtained in the FGC
treatment, while CT treatment had the lowest value of 37.6%. Soil total porosity averaged over the four
years and three depths was of the order FGC>MT=NT=TF>CT. While soil water suction at 15cm depth
started rising by the first week of November, the rise in suction was by the third week of November for
30 cm and 60 cm depths for all the management practices.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the Southeastern Nigeria, food production environment is fragile, as most of the soils of this area
developed from unconsolidated materials, necessitating careful management of the resource. Ecophysical perturbation associated with land preparation in this region when not properly handled often
leads to irreversible environmental degradation.
Appropriate soil management practices generally

are not only critical in optimizing soil productivity


but are prerequisite for sustainable landuse.
In Southeastern Nigeria the most predominant
soil management practices include: fallowing,
i.e the practice of leaving the soil without crops
to enable it regain fertility; tillage, a practice
defined by Afolayan et al. (2005) as any positive action where forces are reasonably applied
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Changes of Ultisols

Omenihu and Opara-Nadi

with the aim of altering the soil condition for


agricultural purposes. Integrated livestock-cropfarming is another farming innovation developed and adopted to stabilize shortened fallows.
The enhancement of the natural vegetation by
the introduction of fast growing plants/shrubs is
an attractive approach for shortening the fallow
period and increasing the yield of subsequent
crops (Juo and Lal, 1977; Gichuru, 1991).

tion (Braim et al., 1992) which may reduce water


infiltration and cause water-logging, particularly if
rainfall is intense. The objectives of tillage include
seedbed preparation, soil and water conservation,
weed control, incorporation of fertilizers, manures
and residues into the soil, pest control, alleviation
of compaction etc. (Leji et al., 2002; Conant et al.,
2007). To meet the long term objectives (sustainable agricultural production and environmental
quality), tillage systems should be tailored to suit
different soils, crops, climatic conditions and ecological zones (Opara-Nadi, 1990; Babalola and Opara-Nadi, 1993; Lal, 2001). Furthermore, the inclusion
of the improved fallow and crop-livestock-farming
system in this study will provide additional information for the sustainable use of Ultisols in the rainforest agroecological zone of the tropics. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate
the effect of different soil management practices,
which include tillage and fallow-grazing-cropping
systems on some physical and hydrological properties of an Ultisol under cassava-maize intercrop
in southeastern Nigeria.

Soil management practices have been found to


have pronounced effect on the soil physical and
hydrological properties which are important for air
and water movement and availability in the soil.
Tillage, when judiciously used, can improve the
soil physical and hydrological properties (OparaNadi, 1993; Lal, 2000; Shirani et al., 2002; Blanco-Canqui et al., 2004), enhance soil productivity
and prevent soil and environmental degradation
(Elliot and Efetha, 1999; Sainju et al., 2006).
Conventional tillage systems have been reported to result in intense erosion (Alvarez et al.,1995),
net loss of nutrients (Bernardos et al., 2001) and
soil organic carbon (Alvarez et al., 2001), soil
mechanical impedance (Cox et al., 1990), disruption of the continuity of macropores (Shipitalo et
al.,2000) and soil water availability (Fuentes et al.,
2003). No tillage systems may have, under certain
soil, climate and management conditions, some advantages over conventional tillage systems. These
advantages include reduced number of machine
passes over the field, less fuel consumption, shortened field time during tillage operations (Juergens
et al., 2004), reduced soil loss due to better aggregate stability (Rhoton et al., 1993; Ghuman and
Sur, 2001) and the protective effect of crop residues
left over the soil (Dabney et al., 2004). Some soils,
however, when managed under no till may show
detrimental effects, such as increased bulk density
(Lampurlanes and Cantero-Martinez, 2003), low
soil temperature (Drury et al., 1999), soil compac-

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS


The 4-year study was carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm of the Abia State University, Umudike located between 50 25 N and 70 35
E in the rainforest ecological zone of southeastern
Nigeria. The zone is characterized by two distinct
seasons; the wet season from April to October and
the dry season from November to March. The
mean annual rainfall ranges between 1800 and
2000 mm with a bimodal pattern.
The soil which is derived from coastal plain
sediments has been classified as ultisol (Soil
Survey Staff, 1999) and Acrisol (FAO/UNESCO) (Opara-Nadi 2000). Some physical and
chemical properties of the 0 10, 10 20 and 20
40 cm soil depths of the experimental site are
71

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

shown in Table 1. The site was manually cleared


by slashing in the early part of 2003. The experimental design was randomized complete block
design (RCBD) with five treatments replicated
three times, giving a total of 15 plots. Each plot
measured 10 x 8 meters with 1 meter boarder.
The treatments were no-tillage (NT), minimum tillage (MT), conventional tillage (CT)
traditional farming (TF) and fallow-grazingcropping (FGC). The NT treatment involved
no disturbance of any form on the land. MT
involved ploughing the soil once with a disc
plough to a depth of about 20 cm, while the CT
treatment involved disc ploughing followed by
harrowing. The TF treatment entailed the slashing and burning of the trash with planting done
on flats by hoeing. The FGC treatment involved
the establishment of planted fallow (guinea
grass, Panicum maximum, with liberal supply of
Centrocema pubecense) in the first year (2003),
introduction of four adult West African Dwarf
goats in the second year (2004) to graze daily on
the fallow, and the planting of crops in the third
and fourth years (2005 and 2006) of the study.
All tillage operations were done in April each
year. The plots were sprayed with a mixture of
paraquat (1-1, dimethyl 1- 4- 41 bipyridilum ion)
at 2.5 litres ha-1 and altrazine (2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-isopropyl-amino-1,3,5 triazine) at 2 kg
ha-1 as pre-emergent herbicides. Subsequent weed
controls were done by hoeing. Cassava variety,
NR8082 and maize (Zea mays L, Oba Super) were
planted on each plot at a population of 10,000/ha
and 20,000/ha respectively. Fertilizer was applied
to the crops at four weeks after planting at the rate
of 400 kg ha-1 of 15:15:15 (NPK).

thereafter mixed for chemical analysis. Three undisturbed core samples were also collected from
the same depths from each plot with core cylinders
measuring 5 cm long and 5 cm internal diameter
for the determination of bulk density. Particle size
analysis was done by hydrometer method (Juo,
1979). Bulk density determination was by the core
method (Blake, 1965). Tensiometric measurements of soil-water were made for 15, 30 and 60
cm depths using suction-gauge tensiometers.
Total porosity was calculated from the bulk
density and an assumed average particle density
of 2.65 kg m-3 using the equation below
P = (1 Bd/Bp) x 100%
Where P = total porosity (%) (m3 m-3)
Bd = bulk density (Mg m-3)
Bp = Particle density (2.65 Mg m-3)
2.2 Physico-chemical properties of soil of the
experimental Site
The physical and Chemical properties of 0
10, 10 20 and 20 40 cm depths of the soil of
the experimental site are shown in Table 1. The
texture of the soil ranged from sandy loam to
sandy clay loam, with the sand content decreasing with depth. Soil bulk density was 1.52, 1.59
and 1.64 Mg m-3 in the 0 10, 10 20 and 20
40 cm depths respectively. The soil was acid
in reaction with an average pH of 5.2. Organic
carbon was 1.47, 1.36 and 1.04 % for the 0
10, 10 20 and 20 40 cm depths respectively.
Total N was low with values ranging between
0.10 and 0.06 %. Effective cation exchange capacity and exchangeable acidity averaged 3.56
and 2.72 c mol kg-1 respectively.
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

2.1 Determination of soil physical properties


Soil samples were collected from the 0-10,
10-20 and 20-40 cm depths from each plot and

3.1 Effect of Soil Management Practices on


Soil Physical Properties
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Changes of Ultisols

Omenihu and Opara-Nadi

3.1.1 Particle size distribution


The soils were generally sandy loam to sandy
clay loam in texture. The highest sand content

for the three depths was obtained in the conventional tillage (CT) treatment, while the lowest
sand content in the 0 - 10 cm depth was ob-

tained in the no-tillage (NT) treatment (Table


2). The relatively higher sand content of the CT
treatment when compared with the other treatments could be attributed the pulverization of
the soil following repetitive tillage operations
and subsequent preferential removal of clay by
erosion, resulting in residual accumulation of
sand. There was no definite trend in silt content
among the different management practices for
the three depths. On the average, clay content in
the three depths was highest under NT treatment
and lowest under the conventional tillage (CT)
treatment in the 0 10 and 10 20 cm depths.
The relatively lower clay content of the CT
treatment compared to other treatments, especially in the 0 10 cm depth, could be attributed
to water erosion, which may have preferentially
removed more clay particles than silt or sand

with CT practice. This was further supported by


the reduction in clay content from 19.0 % (initial clay content of the depth) to 10.2 %. Generally, the effect of management on particle size
distribution did not show any marked variation
from the initial soil property for the three depths
before the treatments were imposed. However,
CT treatment for the 0 10 cm depth produced
significant reduction in clay content, while sand
content was significantly increased when compared with the initial soil property, thought not
enough to change the textural class. This indicates that the management practices did not affect soil texture after three years of treatment
application. This result agrees with results obtained by Afolayan et al. (2005) who reported
that soil management practices do not affect the
texture of the soil.

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

3.1.2 Soil bulk density

in soil bulk density when compared with the other


treatments for the 0 10 and 20 40 cm depths
respectively. Minimum tillage treatment induced
significantly lower bulk density when compared
with FGC and NT treatments. The lowest bulk
density associated with the MT treatment in the 0

Table 3 shows the data on soil bulk density.


In 2003, soil bulk density was significantly
(P<0.05) higher for CT plots than the other
treatments at the 20 40 cm depth. For 2004,
NT and CT treatments were significantly higher

10 cm depth can be attributed to the loosening


of the soil by the tillage implement (Stockfisch et
al., 1999). As management changed from fallow
in 2003 to grazing in 2004 for the FGC treatment,
bulk density decreased from 1.53 Mg m-3 to 1.50
Mg m-3 and increased to 1.51 Mg m-3 in 2005 and
2006 with the introduction of crops. The reduction
in bulk density in 2004 may have been occasioned
by the increase in organic matter content arising
from the droppings from the goats. Stephenson
and Veigel (1987) and Chanasyk and Naeth (1996)
reported soil compaction by grazing animals, and
considering the observed results in this study, it
can be said that trampling and compaction of the
soil by the grazing animals were minimal, while
organic matter addition from animal wastes may
have had an overriding influence on the soil bulk
density than the compaction caused by the grazing animals. According to Orr (1960), the depth or

zone of influence of grazing animal on compaction, as measured by bulk density, was shallow as
statistically significant difference in bulk density
had been found only in the 0 5 cm depth interval
and not at all below 10 cm.
3.1.3 Soil Total Porosity
Effect of soil management practices on soil total
porosity at 0 10, 10 20 and 20 40 cm depths
for 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006 is shown in Table
4. Significant (p 0.5) differences in total porosity
were observed for the three depths and within the
years relative to the different management practices. In 2003 for the 0 10 cm depth, total porosity was of the order MT > FGC > CT > NT > TF;
while in 2004 for the same depth, total porosity
followed the order FGC > MT = TF > NT = CT.
In 2005 and for the same depth, total porosity was
in the order MT > TF > FGC > NT > CT, while in
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Changes of Ultisols

Omenihu and Opara-Nadi

2006, soil total porosity for the 0 10 cm depth


was significantly (P<0.05) higher with FGC treatment than the other management practices. The
higher porosity measured for the FGC management practice resulted from its lower bulk density,
and was due to droppings added by the grazing animals. CT management practice on the other hand
induced the lowest total porosity as a result of high
bulk density associated with these plots.

moisture content for 0 - 10, 10 - 20 and 20 - 40 cm


depths measured in 2003 - 2006 is shown in Table
5. Generally, differences in volumetric moisture
content for the three depths in the four years relative to the different management practices were
significant. In the four years, volumetric moisture
content for the different management practices
increased with depth. In 2003 mean volumetric
moisture content for the three depths (averaged for
0 40 cm depth) was of the order FGC > MT > NT
> CT > TF and for 2004, mean volumetric moisture

3.1.4 Volumetric Moisture Content


Effect of management practices on volumetric

content for all three depth was of the order FGC >
NT = MT > TF > CT, while in 2005 and 2006 the
order was FGC > NT > TF > MT > CT. The higher moisture content under the FGC management

practice in comparison with other practices indicate the improved moisture storage capacity under
this management system as a result of improved
soil physical properties such as bulk density and
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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

total porosity. On the other hand, the CT management practice gave the lowest volumetric moisture
content indicating the reduced moisture storage capacity in the crop rooting zone (0 40 cm depth)
as a result of increased bulk density and reduced
total porosity.

1, 2 and 3. Generally, for all three depths and management practices, soil water suction increased
rapidly as water depletion occurred from the beginning of September to the end of December. Soil
water suction for all management practices at the
three depths was between 80 and 100 cm until the
middle of November when water suction started
rising and got to about 800 cm at 15 cm depth, 600
to 700 cm at 30 cm depth and 500 cm at 60 cm
depth. Characteristically, water suction at 0 to 60

3.1.5 Soil Water Suction


Soil water suctions taken between the beginning of September and December in 2005 at 15, 30
and 60 cm depth respectively are shown in Figures

4.0 CONCLUSION

cm depth under the different management systems


remained within the range of the so-called field
moisture capacity till about the end of November and only shot above this range upon the cessation of the rains and subsequent drying of the soil
through water evaporation, uptake by plants and
internal drainage. At the 15 cm depth, the lowest
water suction (600 cm) on 23rd December was
measured under the FGC system, while the other
management practices recorded about 800 cm suction. At the 30 and 60 cm depths, differences in
water suction on 23rd December were not very
remarkable. Generally, over the entire period of
observation, differences in soil water suction at the
three depths amongst the different management
practices were not remarkable and did not follow
any definite trend.

It can be concluded from observations in this


study that the FGC treatment practice which involved improved fallow and the introduction of
dung and urine from grazing animals gave more
favourable soil physical and hydrological properties when compared with the other management
practices (TF, NT, MT and CT). Furthermore, soil
particle size was not affected by treatment in the
four years, while organic wastes from the grazing
animals had an overriding influence on soil bulk
density than compaction by the grazing animals.
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79

NJSS 25, 2015

IMPACT OF COMPOSTED OIL PALM WASTES ON SOIL PHYSICAL


PROPERTIES, ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT AND GROWTH OF
OIL PALM SEEDLINGS UNDER DIFFERENT MOISTURE REGIMES
Ovie, S.1, Anisiobi, G.E.1, Okolo, C.C.2, Udegbunam, O.N.3, Okenmuo, F.C.2
1
Chemistry Division, NIFOR, Benin City
2
Department of Soil Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
3
Enugu State College of Agriculture and Agro Enterprenueurship, Iwollo
E-mail: oviesteve2013@yahoo.com GSM: 08062960905
ABSTRACT
A greenhouse study was conducted at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka to evaluate the effect of composted oil palm bunch waste for improvement of somesoil physical properties, organic matter status
and growth of oil palm seedlings under different water management conditions. The experiment was
a 4 x 3 factorial fitted into completely randomized design with three replications. It consisted of 2 factorscomposted oil palm bunch waste and irrigation intervals. Composted oil palm bunch waste was
applied at 0g, 100g, 200g and 300g/seedlings/polybag. The different moisture regimes were imposed by
observing irrigation intervals of 7days, 14days and 21days after irrigating the soil in the polybag to field
capacity water content. Result showed that every 14 day intervals of irrigation significant (P<0.05) gave
the lowest bulk density, as well as highest aggregate stability, mean weight diameter and organic matter
compared to 7 and 21 day intervals of irrigation. Similarly, every 14 days irrigation intervals showed
(P<0.05) effect on all growth parameters of oil palm seedlings throughout the growth period. However, lowest (P<0.05) bulk density,dispersion ratio as well as highest (P<0.05)aggregate stability; mean
weight diameter and soil organic matter were observed with the highest rates of 300gcompost/polybag
compared to other compost rates. Result also indicated that the application of 300gcompost/seedlings
gave highest (P<0.05) effect on all growth parameters studied compared to other compost application
rates Generally, the application of 300g compost/seedlings/polybag was most effective in improving the
soil properties and growth of oil palm seedling under 14 day irrigation intervals.
INTRODUCTION
Tropical soils are highly susceptible to degradation under continuous cultivation without
putting conservation measures in place. Ultisols, a prominent soil order within the tropics
are subject of low productivity and soil degradation, and exhibits characteristics that makes
its management important. These characteristics include low water holding capacity, poor

surface soil stability and relatively high bulk


density (Babalola and Obi, 1981).They are also
coarse-textured with low organic matter content (Igweet al., 1995; Mbagwuet al., 1995). As
human populations are increasing more lands
are being brought under cultivation, including
marginal lands that are practically vulnerable to
degradation by such processes as erosion, deple80

Impact of oil palm wastes on soil

Ovie et al

tion in soil organic matter and nutrient (Owinoet al., 2006). To increase soil productivity and
crop yields farmers now apply mineral fertilizer.
However, continuous usage of these mineral fertilizers has been found to decrease base saturation, increase acidification and physical degradation (Isherwood, 2008).

certed efforts are needed to develop strategies


for improving the crop performance under degraded conditions of ultisols. Therefore the presentstudy was designed to determinethe effect
of composted oil palm bunch wastefor improvement ofsome soil physical characteristics, organicmatter status and growth of oil palm seedlings under varied irrigation intervals.

Researchers (Aoyama et al., 1999; Olayinka,


2009) have recommended the application of
organic manures to tropical soils as sources of
nutrients because of the inherently low organic
matter content, and low activity clays predominant in the clay mineralogy (Okusamiet al.,
1997). Application of farmyard manure to soil
improves crop performance, soil fertility, soil
organic matter, microbiological activities and
soil structure for sustainable agriculture (Blair
et al., 2005; Kunduet al., 2006). The application
of organic materials influence the degree of aggregation and aggregate stability and can reduce
bulk density, increase porosities, water holding
capacity, moisture retention and transmission,
and drought resistance in plant (Cheng et al.,
1988).

MATERIALS AND METHODS


Description of study area: This study was
conducted at the greenhouse of the Department
of Soil Science, University of Nigeria,Nsukka.
Nsukka, is in Enugu State in the derived savannah agro-ecological zone of Nigeria. The area
lies within latitude 060521N and longitude
070241E; with a mean elevation of 419 metre
above sea level. Humid tropical climate prevails with annual rainfall of 1700-1800mm.
The rainfall pattern is bimodal and falls between April and October, while the dry season
is between November and March. The area is
characterized with mean annual maximum (day)
and minimum (night) temperatures of 31oC and
21oC, respectively, while the average relative
humidity is rarely below 60% (Asadu, 2002).
The soil used for the study has been classified as
TypicKandiustult, derived from a false bedded
sandstones (Akamigbo and Igwe, 1990).

The West Africa oil palm (ElaeisguinensisJaeq) is perennial monocotyledons which belong to the family Arecacena (Hartley, 1988).
The fruit pulp and nut provide palm and kernel
oil, respectively (Coley and Tinker, 2009). The
oil palm industry constitutes a significant sector of the Nigerian economy providing food and
raw materials for the confectionery, and oleochemical industry. As a result of the intensive
nature of its cultivation, oil palm provides gainful employment for many Nigerians. At present,
palm oil production is second to that of soybean
oil in terms of world vegetable oil production
and the demand for palm oil is expected to increase in future (Yusuf, 2007; Coley, 2009).To
ensure self-sufficiency in palm produce, con-

GREEN HOUSE STUDY


Soil sampling and analysis: Topsoil from
0-15cm was collected and sieved using 2mm
mesh. Some portions were analyzed for initial
physico-chemical properties.
Preparation of composted oil palm bunch
waste (COBW): Materials used for the composting were oil palm bunch waste, poultry droppings and palm oil mill effluent. Oil palm bunch
wastes were shredded into smaller particles.
81

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

The shredded bits were packed in windrows


(aerated compartment) and mixed with poultry
droppings in a ratio of 4:1(bunch waste: poultry
droppings). Palm oil effluent was added to increase microbial activity and to reduce the C/N
ratio. The heap was turned weekly and moistened with the effluent for proper degradation.
The composting process lasted for 10 weeks after which the compost was air dried in preparedness for chemical analysis. The overall procedure was the method adopted by Hang (1993)
and Catton (1983).

ment. The various irrigation intervals were then


established every 7, 14 and 21 days. Cultural
practices such as weeding and pest control were
observed. The oil palm seedlings were weeded
regularly by hand picking and Dithane M45 was
sprayed every fortnight to control moderate infection of freckle.
Experimental Design: The experiment was
laid out as 3x4 factorial in a completely randomized design with three replications. The factors included composted oil palm bunch waste
and irrigation intervals. Soil moisture deficit
was imposed by observing irrigation intervals
of 7days, 14days and 21days after irrigating the
soil to field capacity. The composted empty fruit
bunch wastes were applied at four levels, thus,
0g, 100g, 200g and 300g per seedling/polybag.

Chemical analysis of the uncomposted and


composted materials used for the study: Samples of the base materials including the oil palm
bunch waste, palm oil mill effluent, poultry manure and the final compost were crushed and
passed through a 2mm sieve and chemical properties such as pH, total N, available P, exchangeable bases and organic carbon were determined.

Irrigation procedure: After the three weeks


period of uniform watering in the greenhouse,
the polybags were weighed 48 hrs later so as
to determine the weight at field capacity by assuming that free gravitational water would have
stopped draining (Richard and Weaver, 1944).
The water stress was imposed by observing irrigation intervals at every 7, 14 and 21 days
from the field capacity water content. The nursery polybags were also weighed at the different
irrigation intervals so as to determine the level
of soil water depletion. The deficit in soil water
at the different irrigation intervals was ascribed
to be the approximate water loss by evapotranspiration. The deficits were estimated and the
calculated amount of irrigation water (volume)
was added to raise the soil water to the predetermined field capacity following the procedures of
Boutraa and Sanders (2001).

Pre-nursery establishment of oil palm seedlings: Pre nursery polybag measuring 12.5x
25cm were filled with sieved topsoil and presprouted oil palm seeds sourced from the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR),
Benin City were planted out. A shed was erected
for the pre-nursery to prevent the seeds from
desiccation, and cultural practices such as weeding, watering and disease control were observed.
Main-nursery establishment: At three leaf
stage, i.e. after 10 weeks of growth at the prenursery, all healthy seedlings of uniform growth
were selected and transplanted singly into each
prepared main nursery poly bag measuring 40cm
X 45cm. The main nursery polybags contained a
mixture of 7kg sieved topsoil and the composted
oil palm waste according to the treatment levels.
They were carefully arranged in the greenhouse
and watered uniformly for a period of three
weeks in order to obtain good plant establish-

Growth measurement: Plant height which


was measured as the distance from the soil surface to the tallest leaf and the number of leaves
per seedlings was determined by counting the
82

Impact of oil palm wastes on soil

Ovie et al

fully unfurled leaves on each plant. Stem girth


was measured with a screw gauge placed at the
maximum girth of the seedlings. The leaf area
was estimated as the leaf length multiplied by
its maximum width multiplied by 0.05 following, Harden et al. (1965). Data were collected
at 5, 8 and 12 months after planting. Core and
surface soil samples were collected at 6 and 12
months after planting for the determination of
bulk density, aggregate stability, mean weight
diameter, dispersion ration andorganic matter
respectively.

by semi-micro kjeldahl method (Bremner,


1996). Organic carbon was determined by chromic acid wet oxidation method of Nelson and
Sommers (1982), while organic matter was determined by multiplying percentage organic carbon by 1.724. Available phosphorus was determined using Bray No 1 method (Bray and Kurtz,
1945). Exchangeable bases were determined
by 1N neutral NH4OAC saturation method of
Grant (1982).
Data Analysis: The statistical analysis was
performed using Genstat Statistical Package for
the analysis of variance (ANOVA). Treatment
means were compared using the Fishers Least
Significant Difference (F-LSD) at 5% probability.

LABORATORY METHODS
Physical properties: Particle size distribution
was determined by hydrometer method (Gee
and Bander 1996). Bulk density was measured
by the core method, as described by Blake and
Hartge (1986). The distribution of water stable aggregate was estimated by the wet sieving
technique described in detail by Kemper and
Rosenau (1986). Mean weight diameter was
calculated using the method of Van Bavel as
modified by Kemper and Rosenau (1986). The
dispersion ratio (DR) of Middleton as described
by Mbagwu (1990) was used as an index to determine micro-aggregate stability

RESULTS
Table 1 shows the properties of the soil before
treatment application. The soil was sandy loam
with a high percentage of sand, low percentages
of clay and silt. The textural class may negatively affect plant growth by exhibiting low water
and nutrient retention capacities. The soil was
low in pH, total nitogen, available phosphorus,
exchangeable (potassium, calcium, magnesium,
sodium) and organic matter respectively.Table 2
showed the chemical properties of the materials used during the nursery media composting
and composted oil palm bunch waste. Chemical

Chemical properties:Soil pH was determined


in 1:2.5 soil to water ratio using pH meter
(Mclean, 1965). Total nitrogen was determined

83

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

the highest values respectively relative to control (0gCOBW/polybag/seedlings). At 8 and 12


MAP, fertilizing with 300gCOBW/seedlings
gave the highest values compared to the control 0gCOBW/seedlings. The interactions between irrigation intervals and composted OBW
showed significant differences only at 8 and 12
MAP (Table 3).

analysis of the composted oil palm bunch waste


showed higher nutrient composition in terms of
total nitrogen, available phosphorus, exchangeable bases and pH relative to the raw materials.
The composted oil palm bunch waste had a lower C/N ratio compared to the raw oil palm bunch
waste used for the composting (Table 2).
Effects of treatments on growth of oil palm
seedlings
Stem girth: Figure 1 showed main effects
of irrigation intervals on stem girth of oil palm
seedlings at 5, 8 and 12 MAP. At 5MAP, highest (P<0.05) value was obtained at irrigation intervals of 14 days. On the contrary, at 8MAP,
highest (P<0.05) was obtained under 7days irrigation intervals. At 12MAP, highest (P<0.05)
value was observed at 14 days irrigation. Figure
2 showed main effect of compost on stem girth
of oil palm seedlings at 5, 8 and 12 MAP. At
5MAP, highest (P<0.05) value was obtained at
300gCOBW. Similar trend were observed at 8
and 12MAP.
At 5MAP, Table 3 showed that the highest
stem girth value was observed at 14 days intervals of irrigation. At 8 MAP, every 7 days
intervals of irrigation recorded the highest.
Whereas at 8MAP, 14 day intervals of irrigation gave the highest stem girth compared to
7 and 21 days irrigation intervals respectively.
At 5MAP, composted oil palm bunch waste applied at 200g/seedlings and 300g/seedlings gave

Fig 1: Main effect of irrigation intervals on stem girth


at 5, 8 and 12MAP

Fig 2: Main effect of composted OBW on stem girth at


5, 8 and 12MAP

Plant height: Figure 3 showed main effects


of irrigation intervals on plant height of oil palm
seedlings at 5, 8 and 12 MAP. At 5MAP, highest (P<0.05) value was obtained at irrigation in84

Impact of oil palm wastes on soil

Ovie et al

tervals of 14 days. However, at 8MAP, highest


significant value was observed under 7days irrigation intervals. At 12MAP, highest (P<0.05)
value was recorded at 14 days irrigation intervals (Fig 4). Figure 4 showed main effect of
composted oil palm bunch waste on plant height
of oil palm seedlings at 5, 8 and 12 MAP. At
5MAP, highest (P<0.05) value was obtained at
300gCOBW relative to the control (0gCOBW).
Similar trend were observed at 8 and 12 MAP
(Figure 4)
At 5MAP, Table 4 showed that highest plant
height value was observed at 14 days intervals

of irrigation. At 8 MAP, every 7 days intervals


of irrigation recorded the highest. Whereas at
8MAP, 14 day intervals of irrigation gave the
highest stem girth compared to 7 and 21 days
irrigation intervals respectively. At 5, 8 and
12 MAP composted oil palm bunch waste applied at 300g/seedlings gave the highest values
respectively relative to the control (0gCOBW/
polybag/seedlings). The interactions effects between irrigation intervals and composted OBW
were significant throughout theduration of the
study(Table 4).

Fig 3: Main effects of irrigation intervals on plant


height (cm) at 5, 8 and 12 MAP

Fig 4: Main effect of composted oil palm bunch waste


on plant height at 5, 8 and 12 MAP

Leaf Area: Figure 5 showed main effects


of irrigation intervals on leaf area of oil palm

seedlings at 5, 8 and 12 MAP. At 5MAP, highest (P>0.05) value was obtained at irrigation in85

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

tervals of 14 days. At 8MAP, highest (P<0.05)


value was observed under 7days irrigation intervals. At 12MAP, 14 days irrigation intervals had
the highest value (Figure 5). Figure 6 showed
main effects of compost on leaf area of oil palm
seedlings at 5, 8 and 12 MAP. At 5MAP, highest (P<0.05) value was obtained at 300g/COBW
relative to the control. Similar trend were observed at 8 and 12 MAP.
At 5MAP, Table 5 showed that highest leaf
area value was observed at 14 days intervals
of irrigation. At 8 MAP, every 7 days intervals

of irrigation recorded the highest. Whereas at


8MAP, 14 day intervals of irrigation gave the
highest stem girth compared to 7 and 21 days
irrigation intervals respectively. At 5, 8 and
12 MAP, composted empty oil palm bunch applied at 300g/seedlings gave the highest values
respectively relative to control (0gCOBW/polybag/seedlings). The interactions between irrigation intervals and compost had significant effects
on leaf area of oil palm seedlings throughout the
sampling period (Table 5).

Fig 5: Main effect of irrigation intervals on leaf area at


5, 8 and 12 MAP

Fig 6: Main effect of compost on leaf area at 5, 8 and


12 MAP

Leaf number: Figure 7 showed main effects


of irrigation intervals on leaf number of oil palm
seedlings at 5, 8 and 12 MAP. At 5MAP, highest
(P<0.05) value was obtained at irrigation intervals of 14 days. On the contrary, at 8MAP highest (P<0.05) value was obtained under 7days irrigation intervals. At 12MAP, highest (P<0.05)
value was detected under 14 days irrigation intervals. Figure 8 showed main effects of composted oil palm bunch waste on leaf number

of oil palm seedlings at 5, 8 and 12 MAP. At


5MAP, highest (P<0.05) value was obtained at
200gCOBW relative to the control. At 8 and 12
MAP, highest significant value was observed at
300gCOBW relative to the control (Figure 8).
At 5MAP, Table 6 showed that highest leaf
number value was observed at 14 days intervals
of irrigation. At 8 MAP, every 7 days intervals
of irrigation recorded the highest. Whereas
at 8MAP, 14 day intervals of irrigation gave
86

Impact of oil palm wastes on soil

Ovie et al

the highest leaf number compared to 7 and 21


days irrigation intervals respectively.At 5MAP,
composted oil palm bunch waste applied at
200g/seedling gave the highest values respectively relative to control (0gCOBW/polybag/
seedlings). At 8 and 12 MAP, fertilizing with

300gCOBW/seedlings gave the highest values


compared to the control 0gCOBW/seedlings.
The interactions between irrigation intervals and
compost gave no significant effects on leaf number throughout the sampling period (Table 6).

Fig 7: Main effect of irrigation intervals on leaf number


at 5, 8 and 12 MAP

Fig 8: Main effects of compost on leaf number at 5, 8


and 12 MAP

Effect of treatments on soil properties


Bulk density: Figure 9 showed main effect
of irrigation intervals on bulk density at 6 and 12
MAP. At 6MAP, lowest (P<0.05) value was obtained at irrigation intervals of 14 day. Figure 10
showed the main effect of composted oil palm
bunch waste on bulk density at 6 and 12 MAP.

At 6 and 12MAP, the lowest (P<0.05) value was


obtained at 300gcompost/seedlings/polybag relative to the control 0g compost/seedlings/polybag (Figure 10). Table 7 showed that the lowest
bulk density was observed at 14 days irrigation
intervals throughout the sampling period. At 6
and 12 MAP, composted oil palm bunch waste

Fig 9 :Main effect of irrigation intervals on bulk density


at 6 and 12 MAP

Fig 10: Main effect of composted oil palm bunch waste


on bulk density at 6 and 12MAP

87

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

applied at 300gcompost/seedling/polybag gave


the lowest values relative to control (0gCOBW/
polybag/seedlings). The interactions effects between irrigation intervals and compost was sig-

nificant and lowest values were observed with


300g COBW/seedlings under 14 days irrigation
intervals at both 6 and 12 MAP (Table 7).

Aggregate stability: Figure 11 showed the


main effect of irrigation intervals on aggregate
stability at 6 and 12 MAP. At 6MAP, the highest (P<0.05) value was obtained at irrigation
intervals of 14 day. At 6 and 12MAP, the highest (P<0.05) value was obtained at 300gcompost/seedlings/polybag relative to the control
0g (compost/seedlings/polybag) (Figure. 12).
Table 8 showed that the highest aggregate sta-

bility value was observed at 14 days irrigation


intervals throughout the sampling period. At 6
and 12 MAP, composted oil palm bunch waste
applied at 300gcompost/seedling/polybag gave
the lowest values relative to control (0gCOBW/
polybag/seedlings). The interactions effects between irrigation intervals and compost was significant and highest values were observed with
300g COBW/seedlings under 14 days irrigation
intervals at both 6 and 12 MAP (Table 8).

Fig 11: Main effect of irrigation intervals on aggregate


stability at 6 and 12 MAP

Fig 12: Main effect of composted oil palm bunch waste


on aggregate stability at 6 and 12MAP

88

Impact of oil palm wastes on soil

Ovie et al

Mean weight diameter (MWD): At 6MAP,


the highest (P<0.05) value was obtained at irrigation intervals of 14 day (Fig 13). At 6 and
12MAP, the highest (P<0.05) value was obtained at 300gcompost/seedlings/polybag relative to the control 0g (compost/seedlings/polybag) (Figure 14). Table 9 showed that the
highest value was observed at 14 days irrigation

intervals throughout the sampling period. At 6


and 12 MAP, composted oil palm bunch waste
applied at 300gcompost/seedling/polybag gave
the highest values relative to control (0gCOBW/
polybag/seedlings). The interactions effects between irrigation intervals and compost showed
no statistical difference throughout the sampling
period (Table 9).

Fig 13: Main effect of irrigation intervals on mean


weight diameter at 6 and 12 MAP

Fig 14: Main effect of composted oil palm bunch waste


on mean weight diameter at 6 and 12MAP

Dispersion ratio: Figure 15 showed main


effect of irrigation intervals on dispersion ratio
at 6 and 12 MAP. At 6MAP, lowest (P<0.05)

value was obtained at irrigation intervals of 14


day. Figure 16 showed the main effect of composted oil palm bunch waste on dispersion ratio

Fig 15: Main effect of irrigation intervals on dispersion


ratio at 6 and 12 MAP

Fig 16: Main effect of compost on dispersion ratio at 6


and 12 MAP

89

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

at 6 and 12 MAP. At 6 and 12MAP, the lowest


(P<0.05) value was obtained at 300gcompost/
seedlings/polybag relative to the control (0g
compost/seedlings/polybag) (Figure 16). Table
10 showed that the lowest dispersion ratio value was observed at 14 days irrigation intervals
throughout the sampling period. At 6 and 12
MAP, composted oil palm bunch waste applied

at 300gcompost/seedling/polybag gave the lowest values relative to control (0gCOBW/polybag/seedlings). The interactions between irrigation intervals and compost had significant effect
on dispersion ratio and lowest values were observed at 300g compost/seedlings under 14 days
irrigation intervals throughout the sampling period (Table 10).

Soil organic matter: Figure 17 showed main


effect of irrigation intervals on soil organic matter at 6 and 12 MAP. At 6MAP, highest (P<0.05)
value was obtained at irrigation intervals of 14
days. Figure 18 showed that at 6 and 12 MAP
the highest (P<0.05) value was obtained at 300g
compost/seedlings/polybag relative to the control 0gcompost/seedlings/polybag (Figure 18).

At 6 and 12 MAP, Table 11 showed that the


highest soil organic matter was observed at 14
days intervals of irrigation. At 6 and 12 MAP,
composted oil palm bunch waste applied at
300gcompost/seedling/polybag gave the highest
values relative to control (0gCOBW/polybag/
seedlings). The interactions between irrigation

Fig 17: Main effect of irrigation intervals on soil organic matter at 6 and 12MAP

Fig 18: Main effect of composted oil palm bunch waste


on soil organic matter at 6 and 12 MAP

90

Impact of oil palm wastes on soil

Ovie et al

intervals and compost showed significant differences only at 12 MAP having the highest value
at 300gcompost/ polybagat 14 days irrigation
intervals (Table 11).

due to applied irrigation at short intervals which


led to increased soil moisture content that may lead
to weakening and breakdown of aggregate resulting in rearrangement of soil particle, reorientation
of soil pores and increased compaction and plant
root restriction. These results were in agreement
with those reported by Haynes and Swift (1990).
The poorest growth parameters of oil palm seedlings as observed with the extension of irrigation
to 21 days throughout the sampling period may be
attributed to the negative effects of water stress.
Irrigation intervals of 21 days may have resulted
in the decline in soil nutrient availability, their
movement (mass flow and diffusion) and uptake
by the oil palm seedlings. Guiterrez-Boen and
Thomas (1999) reported that the decrease in soil
water availability affects the rate of diffusion of
many plant nutrients and finally their composition and concentration. The reduction of plant size
and growth under water stress may be attributed
to a decrease in the activity of meristemic tissues
responsible for elongation (Siddiqueat al., 1999).
Water stress conditions have been found to disrupt
several physiological processes leading to reduction in growth and chemical composition of sugar
beet (Bloch and Hoffman, 2005).

DISCUSSION
The relative high sand content of soil used for
the study is a reflection of a sandy parent material. The parent materials of the soils of eastern
Nigeria have been noted to influence the texture of
the native soils (Akamigbo and Asadu, 1983). The
relatively low pH, total N, available P, exchangeable K, Ca, Mg and soil organic matter content of
the experimental soil confirmed the soil to be low
in fertility (Ibeawuchiet al., 2006). The observed
improvements in nutrient composition of the composted material relative to the raw materials may
be adduced to increased organic matter mineralization and humification brought about by the action of micro-organisms. Brady and Weil (2002)
reported that finished compost is generally more
concentrated in nutrients than the initial combination of raw material used. The improvements in
growth parameters of oil palm seedlings that were
observed under irrigation intervals of 14 days
throughout the sampling periods may be adduced
to the improved soil physical properties and organic matter content that were observed under 14
day intervals of irrigation. However, organic matter is known to ameliorate soil physical properties
by reducing bulk density, increase porosities, saturated hydraulic conductivity, enhancing aggregation, and water holding capacity of soils (Mbagwu
and Picolo, 1990; Adesodunat al., 2005). The improved soil physical properties may result in greater root distribution and proliferation and hence
greater nutrient and water uptake (Dexter, 1988)
and may result in increasing plant growth. On the
other hand, the poorer growth of oil palm seedlings
observed under 7 days irrigation intervals may be

The improvements in growth of oil palm seedling that were observed with composted oil palm
bunch waste relative to the control may be attributed to the enhanced soil physical properties
brought about by the improved soil organic matter content as a result of the amendments. This is
further supported by Singh et al. (2007) who reported that soil organic carbon content increased
by manuring, which in turn improved its aggregate
stability, infiltration rates, decreased bulk density,
dispersion ratio and soil strength correspondingly.
Similarly, Razziet al. (2004) reported that compost
can help in the formation of a larger number of water stable aggregate through links between smaller
91

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

particles strong enough to withstand the dispersing


action of water.

post application rates In this study, the application


of 300g compost/seedlings/polybag and 14-day irrigation intervals was most effective in improving
the selected soil physical properties, organic matter status and growth of oil palm seedlings and its
therefore recommended.

Under moisture stress conditions, the application of composted oil palm bunch waste showed
excellent improvements in soil properties and
growth parameters of oil palm seedlings compared
to the control. These unique attributes may be in
connection with the fact that the applied composted oil palm bunch waste enhanced the organic
matter and other soil physical, chemical and biological properties (El-bady and Asaad, 1983). This
further collaborates the findings of Woomeret al.
(1994), Hossner and Juo (1999) who reported that
compost material improves soil structure, increases water holding capacity of soils, increases cation
exchange capacity (CEC) and increase the capacity of low activity clays to buffer changes in pH.

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M.C.(2006). Nutrients in runoff from a clayloam soil protected narrow grass strips. Soil
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Kundu, S.R., Bhattacharyya, V., Parkash, B.N.,


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Mbagwu, J.S.C, Unamba-Oparah, I and Nevoh


G.O., (1995).Physico-chemical properties and Richards, L.A. and Weaver, L.R. (1994). Moisproductivity of two tropical soils amended with
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Siddique, M.R., Hamid, B. and Islam, M.S. (1999).


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humic substances and surfactants on the stability of soil aggregates.Nigerian Journal of Soil
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Okusami, R.A., Rust, R.H. and Alao, A.O. (1997).


94

NJSS 25, 2015

IMPACT OF OPEN CAST MINE LAND USE ON SOIL PHYSICAL


PROPERTIES IN ENYIGBA, SOUTHEASTERN NIGERA AND THE
IMPLICATION FOR SUSTAINABLE LAND USE MANAGEMENT
*Okolo, C.C.1, Akamigbo, F.O.R.1, Ezeaku, P.I.1, Nwite, J.N.2, Nwite, J.C.3, Ezeudo, V.
C.1, Ene, J.1, Ukaegbu, E. P.4, Udegbunam, O. N.5 and Eze, N. C.1
1
Department of Soil Science, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria
2
Department of Soil and Environmental Management, Ebonyi State University Abakaliki
3
Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
4
Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri Imo State, Nigeria
5
Enugu State College of Agriculture and Agro-Enterpreneurship, Iwollo, Enugu State Nigeria
*Corresponding author email address: okolochukwuebuka@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The study examined the extent of soil physical properties deterioration due to mining activities in
Enyiba Ebonyi State, Southeastern Nigeria. In the study, two factors were considered: factor A - Soil
depths (surface soil: 0-15 cm and subsurface soil: 15-30 cm) and factor B - Distances from mine
pits (100 m, 200 m, 300 m, 400 m and 500 m away from mine pit). Four mining sites (Mbaraeke
Enyigba, Mkpoda Ugwvu, Nwamgbam Uchakuru and Azu Enyigba) within Enyigba mining vicinity were selected for the study. For standardization, a control was located 1.5 km away from Enyigba
mining vicinity. A total of 82 core soil samples and 184 auger soil samples were used for the study.
The results showed textural classes at different distances and depths to be predominantly sandy clay
loam including those of the control. However, higher values of clay were obtained at lower depths
(15 30 cm) at both mine area and control. The bulk density value at the subsurface soil of mine
site (1.67 g/cm3) was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the surface soil (1.53 g/cm3) and control
(1.59 g/cm3). The values of total porosity in all distances and depths were significant (p < 0.05), recording a reverse trend compared to bulk density values. Massive deterioration as a result of heavy
machineries at the mine area lead to high bulk density mostly at lower depths, low porosity and
surface capping compared to the control. Highest bulk density value of 1.79 g/cm3 was recorded
at 300 m subsurface soil of the mine area. Limited use of heavy machinery was recommended to
reduce soil compaction. Farmers within the study area are encouraged to practice conservation tillage since soil physical properties deterioration affect soil use and productivity.
Keywords: Land degradation, soil depths, mine area, soil physical properties
INTRODUCTION
It is well established that one of the primary
anthropogenic sources of heavy metal is mine
(Goyer, 1996). Mining causes large amount of
destruction of the environment in the form of

alteration of landscape, deterioration of vast


land areas, extinction of wild life, destruction
of natural habitat, changes in river regime, dust
inhalation and air emissions (Ezeaku, 2012). In95

Impact of cast mine on soil

Okolo et al

MATERIALS AND METHODS

creased operations of artisanal and small scale


miners as well as large scale mechanized mining are very destructive both to the landform,
vegetation and to adjacent aquatic ecosystems
(Okolo, 2014). Soil physical properties are dominant factors affecting the use of soils (Chude et
al., 2011). The success or failure of agricultural
projects often hinges on the physical properties
of soil, because they are more difficult to change
than chemical properties. In areas of wilderness,
mining may cause destruction and disturbance
of ecosystems and habitats, and in areas of farming it may disturb or destroy productive grazing
and croplands. Increase in soil bulk density as a
result of heavy equipments used in mining usually indicates a poor and unsuitable environment
for root growth, soil compaction and undesirable infiltration and drainage. Moreso, dredging
using heavy equipment and implements causes
damage to the soil surface with evident changes
in landscape and soil compaction.

The study area


The study was conducted at Enyigba in
Abakaliki Local Government Area of Ebonyi
State. Enyigba is 14 km southeast of Abakaliki
in Southeast Nigeria (Fig. 1). The area of study
lies between latitudes 6 07 N and 6 12 N and
longitudes 8 05 E and 8 10 E as obtained with
a handheld GPS in the derived savanna vegetation zone.
Four active open mine pits studied were located at Azu Enyigba, Mbaraeke, Nwamgbam
Uchakuru and Mkpoda Ugwvu with their coordinates shown below:

The area experiences bimodal pattern of rainfall (April-July) and (September-November)


with short dry spell in August normally called
August break. The total mean annual rainfall
is between 1700 to 2000 mm. At the onset of
rainfall it is torrential and violent, sometimes
lasting for 1-2 hours. The minimum and maximum temperatures are 270C and 310C, respectively while relative humidity is in the range of
60-80% (ODNRI, 1989). The soil belongs to the
order Ultisol (FDALR, 1985).

With respect to the foregoing and equally owing to the fact that there has been no study of
this kind in the area, it is very pertinent that this
study is conducted, especially now that large
scale mechanized mining is about resuming in
the area.
The major objective of this study was to investigate the present status of soil physical properties deterioration in the vicinity of Enyigba
mine as impacts of solid minerals mining. The
expected output of this research aims to address
the paucity of information in the study area with
regards to changes in soil physical properties
and especially to aid relevant stakeholders in
agricultural land use planning and sustainable
land use management to ensure soil productivity
optimization.

Land use
The main form of land use is arable cropping
of yams, sweet potatoes, maize, cassava and vegetable crops. The major combinations of crops
are cassava (Manihot esculanta)/maize (Zea
mays)/yam(Dioscorea spp), cassava (Manihot
esculanta)/maize (Zea mays), sweet potato (Ipomea batata)/maize(Zea mays) and maize (Zea
mays)/vegetables (Telferia occidentalis, Ptero96

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

carpus spp, Gnetum africana).

Field sampling

Stone mining/quarring, hunting, palm wine


tapping and farming constitute the major socioeconomic activities of the people of the study
area.

Four mine sites were selected for the study.


Each sampling site was given geographical coordinates using a hand-held global positioning
system (GPS). Auger soil samples (0-15 and 15-

Fig. 1: The physiographic map of Enyigba Pb Zn Province with the location of sample points (modified from Orajaka, 1965).

97

Impact of cast mine on soil

Okolo et al

30 cm) were collected starting from 100 m away


from the mine site and at 100 m intervals up till
500 m (i.e, 100 m, 200 m, 300 m, 400 m, 500 m
distance). Core soil samples were also collected
at similar distances. At each mine site, sampling
was done eastwards and westwards. Similarly,
a control site was selected at a distance of 1.5
km away from the Enyibga mining vicinity and
soil samples collected at depths 0-15 cm and 1530 cm. The soils of the control site and those of
the mine site were assumed to be pedologically
similar.

follows:
Tp = 1- bd X 100
Pd

Tp = total porosity, bd = bulk density pd=


particle density (assumed to be 2.70 gcm-3).
Experimental design and data analysis
This study was considered as a factorial experiment in which distance from the mine pit
and soil depth were two factors under consideration. The experiment was laid out in 2 X 5 factorial in RCBD replicated four times compared
alongside a control. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was done according to Obi (2002) and significantly different means were separated using
F-LSD at 5% level of probability. The statistical
analysis was done using Genstat Discovery Edition 3 (Genstat, 2003).

Two core samples were collected from the surface and subsurface soil (one from each depth)
giving 10 samples per sampling line. There were
therefore 20 core samples per mine site, giving
80 core samples for the four mining sites. Additional two core samples were collected from the
surface (0 15 cm) and subsurface (15 30 cm)
soil of the control site (one from each depth).
Altogether there were 82 core samples. Auger
sampling was done in a similar manner, but in
duplicates. There were therefore 164 auger samples. The core samples were used for soil bulk
density and total porosity determination while
the auger soil samples were air-dried and passed
through 2 mm sieve and used for routine analyses.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS


Results of soil physical properties are shown
in Table 1. The soils percentage of coarse and
fine sand generally decreased with increasing
depth, while the clay contents increased down
the profile. There was no definite trend in the
particle size distribution across the distances but
coarse sand dominated the total sand fraction in
all distances. The control surface soil and subsurface soil recorded the highest values of 31%
and 45 % for silt and clay respectively compared
to the soils of mine area (Table 1). The dominance of coarse sand over other particles was essentially a reflection of the parent material and
climatic (rainfall) effects on particle size movement (Igwe et al., 1999). Most soil formation
and/or degradation processes such as elluviation/illuviation, erosion and leaching affect finer
particles; climate is an active factor influencing
such processes (Jenny, 1980; Akamigbo, 2010).
The texture of the soil is related to its parent

Sample treatment and laboratory determinations


The auger soil samples were air-dried at ambient temperature of 210C to 270C, then crushed
and sieved through a 10 mesh (2 mm) screen
sieve. Particle size analysis of the soil was determined using the Bouyoucos hydrometer method
as described by Gee and Bauder (1986). Bulk
density was determined on the core samples by
core method as described by Anderson and Ingram (1993). Total porosity was calculated as
98

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

material (Akamigbo and Asadu, 1983), and this


accounts for the similarity in textural classes
obtained irrespective of locations, distances and
soil depths. This is expected as soil texture is
mainly inherited from the soil forming parent
materials. The highest bulk density value of
1.79 Mgm-3 was recorded at 300 m subsurface
soil of mine area and was higher than the control
both at the surface soil (1.51 Mgm-3) and subsurface soil (1.66 Mgm-3). The high bulk density value observed in mine area may be due to
removal of vegetative cover arising from series

of mining activities. Crops grown within 300 m


of the mine area may face problems of poor root
growth, poor rate of water infiltration and drainage thus leading to low crop yield. Increase in
bulk density usually indicates a poor environment for root growth and undesirable infiltration
and drainage (Chude et al., 2011) thus limiting
agricultural productivity. Similar reports have
been made relating high bulk density to poor
vegetal cover (Ezeaku and Anikwe, 2005), soil
surface crusting and compaction by raindrop
and machine impacts (Neil et al. 1997; Chude

Plate 1: Dry mine pit with exposed rock surface and sharp cut edges, evidence of manual extraction processes giving rise to dispersed aggregates of galena, sphalerite and other associated minerals.

99

Impact of cast mine on soil

Okolo et al

et al., 2011), and surficial erosion (Lal, 1994).


Vegetation destruction is a major consequence
of surface mining and this applies to the mine
area where the impact is seriously felt. Massive structure or structural deterioration leads
to high bulk density, low porosity, and surface

cappings (Chude et al., 2011). This is however


expected since the bulk density of the mine area
was higher than that of the control. The values
of total porosity in all distances and depths were
significant (P<0.05), recording a reverse trend
compared to bulk density values (Table 1).

CONCLUSION

ing from mining activities. Limited use of heavy


machinery is highly recommended to reduce
soil compaction. Farmers within the area are encouraged to practice conservation tillage since
soil physical properties deterioration affect soil
use and productivity.

Results of the study showed high bulk density in mine area compared to the control. The
high bulk density value at the mine area was as
a result of massive structural deterioration aris-

100

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

REFERENCES

9 (2nd Ed.) Am. Soc. of Agron., Madison, W. I.

Akamigbo, F.O.R (2010). Soils: Fundamental


Methods of Soil Resource Survey, Classification, Interpretation, Interpretation and Application. Published and printed by University Press
Ltd. Bookshop/Bank buiding complex, UNN.
Akamigbo, F.O.R and Asadu, C.L.A (1983).
Influence of Parent materials on the Soils of
Southeastern Nigeria. East African Agric.
For. J. 48: 81-91.
Anderson, J. M. And J.S.I Ingram (1993). Tropical soils biology and fertility. A handbook
of methods, 2nd Ed; CAB International,
Wallingford U.K. pp 221.

Genstat (2003). GENSTAT 5.0 Release 4.23 DE,


Discovery Edition_ 2. Lanves Agric. Trust,
Rothamsted Experimental Station Press, UK.
Goyer, R.A. (1996). Results of lead research: prenatal exposure and neurological consequences:
environmental health perspect. 7704:1050.
Igwe, C.A ., Akamigbo, F.O.R. and Mbagwu,
J.S.C. (1999). Chemical and Mineralogical
Properties of Soils in Southern Nigeria in relation to Aggregate Stability. Geoderma 92
(1999) 111 123.
Jenny, H (1980). The Soil Resource, Origin and
Behaviour. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Chude, V.O., Malgwi, W.B., Amapu, W.B and


Ano, O.A (2011). Manual on Soil Fertility
Assessment. Federal Fertilizer Derpartment
(FFD) In Collaboration with National Programme For Food Security, Abuja Nigeria.

Lal, R (1994). Methods and Guidelines for Assessing Sustainability use of Soil and Water
Resources in The Tropics. Soil Management
Support Services Technical Monograph #
21: 1-78.

Ezeaku, P.I (2012). Evaluating the Influence of


Open Cast Mining of Solid Minerals on Soil,
Landuse and Livelihood Systems in Selected
Areas of Nasarawa State, North-Central Nigeria. Journal of Ecology and Natural Environment. Vol 4(3) 62-70.

Neil, C., Melillo, J.M., Steudler, P.A., Lerri,


C.C., Demoraes, J.F.L., Picolo, M.C and
Brito, M (1997). Soil Carbon and Nitrogen
Stock Following Forest Clearing For Pasture in The Southwestern Brazilian Amazon.
Ecol. Applic., 7 (4) 1216-1225.

Ezeaku, P.I and Anikwe, M.A.N (2005). A Obi, I.U (2002). Statistical methods of detecting differences between treatment means and
Model for Description of Water and Solute
research methodology issues in laboratory
Movement in Soil-water Restrictive Horiand field experiments. Second edition. AP
zons across Two Landscapes in South East
Express publisher Limited. Nsukka Nigeria.
Nigeria. J. Res. Agric., 2 (2): 47-53.
Federal Department of Agriculture Land Resources (FDALR) (1985). Reconnaissance
Soil Survey of Anambra State of Nigeria.
Soil Reports 1985. (FDALR) Lagos, Nigeria.
Gee, G. W., and Bauder, J. W (1986). Particle size
analysis. P. 383-411. In: Klute, A. (Ed.). Methods of soil Analysis part I. Physical and Mineralogical Methods. Agronomy Monograph No.

Okolo, C.C. (2014). Impact of Solid Minerals


Mining on Selected Soil and Water Properties in Enyigba, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. M.Sc
Dissertation, Department of Soil Science,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Overseas Development of Natural Resources
Institute(ODNRI)(1989). Nigeria profile of agricultural potential, ODA, United kingdom.

101

NJSS 25, 2015

SOIL BORON AND BIO-ACCUMULATION IN RAPHIA PALM


Aghimien A.E.
Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research, P.M.B. 1030, Benin City, Nigeria.
e-mail: aiyowie_aghimien@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Total and available Boron were determined in surface soils from 56 locations on 5 different parent
materials in Southern Nigeria. Boron concentrations in leaves of Raphia palms growing in the were
also determined.
Total, available and plant Boron ranged from 16.0 to 87.0; 0.08 to 2.31; 3.0 to 25.0mg/kg respectively in crystalline metamorphic and igneous rock soils; 22.3 to 69.4; 0.01 to 1.20; 6.0 to 12.0 mg/
kg; in shale mixed with sandstone and clay soils; 22.3 to 69.5; 0.01 to 3.15; 4.0 to 16.0 mg/kg in
coastal plain sands soils; 20.3 to 96.0; 0.01 to 1.93; 5.0 to 12.0 mg/kg in coastal alluvium soils and
28.3 to 52.6; 0.01 to 0.43; 3.0 to 12.0 mg/kg in fresh water swamp soils respectively. Percent total
boron extractable by hot water varied from 0.46% to 2.5%.
From the available Boron data, there is likely inability of soils in most locations to supply sufficient
Boron to support normal plant growth.
Keywords: Total Boron, Available Boron, Boron Extractability, Bio-Accumulation.
INTRODUCTION
Boron (B) is an essential plant nutrient for
growth and development; but needed in very
small quantities. It is implicated/important in
plant cell division, cell wall formation, production of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), nitrogen
metabolism and protein formation, maintenance
of balance between sugar and starch, translocation of sugar and carbohydrate across cell membrane, development of reproductive structures
as pollen tube, fruits and grains and maintenance
of cells internal water balance (Hall 2008). The
roles of boron in oil palm and coconut palm
growth, development and nutrition are well documented, (Turner & Gillbanks 2003, Carley &
Tinker 2003). However, information on boron
content of Raphia palm is very scanty; if at all.

Information on soil total boron and available forms generally abound for developed agriculture, because of wide spread report of boron deficiency and/or toxicity symptoms for a
wide range of arable crops and pastures (Maas,
1984). However, soil testing is considered the
best method for determining the presence of boron deficiency and/or toxicity as critical limits
in plant cannot be easily determined partly due
to uneven accumulation of boron in plant tissue.
For Nigeria soil and even in most crops, information on total boron, its availability and
plant tissue concentration respectively is very
scarce. The Raphia palm is native to the humic
tropics (Tuley & Russell, 1966). Twenty species

102

Soil boron accumulation

Aghimien

of the palm have been identified in Africa; eight


of these are indigenous to Nigeria (Otedoh). The
palms grow naturally in the wild in most wetland/hydromorphic soils of southern Nigeria.
Local dwellers in these areas often exploit the
most vigorous wide Raphia hookeri, dominantly
for its sap (palm-wine) and piassava derived
from the apical frond. The study therefore, is
aimed at determining total and available boron
in soils developed on different parent materials
with a common factor of hydro morphism and
adapted Raphia palm grown in them. The essential role boron plays in cell water management
and sugar/carbohydrate translocation in plants
and expectedly Raphia hookeri exploited for its
sap (palm-wine), further made this work important.

MATERIALS AND METHODS


Fifty soil core samples (0-20cm) were collected
randomly from fifty-six locations developed on 5
different parent materials; (Table 1). Fourteen locations were developed on crystalline metamorphic and igneous rocks, twelve locations on shale
mixed with sandstone and clay, thirteen locations
developed on coastal plain sands, nine locations
developed on coastal alluvium and eight locations
developed on fresh water swamps. Waterlogging
and hydromorphism was a common factor to all
the locations. The samples were bulked, sub-sampled and air-dried for analysis.
Ten Raphia Hookeri (wine palm) grown in the
locations were sampled. The middle frond on each
canopy was cut down and leaflets striped from al-

103

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

ternate sides of the petiole was sampled, bulked


and sub-sampled. After removal of the mid-rib, the
leaflets were chopped into pieces and oven dried to
constant weight at 850C and milled.
Total boron was determined using ground soil
sample by the Na2C03 fusion method, (Muir,
1952; Jackson 1958). Available Boron was determined by hot-water extraction (Keren, R.

1996). Boron in plant sample was determined


by dry ashing (Okalebo et al 2002). Boron in
the extract was determined by colorimetric
method using 1:1 diantrimide, (Garfinkel & Pollard 1954). During the analysis, plastic containers and Boron free glass-wares were used. Also,
blank samples were analysed to avoid Boron interference and contamination.

104

Soil boron accumulation

Aghimien

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Soil Boron

overall basis, the mean total soil boron level is 39.16mg/kg. The highest levels were in
Coastal alluvium (46.1 Omg/kg) and Freshwater swamps (40.64mg/kg), while lower levels
were obtained for the other locations. However,
the highest mean available boron level was recorded for Coastal plain sand (0.7mg/kg) and
soils on crystalline metamorphic igneous basement complex rocks (0.65mg/kg) and the least
amount (0.16mg/kg) recorded for Freshwater
swamps soils.

A summary of boron levels in soils and


Raphia leaf samples is given in Table 3. On

Values obtained for total boron and water


extractable/available boron are comparable

The soil parent materials and sample locations are given in Table 1. The ecology of the
areas range from moist savannah with rainfall
of about 1186mm in the northern fringe to humid forest with rainfall of over 2105mm in the
southern end, (Greenland 1981). A summary of
the overall physic-chemical properties of the
soils is given in Table 2.

105

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

with reported by Nalovic and Pinta (1972) for


some Cameroonian soils, Kanwar and Raundhawa (1974) in some Indian soils, Cottenie et al
(1981) for some Nigeria toposequence soils and
Chude (1988) for some cocoa-growing soils in
South Western Nigeria.
Percentage total boron in water extractable
form also varied within soils developed on the
different parent materials. The highest mean
percentage extractable boron was obtained for
soils on crystalline metamorphic igneous basement complex rocks (2.52%) and the lowest for
soils in Fresh water swamps (0.46%) other locations fell within the range of (1.40% to 1.97%).
The overall range of percent extractable boron
was 0.01% to 14.44% and this compares to calculated range of 0.14% to 7.33% obtained in
cocoa growing soils of South Western Nigeria
by Chude (1988) and 0.20% to 6.12% calculated
from Nigeria soils toposequence by Cottenie et
al 1981.
Plant Boron
Raphia leaf boron concentrations similarly
vary with locations. It ranged from 3.00mg/
kg to 24.90mg/kg for palms in basement complex soils; 5.60mg/kg to 11.70mglkg in palms
on coastal plain sand; 4.60mg/kg to 12.20mg/
kg in palms on coastal alluvium and 2.50mg/kg
to 12.20mg/kg in palms on fresh water swamp.
The lowest mean leaf concentration of boron
of 4.70mg/kg was obtained in palms on coastal
alluvium soils, while the highest mean concentration of 8.80mg/kg was obtained for palms on
shale mixed with sandstones and clay. These
compare with boron concentration in leaves
of other palms as Oil palm 4mg/kg to 5mg/kg;
10mglkg to 15mglkg; 25mglkg to 30mglkg;
50mglkg to 250mg/kg depending on locations
(Turner and Gillbanks, 2003) and Coconut palm

(3.4mglkg to 10.0mg/kg (Jayasekara & Loganathan 1988); 7.0 mg/kg to 15.8mglkg (Broschat
2011) at different ages and leaflet portions. Plant
boron did not correlate significantly with either
soil total boron or water extractable boron and/
or any of the soil indices. A similar observation
was made by Chude, (1988) for Cocoa and Cocoa growing soils in south-western Nigeria.
Reisenauer et al. (1973) classified hot water
soluble boron availability as follows:
1.0ppm: Soil may not supply sufficient B to
support normal plant growth
1.0 - 5.0ppm: usually allow normal plant
growth
>5.0ppm: soils may supply toxic concentrations.
CONCLUSION
From this study, there is wide spread boron
deficiency in these soils most especially in areas
that are inherently low in boron, such as those
derived from acid granite and other similar
rocks and fresh water sedimentary deposit that
are predominantly sand. No location fell within
the toxicity range.
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The Handbook of Plant Science in Agriculture. B.R. Christie (ed.). CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Florida.

Nalovic L. and Pinta M. (1972). Study of trace


elements in some tropical soils of Cameroun,
Geoderma 7,249 - 267.
Okalebo J.R., Gatha K.W., Woomer P.L. (2002).
Laboratory methods for soil and plant analysis. A working manual. Second Edition.
Tropical soil fertility and biology progran,
Nairobi Kenya. TSBF-CIAT and SACRED
Africa, Nairobi Kenya. 128pp.
Otedoh M.a. (1977). The African origin of
Raphia taediges palmae Nigerian Fields
42(1): 11 - 16.
Reisenauer H.M. Walsh & R.G. Hoeft (1973).
Testing soils for Sulphur, Boron, Molybdenum Chlorine. In: soil testing and plant
analysis (Revised Edtn), L.M. Walsh and J.D
Beaton Sci. Soc. Am., Inc. Madison, Wis.
USA, pp.173-200 .
Tuley, P. & Russell, T.A. (1966): The Raphia
palm reviewed. The Nigerian Field 31 (2) 54
- 65.
Turner P. D. & Gillbanks R. A. (2003). Oil Palm
Cultivation & Management. The Incorporated Society of Planters 50708 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.

Muir, J. W. (1952). The determination of total


phosphorus in soils with particular reference
to the control of interference by soluble silica. Analyst (London) 77: 313 - 317.

107

NJSS 25, 2015

PHOSPHORUS SORPTION BY SOME HYDROMORPHIC SOILS


OF SOUTHERN NIGERIA
Aghimien A.E.1, Ilori E.G.1 and Ehigiator J.O.2
1
Chemistry Division, NIFOR, P.M.B. 1030 Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
2
Department of Soil Science, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
e-mail: aiyowie_aghimien@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
A laboratory experiment was conducted on fifty eight (58) surface soils from five different soil parent materials in Southern Nigeria. Samples were equilibrated with different P concentration ranging
from 0 - 150 mg/L prior to evaluation sorption potentials. The Phosphorus Sorption Index (PSI) of
the soils ranged from 4.80 to 64.90. The PSI values correlated significantly with some of the soil
parameters analyzed at P 0.05 and P 0.01 level of significance in the soil samples on crystalline
metamorphic and igneous rock, shale mixed with sandstone and clay and coastal plain sands but not
in the fresh water swamp and coastal alluvium soils. Also the results indicated that at any specific
P concentration, the coastal alluvium soils had the highest amount of P sorbed than the other soils.
Keywords: Phosphorus sorption; hydromorphic soils; Sorption isotherm; Sesquioxides.
INTRODUCTION
Phosphorus (P) is an essential macronutrient
for both plant and animal growth (Fox. 1993).
However, excessive application of P can play a
major role in the eutrophication of freshwater
systems (Sharply, 2000). A number of studies
have been conducted on the sorption reactions
of phosphorus in soil both for agronomic (Uwumarongie-Ilori et al., 2012) and environmental
purposes (Zhang et al., 2005).
In Nigeria, numerous studies have been carried out on the phosphorus status of Nigerian
upland soils (Udo and and Ogunwale, 1977) but
very little has been reported on the lowland soils
that are permanently under water with different chemistry and transformation of phosphorus
from well drained soils. Aghimien et al., (1985)
reported that the lowland soils of Nigeria have a

wide range of capacities to retain P.


P sorption takes place when P is added to
soils or sediments and it refers to the fast surface
reaction and slow reaction of P on solid phase.
Sorption of P proceeds initially by a rapid exothermic ligand exchange reaction with the reactive surface groups resulting in the released of
a hydroxyl or water molecule from the surface
and formation of a phosphate surface complex
(Frossard et al., 1995). This fast reaction is followed by a slow reaction which occurs by ion
exchange with exchangeable cations or cations
in crystal lattices. Phosphorus sorption involves
adsorption and retention and its controlled by
the concentration of P in solution and the ability of the solid phase to replenish Pinto solution
(Zhou and Li, 2001).

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Phosphorus sorption by soils

Aghimien et al

Hydromorphic soils may act as sinks or as


sources of P, hence this study is aimed at assessing P sorption-desorption characteristics of
hydromorphic soils from fifty nine representative samples formed on Basement Complex and
Sedimentary parent materials. The equilibrium
P concentration obtained shall be correlated
with the physicochemical properties of the soils
to better understand the P dynamics.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil collection: The study was conducted in
the laboratory on fifty eight surface soil samples
collected from hydromorphic soils formed from
different parent materials; Table 1. Sixteen soils
on crystalline metamorphic and igneous rock
(A); twelve soils on shale mixed with sandstone

and clay (B); thirteen soils on coastal plain sands


(C); nine soils on coastal alluvium (D) and eight
soils on fresh water swamps (E).
The area covered in this study was the flat
lowland part of southern Nigeria south of 8N,
stretching across the country from east to west.
The region is in the humid tropics with a mean
annual rainfall ranging from 2000 to 4000mm.
The vegetation is derived Savannah in the
Northern fringe, through thick tropical rain forest to fresh water swamp consisting of mainly
fresh water raffia palm species.
Physico-chemical analysis
Selected soil physicochemical properties
such as pH, total organic carbon, total nitrogen,
available phosphorus, effective cation exchange

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

capacity (CEC) and particle size distribution


were determined using standard methods (IITA,
1982).
Phosphorus sorption
The sorption study was carried out on the fifty nine (59) surface soils according to standard
procedure recommended by Nair et al. (1984).
One gram air dried soil was weighed into series
of 50 ml plastic bottles. Twenty five millilitres
of 0,0 I M CaCb solution containing 0, 20, 40,
60, 80, 100 and 150 mg/l P were added to these
bottles. Three drops of chloroform was added to
inhibit microbial activity. The soil suspension
was shaken at 2YC for 24 hours on a reciprocating shaker. After equilibration, the soil suspension was centrifuged at 1200 x g for 5 min,
and the clear supernatant was filtered through a
0.45m membrane filter. Phosphorus concentration in the filtrate was determined by the colorimetric method of Murphy and Riley (1962)
at 882nm. The concentration of P in the initial
solution was also measured. The difference between the quantity of P in solution after shaking
with soil and the quantity initially present was
calculated as the quantity of P sorbed by the soil
in mg kg-I. The data obtained from the phosphate adsorption experiment were fitted to the
Freundlich equation (1);
X = a Cn........................ (1)
Where X is the amount of P sorbed per unit
weight of soil (mg P kg-I soil), C the concentration of P in equilibrium solution (mg L-l), a is a
constant related to sorption capacity, n is phosphate sorption energy.
The amount of P sorbed, x (mg/l00g), from
addition of 1.50g P/kg of soil was also determined after shaking for 24 hours at a water to
soil ratio of 10: 1. The P sorption index (PSI)
was then calculated using the quotient;

x/log c....................... (2)


where c is the solution P concentration (Bache
and Williams, 1971). This quotient correlate
closely with P sorption maximum obtained from
a Langmuir sorption isotherm for a wide range
of soils.
Phosphorus remaining in solution (mg L-l,
x-axis) was plotted against P sorbed (mg kg-1,
y-axis), and a line was fitted using simple linear
regression equation (3).
S = KC =S0 (3)
Where S is P sorbed on solid phase (mg kg-I),
C is P remaining in solution after 24 h equilibration (mg L-1), S0 is y-axis intercept representing the initial quantity (mg kg-I) of sorbed soil
P and K is slope.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The physico-chemical properties of the fifty
eight (58) surface soil samples from five different locations formed from different parent materials (A - E) are given in Table 2. The soils
were acidic with the highest acidity in the fresh
water swamps and the lowest acidity in the crystalline metamorphic and igneous rock soils. The
organic carbon content of the soils had a wide
range from 0.60 to 12.70% with the coastal alluvium soils having the highest average amount
of 3.38% and the coastal plain sands the lowest amount of carbon (1.59%). The soils were
found to be generally coarse with high sand
content and low silt and clay contents. Nitrogen
contents of the soils were low, the coastal alluvium soils having the highest amount than the
other soils. The cation exchange capacity (CEC)
and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC)
of the soils were low; CEC values ranged from
0.84 to 4.89 while the ECEC values ranged from
2.44 to 6.54cmol/kg with the highest amounts in

110

Phosphorus sorption by soils

Aghimien et al

crystalline metamorphic and igneous soils. The


base saturation of the crystalline metamorphic
and igneous rock soils was the highest, averaging about 91 %. This was followed by base

saturation values of about 71 % in shale mixed


with sandstone and clay soils. The least base
saturation value was obtained in the fresh water
swamp soils.

The mean values of available P estimated by


Bray P-l method varied largely amongst soils
and ranged from 1.00 to 145.00 mg/kg. The result revealed that there was no correlation with

the estimated available P, indicating that the P


sorption capacities are not associated with the
estimated available P. The highest PSI (25.17)
was obtained in the coastal alluvium soils while

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

the least (15.41) was obtained in the fresh water


swamp soils. The PSI varied among the different parent soil materials. The PSI of the crystalline metamorphic and igneous rock soils ranged
from 6.10 to 48.90, the PSI of the Shale mixed
with sandstone and clay soils ranged from 4.80
to 64.90, the PSI of coastal plain sand soils
ranged from 6.60 to 36.20, the coastal alluvium
PSI soils ranged from 11.00 to 61.00 while the
PSI of fresh water swamp soils ranged from
10.50 to 23.50. On the average the PSI of all
soils ranged from 4.80 to 64.90.
The correlation analysis conducted on the
data showed that PSI was significantly correlated
positively and negatively with some of the soil
parameters in the crystalline metamorphic and
igneous rock, shale mixed with sandstone and
clay, coastal plain sands and freshwater swamp
soils at P0.05 and P0.01 level of significance.
In the crystalline metamorphic and igneous rock
soils, the P sorption index (PSI) was signifi-

cantly and negatively correlated with only pH


and sand while PSI was significantly and positively correlated with nitrogen and clay content
of the soils. Sand and clay content in crystalline metamorphic and igneous rock (r = -0.777
and r = 0.903 respectively) and shale mixed with
sandstone and clay (r = - 0.828 and r = 0.827
respectively) soils were strongly correlated with
PSI. Effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC)
was only strongly correlated with PSI in Coastal
plain sands. It was observed in the fresh water
swamp soils that PSI was significantly correlated with only A13+.
The correlation analysis also revealed that
there was strong positive correlation between
the sesquioxides of shale mixed with sandstone
and clay and coastal plain sands soil samples
with PSI at 0.01 level of significance. The other
location samples sesquioxides did not correlation with PSI of the samples.

Table 3: Relationship between phosphorus sorption index (PSI) and soil chemical properties

112

Phosphorus sorption by soils

Aghimien et al

Phosphorus Sorption
The relationships between the amounts of
phosphorus sorbed and phosphorus concentrations of the hydromorphic soil samples are
shown in Figure 1. It was observed that the
amount of P sorbed increased with an increase

exhibited different adsorption characteristics.


The Crystalline metamorphic and igneous rock
soils had the lowest amount of P sorbed amongst
the different soil types. A close linear relationship between equilibrium P concentration and
added P was obtained and the correlation coefficients were 0.995 for crystalline metamorphic
and igneous rock soils, 0.994 for shale mixed
with sandstone and clay soils, 0.991 for coastal
plain sand soils, 0.988 for coastal alluvium soils
and 0.990 for fresh water swamp soils.
The Freundlich parameters, sorption capacity
(a), P sorption energy (n) and correlation coefficient (r) obtained from the data plotted according to P sorbed vs P in equilibrium solution are
given in Table 4. The correlation coefficients obtained for the various plots showed the goodness
of fit of the model as all plots were highly corre-

in the concentration of phosphorus added to the


soil. The result showed that at any specific Pconcentration, the amount of P sorbed by the
coastal alluvium soils was higher than that of
other hydromorphic soils.
The isotherm results showed that each soil

lated with r2 values > 0.95 indicating very high


conformity of the adsorption data to the Freundlich model. The values of sorption capacity (a)
for the five different hydromorphic soils ranged
from 2375 to 2626 mg kg-l while the P sorption
energy (n) ranged from 0.258 to 0.434 L kg-1.
In classifying the hydromorphic soils using
capacity factor (a) as proposed by Shayan and
Davey, (1978) were soils having larger (a)
values have larger adsorbing capacity than soils
having smaller (a) value, it was observed in this
study that coastal alluvium soils has the highest (a) value, followed hy the fresh water swamp
soils, the coastal plains sand soils, the crystalline metamorphic and igneous rock soils and the
shale mixed with sandstone and clay soils.
The usefulness of Freundlich parameter (a)
in summarizing the adsorption properties of soil

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

over wide range of equilibrium concentration


was found in this study. The order of soils according to their adsorption capacities was:
Coastal alluvium soils > Fresh water swamp
soils > Coastal plains sand soils > Crystalline
metamorphic and igneous rock soils> Shale
mixed with sandstone and clay soils.
Regression analysis conducted on the various
concentration of P added to the different hydromorphic soils showed regression equation b =
6.42 and a = 359.64 for crystalline metamorphic
and igneous rock soils, b = 9.36 and a = 313.00
for shale mixed with sandstone and clay soils,
b = 7.11 and a = 402.78 for coastal plain sand
soils, b = 10.41 and a = 370.95 for coastal alluvium soils and b = 6.00 and a = 455.25 for
fresh water swamp soils. Also, regression equation was statistically found to be significant at P
< 0.01 levels.
CONCLUSION
Phosphorus (P) sorption-desorption characteristics of hydromorphic soils are important
in designing best management practices to reduce risk of P losses to surface water. The results obtained in this study revealed that a good
estimation can be done on PSI based on some
soil physical and chemical properties. PSI was
influenced by soil physical and chemical char-

acteristics as differences in the magnitude of


change in PSI between the soils indicates that
soil type in addition to the amount of P added to
the soils will determine a soil potential to release
P in the soil. The wide range in the differences
in PSI of the soils from the different parent materials showed that a comprehensive phosphate
recommendation may not be a good strategy for
the soils in this hydromorphic region as it may
lead to under or over application of P. The study
revealed that the coastal alluvium soils sorbed
more phosphorus than the other soils indicating
that this soil needs more phosphorus fertilization to attain optimum phosphorus concentration in soil solution. Also correlation analysis
conducted on PSI and sesquioxides forms of the
hydromorphic soils revealed that fertilizer application in hydromorphic soils are site specific.
REFERENCES
Aghimien, E. A., E. J. Udo and D. O. Ataga,
1985. Phosphorus status of hydromorphic
soils from Southern Nigeria. Niger. J. Sci.
79:62-67.
Bache, B.W., and Williams, E.G. 1971. A phosphate sorption index for soils. Journal of Soil
Science 22:289-301.
Jox, L.E. 1993. The chemistry of aquatic phosphate: inorganic processes in rivers. Hydro-

114

Phosphorus sorption by soils

Aghimien et al

biologia.253:1-16.
Frossard, F, M. Brossard, M.J. Hedley, and A.
Metherell. 1995. Reactions controlling the
cycling of P in soils. p. 107-137. In H. Tiessen (ed.) Phosphorus in the global environment: Transfers, cycles and management.
John Wiley & Sons, NY.
IITA, (1982) Automated and semi-automated
methods for soil and plant analysis
Murphy, J., and J.R. Riley. 1962. A modified
single solution method for the determination
of phosphate in natural waters. Anal. Chim.
Acta. 27:31-36.
Nair, P. S., Logan, T. J., Sharpley, A. N., Sommers, L. E., Tabatabai, M. A. and Yuan, T. L.
1984. Interlaboratory comparison of a standardized phosphorus adsorption procedure.
Journal of Environmental Quality. 13:591595.

Uwumarongie-Ilori, E. G., P. O. Oviasogie and


A. E. Aghimien (2012). Evaluation of Rock
Phosphate-Phosphorus Sorption and Release
in Basement Complex Soil Cultivated to the
Oil Palm. E3 Journal of Agricultural Research and Development Vol. 2(3). pp. 070076.
Uzu, F. O., A. S. R. Juo and A. A. Fayemi, 1975.
Forms of phosphorus in some important agricultural soils in Nigeria. Soil Sci. 212 218
Zhang, H., J.L. Schroder, J.K. Furman, N.T.
Basta, and M.E. Payton. 2005. Path and multiple regression analyses of phosphorus sorption capacity. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.
Zhou, M., and Li, Y. 2001. Phosphorus-sorption
characteristics of calcareous soils and limestone from the southern Everglades and adjacent farmlands. Soil Science Society of
America Journal. 65: 1404-1412.

Sharpley, A.N. 2000. Agriculture and phosphorus management: The Chesapeake Bay.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Udo, E.J. and J. A. Ogunwale, 1977. Phosphorus
fractions in selected Nigerian soils. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. J. 41:1141-1146
Udo, E. J. and V. I. Dambo, 1979. Phosphorus
status of the Nigerian coastal plain sands. J.
Agric Sci. 93 :281-289

115

NJSS 25, 2015

EFFECTS OF VARIATION IN N:K RATIO IN SOILS ON THE


GROWTH, NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY AND YIELD OF MAIZE
(ZEA MAYS L.)
A. O. BAKARE* AND I. O. OSEMWOTA
Department of Soil Science, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State
* Author for correspondence, e-mail: aosayanmon@yahoo.com (Tel: +234 8038609533)
ABSTRACT
This study was undertaken in two distinct ecological zones of Edo state of Nigeria to determine the
effects of variation in N:K ratio in soils on the availability of N, K and on the growth and yield of
maize. The two sites used were Rubber Research Institute of Nigeria (RRIN) Iyanomo (forest) and
the Teaching and Research Farm of Ambrose Alli University, Emaudo, Ekpoma (derived savanna).
RRIN is located in coastal plain sand while Emaudo is located in a transition zone between the
coastal plain and basement complex of Edo state, Nigeria. The soils of the two experimental sites
were analyzed for physicochemical properties before the commencement of the experiments. The
experiments were carried out in two stages: Pot experiments in the screen house and Field experiments. Each of the experiments had ten treatments (adjusted ratios) that were fitted into randomized
complete block design and replicated three times. The following adjusted N:K ratios of 0:0 (control), 1:1, 2:1, 3:1,:4:1, 5:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, and 5:1 were used with maize (suwam - 1 variety) as
the test crop. Results from the screen house revealed that N/K ratio 4:1 had the highest dry matter
yield for both locations, (RRIN; 2.60 g/pot and Emaudo; 2.75 g/pot) but these values were not significantly different (P< 0.05) from what were obtained from N/K ratio 3:1 and 2:1, respectively. The
N:K ratio in soil had influence on the availability of N, and K. Under field conditions, N/K ratio 4:1
had the highest grain yield for both locations (RRIN; 3.46 ton/ha and Emaudo; 3.33 ton/ha), and the
highest cob field weight (RRIN; 9.92 ton/ha and Emaudo; 9.33 ton/ha), hence its recommendation.
Key words: N:K ratios, N and K availability, growth, Maize, yield.
INTRODUCTION
Inorganic fertilizers are essential component
of any system in which the aim is to maintain
good yield in the absence of organic manure
(Ayoola, 2006). However the rate of application
and dosage has a greater influence on both crop
yield and its environment (Gruhn, et al.,., 2000).
Excessive application of fertilizer as opined by

Smaling and Braun (1996) does not really enhance sustainability, crop nutrient uptake nor
significantly increase yields but tends to encourage economic waste and damage to the environment. Inadequate application, on the other hand,
can retard growth and lower yield in short term
and in the long run jeopardizes sustainability

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Variation in N:K ratio

Bakare and Osemwota

through soil mining and erosion. This precarious tilt between excessive and inadequate
is the major challenge of fertilizer recommendation efforts and can only be effectively bridged
when nutrients are applied at the right ratios.
Soil nutrient leaching and low level of soil
organic matter has made nitrogen a limiting nutrient to maize production in Nigeria (Adetunji,
1991; Azeez, 2009). However, high supply of N
is frequently associated with acidification and
accumulation of ammonia in the rhizosphere
(Roem Klees and Berendse, 2002). Increases in
N availability may also lead to strong P and K
shortage which might exclude some plant species through vitality (Lawniczak, 2009).
Potassium is known to play a major role in
osmoregulation, enzyme activation and carbohydrate translocation (Zhi-Yong, et al., 2009).
The release and fixation of K is as a function of
fertilizer application rate and soil parent material (Simonsson, et al., 2007). Furthermore, K
supply might affect N uptake in leaves, photosynthetic activity and water use efficiency (Egilla, et al., 2005).
Majority of tropical soils are fragile and low
in plant nutrients (Carsky and Iwuafor, 1995;
Juo and Wilding, 1996) and with climate that
is characterised by high rainfall and insolation
which are however not evenly distributed in the
various ecological zones. Hence, variation in the
performance of crops, the soil condition and nutrient status are expected among the ecological
zones.
In this study, we performed a screenhouse
house experiment and a back up field experiment to determine the effects of Variation of
N:K Ratio in Soils on the growth, nutrient availability and Yield of Maize (Zea mays L.). To
better understand the variations in N:K ratios,

we examined the growth responses, nutrient


concentrations in earleaf at silk and crop yield
for the best combination of N:K ratios in soils
of this locality.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The two sites used for this experiment were
located in Rubber Research Institute of Nigeria
(RRIN) Iyanomo (rain forest), the soils are derived from the coastal plain sand parent material
and the Teaching and Research Farm of Ambrose Alli University, Emaudo annex, Ekpoma
(derive savanna), the soils are from the transition zone between the coastal plain and basement complex, both in Edo state, Nigeria. Soils
from RRIN used for the study are Inceptisols,
classified as Typic Dystrudept and specifically
located at latitude 60 09 and 85 N and longitude 5o 35 and 58 E (Orimoloye, 2011), while
soils from Emaudo are Ultisols, classified as
Rhodic paleudults and located at latitude 6.180
and 6.460 E and longitude of 6.000 and 6.400 N
(Bazuaye, 2009).
The experiment was carried out in two stages: Pot experiment in the screen house (screen
house ionic experiment). Field experiment (field
ionic experiment). Surface Soil samples taken
from each of the representative sites, were air
dried, sieved and analyzed for its physical and
chemical properties, 1000g each were weighed
and placed in 1.5 liter plastic cups, based on
the soil test values, using the following adjusted ratios: 0:0, (control) 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1,
1:2, 1:3, 1:4 and 1:5 N:K ratios (screen house).
Nitrogen was applied as urea, and potassium
as muriate of potash. Using Maize as the test
crop, distilled water was used for irrigation, the
above ground portions of maize plants, were
harvested six weeks after planting (WAP). The
experiment was repeated in the field as a fol-

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

low up of the screen house work. The screen


house recommendation alone cannot be adopted
for field studies because of differences in soil
volume ratio, root restriction, number of plants
per pot, total nutrient exhaustion, short duration
and other controlled conditions. The field ionic
studies were conducted in two locations, RRIN
and Emaudo, respectively. The experiment was
a randomized complete block design. N:K ratio
trials were laid out consisting of 10 treatments
randomized among the plots within the blocks.
Each plot size was 2.5m x 2.0m and the planting
distance adopted was 75 X 25cm with a space of
50cm between plots and 80cm between blocks.
Agronomic growth traits were measured at 4 and
8 WAP. Two ear leaf samples were randomly selected from the centre row of each plot at silk
and were analyzed for their nutrient contents of
N and K. Three plants in each plot (middle row)
were harvested from 15 plants in each plot to
eliminate the effect of cross feeding. The harvested maize cob was dried and dehusked and
the dry weight (yield) noted. All data obtained
from laboratory, screen house and field studies
were subjected to statistical analysis (SARS).
Soils/plant tissue analysis
Soil pH was measured in 1:1 soil water sus-

pension (Macleans, 1982). Exchange acidity


(Al3+, H+) was extracted with 1NKCl (Thomas,
1982). Organic Carbon was determined by wet
dichromate acid oxidation method (Nelson and
sommers, 1982). Exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg,
K and Na) were extracted with 1N NH4OAC at
pH 7.0. Potassium and Na were determined with
a flame emission photometer while Ca and Mg
were determined with atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Anderson and Ingram, 1993).
Effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) was
calculated by the summation of exchangeable
bases and exchange acidity (Anderson and Ingram, 1993). Particle size distribution was determined by the hydrometer method according
to Okalebo et al.,. (2002). Plant samples were
oven dried at 700c for 72 hours, milled and
sieved through 0.5mm mesh sieve. Nitrogen
was determined using the macro-kjedahl method (Anderson and Ingram, 1993), Potassium
was determined by flame photometer.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The physical and chemical properties of the
soils used for the experiments are presented on
Table 1. The Soils from the two sites were acidic
in nature and had low eletrical conductivity, total nitrogen, organic carbon, exchangeable po-

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Variation in N:K ratio

Bakare and Osemwota

tassium and sodium and are below the critical


nutrient element levels given for most crops of
this region ( Sobulo and Osiname, 1981; Adeoye
and Agboola, 1985; Agboola and Corey, 1973;
and Agboola and Obigbesan, 1974). The textural classes were sandy loam and sand.
Higher application of nitrogen significantly
affected the maize plant growth rate with N:K
applied ratios 4:1 having the highest growth rate

in terms of maize plant height, stem girth, leaf


area and number of leaves at 4 and 8 weeks after
planting (WAP) for both experimental sites (tables 2, 3, 4 and 5). Although this was not significantly different from what were obtained from
the applications at N:K ratios 1:1, 2:1 and 3:1
and as such, applying at N:K ratio 4:1 can be
referred to as Excessive application of fertilizer,
as opined by Smaling and Braun (1996).

The effect of applied ratios (N:K) on dry matter yield (DMY), nutrient concentrations, and
uptake of maize plant screen house in soils of
Emaudo and RRIN are shown on Tables 6 and
7, while Correlation coefficient matrix showing

the effect of applied N:K ratios in soils on the


relationship between nutrient concentrations,
uptake and DMY of maize in these soils are
shown on tables 8 and 9, respectively. In Emaudo soils, the concentration of N in the ear leaf

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

increased with increase in N application. The


highest N concentration was obtained from applied N:K ratio 4:1, this was closely followed
by 3:1 and 2:1, respectively. The highest K concentration was obtained from applied N: K ra-

tio 1:5. The highest N uptake was from applied


N: K ratio 1:5. The highest K uptake was also
obtained from applied N: K ratio 4:1. Nitrogen
concentration in the earleaf was nagatively and
significantly correlated with K with r values of

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Variation in N:K ratio

Bakare and Osemwota

-0.749* and Nitrogen uptake in the earleaf was


positively but not significantly correlated with
K uptake with r values of 0.512 respectively.
In RRIN soils, the concentration of N in the ear
leaf increased with increase in N application.
The highest N concentration was obtained from
applied N:K ratio 4:1, this was closely followed
by 3:1 and 2:1, respectively. The highest K concentration was obtained from applied N: K ra-

tio 1:5. The highest N uptake was from applied


N: K ratio 1:5. The highest K uptake was also
obtained from applied N: K ratio 1:4. Nitrogen
concentration in the earleaf was negatively and
significantly correlated with K with r values
of -0.755* and Nitrogen uptake in the earleaf
was positively and also significantly correlated
with K uptake with r values of 0.977** respectively.

The positive correlation between the uptake


of N and K probably is an indication of synergistic relationship. This was in agreement with
the findings of Heathcote (1972). In the N/K

ratio experiment, there was a significant effect


of applied ratio on earleaf DMY in both soils
of RRIN and Emaudo. The DMY and concentrations of N and K where highest at N/K ra-

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

tio 4:1 in both soils. Eghball and Power (1999)


observed that fertilizer fortified with Nitrogen
increases the concentrations of nitrogen and
phosphorus as well as potassium concentration
in plant tissue. This could be the probable reason while K concentration in the plant tissue
was high with higher N application. Nitrogen/
Potassium application of varying ratios affected
maize vegetative growth significantly in some
stages of growth. However, Howeler and Spain
(1980) found at carimagua that the crop did not
respond to N unless K was applied in the right
proportion. With grain yield (table 10), applied
N/K ratio 4:1 recorded the highest in both soils
of RRIN and Emaudo although not significant.

The highest cob yield was also obtained from the


same applied ratio in both soils. Gething (1993)
of the international potash institute stated that
in Asia the N: K ratio usage approaches 10: 1
compared with around 2: 1 in Europe and North
America and some other parts of the world. This
implies that with soils of RRIN and Emaudo,
N:K ratios 4:1 could probably be the best ratio
for maize production, hence its recommendation. Nitrogen and Potassium concentrations
in the earleaf at silk at this particular N/K ratio application level were within the sufficiency
ranges based on values given by Jones and Eck,
(1973).

TABLE 10: EFFECT OF SOIL NITROGEN:POTASSIUM RATIOS ON THE YIELD OF MAIZE


(COB AND GRAIN) IN SOILS OF RRIN AND EMAUDO.

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and maize earleaf content of P, Cu, and Mn in
sedimentary soils of south western Nigeria.
Fertilizer research 6 (1): 65-71.
Adetunji, M. T.,( 1991). An evaluation of soil
nutrient status for maize production in southwestern Nigeria. Samaru Journal. Agr. Res.
8: 101-113.
Agboola, A. A., and Corey (1973). The relationships between Soil pH, organic matter,

available phosphorus, exchangeble potassium, cassium, magnessium and nine other


elements in the maize tissue. Soil Science.
115:367-375.
Agboola, A. A., and Obigbesan G. O. (1974).
The response of some improve crop varieties
to different fertilizers in forest zones of western Nigeria. Report FAO/NORAD/FDA.
Serminar on Fertilizer use Development in
Nigeria.
Anderson, J. M., and Ingram, J. S. I. (1993).
Tropical soil biology and fertility: A hand-

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book of methods 2/Ed. C.A.B. International, Michigan, 221pp.


Ayoola, O. T. (2006). Effects of Fertilizer Treatments on Soil Chemical Properties and Crop
Yields in a Cassava-based Cropping System.
Journal of Applied Sciences Research 2,
1112-1116.
Azeez, J. O. (2009). Effect of nitrogen application and weed interference on performance
of maize genotypes in Nigeria. Pedosphere,
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Bazuaye, E. (2009). Mapping and classification
of some soils in Ambrose Alli University
teaching and research farm, Emuado, Ekpoma, M.Sc thesis, Dept of Soil Sience, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State,
Nigeria pp 39.
Carsky, R. K. and Iwuafor, E.N.O., (1995).Contribution of soil fertility research and maintenance of improve maize production and
productivity in sub Saharan Africa. In The
international institute of tropical agriculture
(IITA) ed. Proceeding of regional workshop,
29 May-2 June, 1995. IITA, Cotonon, Benin
Republic, pp35-52.
Eghball, B., and Power, J. F. (1999). Phosphorus- and Nitrogen-Based Manure and Compost Applications Corn Production and Soil
Phosphorus. Soil Science Society of American. Journal. 63, 895-901.
Egilla, J. N., Davies, F. T. Boutton, T. W. (
2005). Drought stress influences leaf water
content, photosynthesis and water use efficiency of Hibiscus rosa-senensis at three
potassium concentrations. Photosynthetical.
43: 135-140.

Gething, P. A. (1993). Improving Returns from


Nitrogen Fertilizer Henley-on-Tharnes 1
United Kingdom. In: The Potassium-Nitrogen Partnership, IPI Research Topic, No 13,
2nd Revised edition, pp. 1-53. International
Potash Institute Basel, Switzerland
Gruhn, P., Goletti, F., and Yudelman, M. (2000).
Integrated nutrient management, soil fertility,
and sustainable agriculture: Current Issues
and future challenges. In: Food, Agriculture
and the Environment Discussion , Vol. 32,
pp. pp1-31. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, USA.
Howeler, R. H., and Spain, J. M. (1980). The
effects of potassium manuring of some crops
on the tropical climate. Potash Review. Subj.
16. Suite 83. In: The effects of potassium
manuring of some crops on the tropical climate. Potash Review. Subj. 16. Suite 83.
Jones, J. B. J. and Eck, H. V. (1973). Plant analysis as an aid in fertilizing Corn and grain
Sorghum. In : L. M. Walsh and J. O. Beaton
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the lowland forest of west and central Africa,
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J. T. A. (2009). Effect of N:K supply ratios
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Macleans, E. O. (1982). Aluminium, P. pp 927.


In: C. A. Black (ed). Methods of soil analysis Part 11. Agron 9: American Soc of Agron.
Madison, Wisconson, USA.
Nelson, D. W. and Sommers, L. E. (1982). Total
Carbon, Organic Carbon and Organic matter. In page, A. L. et al (eds) methods of soil
analysis Part 2. Agron. Monogra 9. Second
edition ASA and SSSA. Madison Wisc. pp
539-579.
Okalebo, J. R., Gathua, K. W., and Woomer, P.
L. (2002). Laboratory methods of soils and
plant analysis. A working manual, 2/Ed. Sacred Africa, Nairobi, Kenya.
Olsen, S. R., Cole, C. V., Watanabe, F. S., and
Dean, L. A. (1954). Estimation of available
phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. USDA Circular 939, 1-19.
Gov. Printing Office Washington D.C.,
Washington D.C.
Olsen, S. R., and Sommers, L. E. (1982). Phosphorus. A. L. Page, R. H. Miller, and D.
R. Keeney [eds.] Methods of soil analysis,
part 2 - No 9 Part 2., American Society of
Agronomy, Soil Science Society America,
Madison, WI,. pp 403-430.
Orimoloye, J. R. (2011). Characterisation
and evaluations of selected soils of southern Nigeria for rubber (Hevea brasilienesis
Muel. Arg) cultivation., Ph.D thesis, Dept
of Agronomy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan,
Oyo State 217 pp.

Roem, W. J., Klees, H. and Berendse, F. ( 2002).


Effects of nutrient addition and acidification
on plant species diversity and seed germination in healthland. Jour. Of applied ecology.
39.937-948.
Simonsson, M., Andersson, S., Andrist-Rangel, Y., Hillier, S., Mattsson, L., and born,
I. (2007). Potassium release and fixation as a
function of fertilizer application rate and soil
parent material. Geoderma 140, 188-198.
Smaling, E. M. A., and Braun, A. R. (1996). Soil
fertility research in Sub-Saharan Africa: New
dimensions, new challenges. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 27
(Nos. 3 and 4).
Sobulo, R. A. and Osiname, A. O. (1981). Soils
and Fertilizer use in Western Nigeria. University of Ife institute of Agriculture and
training Research bulletin II, pp 8-9.
Thomas, G. W. (1982). Exchangeable cations. pp 159-165. In: A.L. Page et al.,. (ed.)
Methods of soil analysis: Part 2. Chemical
and microbiological properties. Agronomy
Monograph Number 9, 3rd edition of ASA
and SSSA, Madison Wisconsin.
Zhi-Yong, Z., Quing-Lian, W., Zhao-Hu, L.,
Liu-Sheng, D. and Xiao-Li, T.(2009). Effect of Potassium deficiency on root growth
of cotton and its physiological mechanisms.
ACTA Agronomica Sinica. 35 (4) 718-723.

124

NJSS 25, 2015

SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT OF SOILS SUPPORTING OILPALM


PLANTATIONS IN THE COASTAL PLAINS SAND, IMO STATE, NIGERIA
Ukaegbu, E.P.1, Osuaku, S.K.1, and Okolo, C.C.2
1
Department of Agric. Science, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri Imo State
2
Department of Soil Science, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Enugu State
E-mail: emekaprosper2@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Due to declining yield of Oilpalm, soils of the coastal plains sand of Imo State supporting oil palms
were evaluated. A bulked sample was taken from each of ten sites studied, at 0 20cm and 20
40cm depths and analysed in the Laboratory. Soils textures were dominated by sandyloam at the
surface, but sandy clayloam at the subsurface. Ranges of values of parameters at the topsoil were:
pH(4.1 5.6), ECEC (5.7 8.7cmol/kg), BS (36 87%), OM (1 4.7g/kg), TN (0.01 0.14g/
kg), Av. P (6 48mg/kg), Fe (0 233mg/kg), Cu (0 1.2mg/kg), Zn (0.3 14mg/kg), Mn (5.7
145.6mg/kg). Fertility Capability Classification (fcc) identified in the soils the condition modifiers
g (gley in the valleys), e (low cec), h (strong acidity), and k (low content of k). But by suitability
rating, the main limiting factors were OM (N), TN (S3/N), K (S3/S2). Generally, the soils were
moderately suitable (S2) for oilpalm cultivation. Slight drainage of sites on alluvium, moderate
liming (particularly of alluvial soils), liberal application of nitrogenous fertilizer and moderate application of potassic fertilizer are recommended. The parametric method of assessment was more
realistic than the non-parametric.
Keywords: Oilpalm, Coastal Plains Sand, Soil Properties, Suitability Assessment.
INTRODUCTION
Oilpalm (Elaeis guineensis) is an important
economic tree which, according to Komolafe
et al (1979), originated in tropical West Africa.
Adeniji et al (1991) report it as a source of food
(oil), palmwine, palmkernel cake for feeding
livestock, and palmoil for making soap, pomade,
magarine, candles etc. So, if well managed, the
crop has the potential of positively contributing
to the transformation of the countrys (Nigeria)
economy.
However, Nigerian Institute for Oilpalm Re-

search (NIFOR) (1986) noted that the acid sand


types of soils in Nigeria, which are the more
important oilpalm growing soils, are deficient
in nutrients. Similarly, Udom (2002) reported a
drastic falling off in yield of oilpalm plantations
in Nigeria and Cameroun, which he attributed
to declining soil Fertility and improper management of plantations. His study included Adapalm plantation which is in the coastal plains
sand of Imo State, the location of this study.
The management of the soils is the more com-

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Ukaegbu et al

pounded by the use of plantation sites for arable


cultivation. This challenge is captured by Ohajianya (2006) who reported poor resource use efficiency in Imo State resulting in poor yield of
major food crops yam, cassava, maize.
The foregoing therefore underscores the need
for improved management of the soils supporting oilpalm plantations in the coastal plains
sand of Imo State. By matching the requirements of landuse to land qualities (FAO, 1976),
soil management is optimized and productivity
enhanced. This then provides a good basis for
advising farmers on appropriate management
practices. The study thus assessed soils of ten
sites in the location of study supporting oilpalm,
to highlight their limiting qualities and management requirements.

Hyparrhenia grass species (Igbozurike, 1975).


However, Ukaegbu (2014) records the soils
parent materials as alluvium (in the river valleys), subrecent alluvium (in delta), and coastal
plains sand (in the upland), as indicated in table 1. Following the standards of USDA Soil
Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2010) and FAO
(1998) World reference base for soil resources,
Ukaegbu (2014) further records the soils classifications as indicated in table 1. Alluvial soils
of the inland valleys (sites 1, 2, 3) are classified
as Fluvaquentic Eutrudepts (USDA) and Gleyic
Fluvisol (FAO). Those of uplands (sites 4 to 9)
are classified as Typic Paleudult (USDA), and
Haplic Ferralsols (FAO). Soil of delta is classified as Typic Paleudult (USDA) and Haplic Ferralsol (FAO).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sampling. Table 1 shows the description of


sites sampled.

Location. Study location is within Lat. 5015|N


and 5045|N, and Long. 7030|E and 6045|E. It
is within the humid tropics. Mean annual temperature is 270 280C (800 820F) (Monanu,
1975a); total annual rainfall is 2250 2500mm
(Monanu, 1975b), having three dry months in
which total rainfall is less than 60mm (Inyang,
1975). The location is in the rainforest region
dominated by oilpalms (Elaeis guineensis) and

Samples were taken by Free Survey Technique


from a quarter of an hectare within each plantation
site, as some were less than half an hectare in area.
A minimum of five samples (spread the entire area
sampled) were taken from each of 0 20cm and
20 40cm depths and bulked, such that each site
had a bulked sample for each depth sampled. Total
of twenty (20) bulked samples were thus taken to
the laboratory for analyses.

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Laboratory Analyses: Samples were airdried and sieved with a sieve of 2mm mesh
size. The fine-earth fraction was analysed using
standard procedures. Particle size analysis was
by Bouyoucos (1951) hydrometer method, using sodium hexametaphosphate as dispersant.
Soil pH was determined using a glass electrode
pH meter in a soil-to-water ratio of 1:2.5. Organic carbon was by the Walkley and Black
(1934) method. Organic matter was then got by
multiplying the value of organic carbon with
1.724. Total nitrogen was determined by Macro-Kjeldahl method of Black (1965). Available
phosphorus was determined by Bray and Kurtz
(1945) No 11 Method. Exchangeable bases
were extracted with neutral normal ammonium
acetate solution; Ca++ and Mg+= in the extract
were determined by EDTA titration, while K+
and Na+ were determined by flame photometry.
Exchangeable acidity was determined by the
method of Mclean (1965). Total Exchangeable
Bases (TEB) was obtained by summation of the
exchangeable bases (Na, K, Ca, Mg). Effective
Cation Exchange Capacity (ECEC) was calculated as the summation of total exchangeable
bases and exchange acidity. Base saturation was
got by expressing TEB as a percentage of ECEC.
Micronutrients were extracted with IMHCL solution and their extractable contents determined
using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (Buick
Scientific Atomic Absorption/Emission Spectrometer 205).
Evaluation Procedure: Soil parameters
were rated using critical values recorded in literature. On the other hand, productivity/suitability rating indices of parameters and soils were
expressed as percentage of their optimal rates
using an adaptation of the scheme by Jasbir et al
(1988) given as:

Suitability (Productivity)
Rating Index =

Actual rating
X 100
Optimal rating

This scheme is based on the fact that output


from good quality land under optimal conditions should be the standard for determining the
suitability of other types of land. The scheme
brings parameters to same term. Maximum
value of moderate rating, which otherwise is
minimum for high rating, is taken as optimal
for the parameters considered. These are: O.M.
3%/30g/kg (Landon, 1991); pH 6.5 (Adeniji
et al., 1991); TN 0.15% (Chude, et al. 2011);
Av. P 25mg/kg (Enwezor et al, 1989); Exch. K
0.25cmol/kg (Chude et al., 2011); Base saturation was taken as normally expressed; Exch. Mg
0.5cmol/kg (Landon, 1991).
Soil texture was rated on the bases of silt and
clay percentages, taking their average rating for
that of texture. 50% and 30% were taken as respective optimal values of silt and clay (Savalia
et al., 2009) in Loam, considered optimal for the
growth of oilpalm.
The average rating of all parameters considered represents that of the site.
To determine the suitability class of parameters and of course soils, the suitability rating
index values are referred to the rating scale of
Dent and Young (1981) given below:

NB: Describing these as supplementary definitions of suitability classes employed for assessment in terms of individual land qualities,

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Ukaegbu et al

Dent and Young (1981) define the classes in


terms of expected crop yields as percentage of
yields under optimal conditions, in the absence
of inputs specific to the land quality considered,
on one hand; while on the other, defined in terms
of inputs specific to the land quality considered,
necessary to achieve yields of >80% of those
under optimal conditions.

are recorded in tables 3 and 4.

Table 3 shows that the surface soils (0 20cm)


textures are mostly sandy loam, while subsurface
(20 40cm) textures are dominated by sandyclay
loam. By the rating of FAO (1987), the soils are
medium textured. FCC (table 5) classifies the topsoils mainly as Loam, with only sites 9 and 10 rated as sand. At the subsurface soils textures have
Fertility Capability Classification (FCC): also been dominated by Loam with the exception
Results of laboratory analyses of the samples taken of site 2 rated as clay. But relative to Loam (conwith the auger, along with the morphological prop- sidered ideal for oilpalm cultivation) the topsoil
erties of soil units as recorded by Ukaegbu (2014) textures have rated marginally suitable (S3), while
were used to determine Fertility Capability Classi- the subsoil is mostly moderately suitable (S2) as
fication. The conversion data used in evaluating the indicated by table 6. The textures of sites (1, 2, 3)
soils are as outlined by Sanchez et al (1982). The on alluvium are most suitable, while those of delta
system consists of three categorical levels, type (site 10) is most unsuitable due to its sandy nature.
(texture of plough layer or top 20cm), substrata The soils textures do not only show ability to retype (texture of subsoils), and modifiers (soil tain moisture, but also potential for nutrient retenproperties or conditions which act as constraints to tion. But generally, the soils textures are good for
crop performance). FCC units were determined by the cultivation of oilpalm.
combining class designations from the three catThe organic matter (OM) contents of soils
egorical levels.
(table 3) range between 1.0g/kg to 4.7g/kg at the
surface, but 0.14g/kg to 1.71g/kg at the subsurface. By the rating of Landon (1991), the OM
A survey of the location of study showed most contents are generally low. This is reflected by
oilpalm plantations to be on the upland of the table 6 as the parameter rated not suitable
coastal plains sand. This is reflected in table 1 as N, in all the sites and at both depths considered.
seven of the sites studied were on the well drained The low contents agree with, what is recorded
upland. Only sites 1, 2, 3 were in the valleys, poor- about the Acid Sands of southeastern Nigeria
ly drained some parts of the year during the heavy by Enwezor et al (1981), the low contents berains. The Fertility Capability Classification (FCC) ing attributed to rapid rate of mineralization in
of soils (table 5) recorded the condition modifier g the humid tropics. The highest value of 4.74g/
in the sites, indicating gleying. This quality alone kg was got at the surface of Imo river valley,
makes the sites unsuitable for oilpalm cultivation subject to seasonal water logging which slows
due to the defective oxygen supply. However, this down rate of decomposition. The low OM condeficiency seems to compensate the dry months of tents limit soils both physically and chemically.
the year, when other sites suffer moisture deficits.
The soils effective cation exchange capacThis perhaps explains the relative high rating of
ity (ECEC) has been found to range between
other soil qualities in the sites.
5.3 9.4cmol/kg at the surface, but 5.3 16.8
The physical and chemical properties of soils cmol/kg at the subsurface (table 3). Followign
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

the rating for oilpalm in surinam (FAO, 1976),


these values are high and therefore do not limit
crop growth and yield. However, FCC identifies

it as low, with 90% of sites studied having the


condition modifier e. This means low ability
to retain nutrients, hence fertilizer application

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Assessment of palm soils

Ukaegbu et al

should be split. The ECEC values signify the


dominance of the 1:1 type of clay and of course
the importance of OM in sustaining soil fertility.

1.04 4.08 cmol/kg, but 1.20 10.56 cmol/kg at


the subsurface, with the highest value of 10.56
cmol/kg got at the subsurface soil of Imo river
The soils reactions are extremely acid to valley. This result compares with the finding of
moderately acid at both surface and subsurface Ibanga and Iren (2006) on soils of plantations
soils. The pH values are 4.1 to 5.6 at the surface of University of Calabar, Cross River State and
but 4.2 to 5.8 at the subsurface. The acid nature Ikot Ekpene of Akwa Ibom State. However, the
of soils is also captured by FCC with 90% of crop seems to withstand the acidity. Jacquemard
sites studied registering the condition modi- et al (1998) note that oil palm can cope with acid
fier h, indicating strong to medium acidity. soils with a pH as low as 4. This claim is supThe exch. acidity values also reflect the soils ported by the rating of the soils pH (table 6),
reactions. At the surface, values range between using pH 6.5 as optimal for the crop. Table 6

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

shows the soils to rate between S1 and S2 at both


depths, in all sites. This is corroborated by the
soils base saturation ranging between 36% and

87% at the surface, but 37% to 83% at the subsurface. By the standards of FAO (1987) these
are between medium and high. The parameter

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Assessment of palm soils

Ukaegbu et al

has rated high (S1) and moderate (S2), as shown


by table 6. The values exceed 35% regarded as
critical for the growth of oilpalm, according to
Ibanga and Udo (1996).
Similarly, using a critical value of 20% for
Al-saturation (Abangwu et al., 1978), it is only
at sites 1 and 2 (table 3) that the value is exceeded. At a critical value of 0.2 cmol/kg (Meredith,
1965), the soils are not deficient in calcium.
Similarly, using the critical value of 0.5 cmol/
kg (Landon, 1991) the soils are not deficient
in magnesium. However, most of the soils are
deficient in exch. K using the critical value of
0.2 cmol/kg of Kyuma et al. (1986). The FCC,
as shown in table 5, rates 90% of sites deficient
(k) in potassium. However, using an optimal
value of 0.25 cmol/kg, 40% of sites rated marginal (S3), while 60% rated between moderate
and high. At the subsurface, 70% of sites rated
marginal (S3). This is shown by table 6.
By the rating of Chude et al. (2011) 80% of sites
are deficient in total nitrogen at both depths. The
range at the surface is 0.01 to 0.14, while at the
subsurface it is 0.01 to 0.20. The parameter (table
6) rates marginal (S3) and not suitable (N) at the
topsoil for 70% of sites; while at the subsurface,
80% of sites are between marginal (S3) and not
suitable (N). The low nitrogen contents are associated with the low OM contents of the soils.
On the other hand, available-P contents of the
soils have been found high following the rating
of Chude et al. (2011). At the surface, it ranges
between 6mg/kg and 48mg/kg, while it is 8.5 to
46mg/kg at the subsurface. Table 6 shows the
parameter to rate between moderate (S2) and
high (S1) at the surface for 80% of the sites;
while at the subsurface 90% of sites rate between moderate (S2) and high (S1). The parameter is not limiting, but the very high contents in
some sites could upset the balance of nutrients.

NIFOR (1986) notes that magnesium deficiency


may be induced by the application of potassium
fertilizer. But the high content of phosphorus
may not adversely affect trace element availability. In land suitability assessment of Surinam
for Oilpalm as recorded by FAO (1976) trace
element availability or phosphate fixation was
not considered, the reason being that oilpalm is
a deep rooting perennial and has relatively low
requirement with regard to nutrient activity. The
available-P content seems influenced by management as the sties with high contents have recent mounds used for arable cultivation.
Table 4 shows the surface soil micronutrient
contents. The high iron (Fe) content of highly
weathered tropical soils is also found in the location, where it ranges between 0 and 233 mg/kg.
Mn ranges between 4.9 and 145.6 mg/kg. The rest
(Cu and Zn) range between 0 and 14mg/kg. Apart
from site 10 where Fe was not detected, and sites
9 and 10 where Cu was not detected, the soils generally were not deficient in the micronutrient elements. Rather, there could be micronutrient (iron)
toxicity, particularly in the alluvial soils. The high
contents of Fe in the sites (1, 2, 3) are attributable
to the periodic flooding of sites.
Generally, the soils have rated moderately suitable (S2) for oilpalm cultivation, as shown by
table 6. The rating seems influenced by management. Sites 8, 9 and 10 having least scores (38.2
to 43.4%) had least rating scores for available-P
and exch. K, both of which are highly influenced
by management. Sites used for arable cultivation
(e.g. site 5) have palm fronds pruned and trash
burnt before cultivation. And subsequently, there
is fertilizer application. These practices reduce soil
acidity, while increasing the N, P and K contents
of soils. However, the moderate (S2) rating of soils
means that inputs needed to raise soil productivity to >80% of those under optimal conditions are

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

both practicable and economic.


The parametric method of assessment is more
realistic than the non-parametric as all sites would
have rated N by the later method on grounds of
limiting OM content a result that would not agree
with popularity of crop in the location.
CONCLUSION
Oilpalms are concentrated on the well drained uplands of coastal plains sand where soils productivity is limited mainly by low contents of OM, TN,
and exch. K; while alluvial soils supporting a few
plantations are limited mainly by water logging.
Generally, the soils are moderately suitable
(S2) for oilpalm cultivation.
REFERENCES
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No. 9 Amer. Soc. of Agron. Madison, Wisconsin.
Bouyoucos, G.J. (1951). A recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis
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Bray, R.H. and Kurtz, L.T. (1945). Determination of
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Dent, D. andYoung,A. (1981). Soil Survey and Land Evaluation. George Allen and Unwin, London. 278pp.
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DISTRIBUTION AND CONCENTRATION OF CADMIUM IN AUTOMOBILE


POLLUTED SOILS IN OWERRI SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA
B.N Ndukwu, E.U. Onweremadu, C.M Ahukaemere,
E.E. Ihem, U.N Nkwopara, D.N. Osujieke
Department of Soil Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology
P.M.B 1526 Owerri Nigeria
E-mail: bernang2001@yahoo.com, Phone No: 08038787468
ABSTRACT
The study investigated the distribution and concentration of cadmium in automobile polluted soils
in Owerri, Southeastern Nigeria. A transect was used to link 4 profile pits dug for the study, representing four physiographic land units namely highly polluted, moderately polluted, slightly polluted and an unpolluted site serving as a control. Soil sampling was done based on degree of horizon
differentiation. Soil samples collected were air-dried and sieved using 2 mm sieve and subjected
to routine and special analysis. Data collected were subjected to statistical analysis using correlation. Results revealed that soils were sandy and acidic with low pH level. Bulk density was low
in all physiographic land units. Values of exchangeable bases (Ca2+, Mg2+ K+, Na+) were low
in both polluted and unpolluted sites but was lower in the unpolluted site. Organic carbon was
moderately low in the study site, lower in the polluted sites than unpolluted site. Total N was found
low in all the land units studied while available phosphorus was found highest in the unpolluted
site (17.50 mgkg-1). Cadmium concentration exceeded the critical limit of 0.2 mgkg-1 and highest in the highly polluted site(4.44 mgkg-1) followed by moderately polluted site(1.57 mgkg-1),
slightly polluted site (1.14 mgkg-1) and lowest in unpolluted site (0.46 mgkg-1). Cadmium had a
significant negative relationship with sand (r=0.78, p<0.05) in the moderately polluted site and significant positive relationship with clay in highly polluted (r=0.84) and moderately polluted and site
(r=0.74; p<0.05). Cadmium had a significant positive relationship with pH in the highly polluted
site (r=0.99, p<0.05). These results indicate clearly that the soils of the studied area are polluted by
automobile wastes. Moreover, as agriculture progresses in the area, the elevation might reach catastrophic level. There is also evidence that the metal accumulated at lower layers of the soil profile.
Key words: Automobile, bioavailability factor, Heavy metal, soil pollution
INTRODUCTIONS
Soil is a primary recipient of waste products
resulting from anthropogenic activities of the
modern society. Soils suffer from environmental pollution, as a result of indiscriminate dis-

posal of pollutants such as automobile wastes


(Onweremadu, 2007a). These wastes are unavoidable materials resulting from industrial or
domestic, commercial and agricultural activi-

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Ndukwu et al

ties (Ekundayo, 2003; Kale, 2003), motor vehicles and combustion of fossil fuel (Huang,
et al., 2007; Nicholson et al, 2003). These municipal solid wastes are said to be beneficial in
soil amendment when composted but they contain and introduce some toxic substances to the
soil and reducing its quality, releasing them into
streams, lakes, rivers and ground water there by
causing heavy metal contamination (Mashi and
Alhassan, 2007). Heavy metals are dangerous
because they tend to bioaccumulate, resulting
in increase in the concentration of contaminants
over time, compared to their concentrations in
natural environments. Biotoxic metals accumulate in living things any time they are taken up
and stored faster than they are broken down or
excreted (Mashi and Alhassa, 2007).
Cadmium is a relatively rare metal. It is a biotoxic heavy metal regarded as an important environmental pollutant in agricultural soils because
of the potential adverse effects it poses to food
quality and soil health and environment (Gray
et al., 2004). The major hazard to human health
from cadmium is its chronic accumulation in the
kidney where it causes dysfunction (Thomton,
1992). Cadmium is present as an impurity in
several products, including phosphate fertilizers, detergents and refined petroleum products
(Mashi and Alhassan, 2007). In general, the major exposure pathway is through food via the addition of cadmium to agricultural soil and from
various sources (atmospheric deposition and
fertilizer application) and uptake by food and
fodder crops (Mashi and Alhassan, 2007). Additional exposure to humans arises, through cadmium in ambient air and drinking water (Mashi
and Alhassan, 2007).
The bioavailability of cadmium element depends on the concentration and form of the metal, concentration of Zn, soil pH, organic matter

content, clay content, presence of other cations


and fertilization practices (Norvel et al., 2000).
Oluyemi et al. (2008) reported high levels of As,
Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb above critical level in crop
leaves in both dry and wet season, Onweremadu
(2007c) reported that sandy soils promote translocation of Cd and Hg leading to groundwater
contamination. Cadmium has been reported to
be soluble in soils under oxidized conditions but
it is precipitated as cadmium sulphate as reduction takes place (Wang and Liao, 1999). Onweremadu et al. (2007) reported that at low pH, Cd
and Hg becomes more available and biotoxic.
One great source of cadmium in Southeastern Nigeria is motor vehicle servicing centres
known as mechanic village. In Urban and periurban towns of this area improved road accessibility creates a variety of ancillary employment
which range from vehicle repairs, vulcanizes
and welders services to auto-electrician works,
battery charging services and motor transportation. These activities send heavy metals into the
air and the metals subsequently are deposited
into nearby soils which are absorbed by plants
on such soils (Abechi et al., 2010), leading to
numerous health hazards, higher risk of toxicity and soil infertility (Fostier et al., 2000). This
study therefore investigated the distribution and
concentration of cadmium in automobile polluted soils in Owerri Southeastern Nigeria.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
This study was carried out in Nekede Mechanic village Owerri, Nigeria lying between
latitudes 5o 101 55.5111 and 5o 251 10. 1211 N
and longitudes 6o 451 25.1111 and 7o 051 06.
211 E. The main geological material of the area
is coastal plain sands (Benin formation) (Ora-

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

jaka, 1975). The site lies within the lowland


area of Eastern Nigeria (Ofomata, 1975). It is
of a humid tropical climate characterized by a
bimodal rainfall peak ranging from 2000-2500
mm annually. Temperatures are high and ranges
from 26-29 oC. The area is dominated by rainforest vegetation whose density has been altered
by anthropogenic activities such as automobile
related serving centres, deforestation and farming. The socio-economic activities of the area
include farming, fishing, and service enterprises
including automobile services.
Field Studies
Soil samples were collected from 4 pedons,
which were aligned along a transect at an interpedon distance of 100 meters. Four pedons were
dug on different land units representing highly
polluted, moderately polluted, slightly polluted
and non- polluted. Profile pits were dug, described and sampled according to the guidelines
of FAO (1998). Sampling was done based on
horizon differentiation.

determined by Walkley and Black wet digestion method (Nelson, and Sommers, 1982). Exchangeable bases were estimated by the neutral
ammonium acetate procedure (Thomas, 1982).
Calcium and magnesium were determined using
ethylene diaminetetracetic acid (EDTA) while
sodium and potassium were determined using
flame photometer. Exchangeable acidity (H+
and Al3+) were determined using titrimetric
method (Mclean, 1982). Total nitrogen was determined using microkjedahl digestion method
(Bremner, 1996), while available phosphorus
was estimated according to the method of Olson
and Sommers (1990). Digestion of soil samples
for cadmium concentration was carried out with
mixture of concentrated HN03 and HCIO4 at a
ratio of 2:1. Cadmium was extracted using 0.5
MHCI (Hesser, 1997). Cadmium concentration
in the supernatant was determined using Atomic
adsorption spectrophotometer.
Data Analysis

Soil samples were air-dried, crushed and


sieved using a 2-mm sieve, preparatory to laboratory analysis.

Soil data generated were subjected to statistical analysis using correlation coefficient. Correlation estimated the relationship between cadmium concentration and some soil properties.

Laboratory Analyses

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Particle size distribution was determined by


hydrometer method according to the procedure
of Gee and Or (2002). Moisture content was determined gravimetrically thus:

Table 1 shows the physical properties of


studied soils. The sand content was high in unpolluted soil with a mean value of 929.3 gkg-1
and least in the highly polluted soil with a mean
value of 874.3 gkg-1. The sandiness of soils is
attributable to the sandy nature of parent material, being derived from coastal plain sand.

ms= Wet Soil sample dry soil sample x 100


Dry soil sample
1

Where ms = gravimetric moisture content
(saturated), (%). Bulk density was determined
by using core sample method (Grossman and
Renish, 2003). Soil pH was measured in 1:2.5
soil-water suspension method using a standard
pH meter (Thomas, 1996). Organic carbon was

The lowest value of clay was found in the unpolluted soils with a mean value of 45.4 gkg-1
while the highest value was found in the highly
polluted site having a mean value of 88.43 gkg1. The silt content was highest in moderately

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Ndukwu et al

(39.3 gkg-1) polluted site and was lowest in


unpolluted soils with the mean values of 39.39
gkg-1 and 25.3 gkg-1 respectively. The low clay
and silt contents is an a result of high rainfall
status of the area which favoured high rate of
leaching, and effect of pedogenic process of
translocation in which clay and silt content were
moved down the profile pits (Onweremadu et
al., 2007). Akamigbo (1999) reported climatic
factors such as high precipitation and temperature content in the soils of Southeastern Nigeria.
The moisture content of all the soils were similar with the mean value of 17.5, 17.0, 17.5 and
17.5% in highly polluted, moderately polluted,
slightly and unpolluted soils respectively (Table
1) Bulk density values decreased from highly
polluted land unit (1 .37), Moderately polluted
(1.35), slightly polluted (1.33) and unpolluted

(1.28). The low bulk density in unpolluted land


units indicated that the soils are not compacted
and have more porosity (Attah, 2010). This is
beneficial to root activity, water infiltration into
soil and overall growth of crops. Higher bulk
density values in polluted land units could be attributed to the weight of oils and other automobile service wastes which might have clogged
and compacted soil pores.
Results of the chemical properties of the studied soils are shown in Table 2. The result of the
study indicated that soils were acidic with pH
values of 4.33, 4.36, 4.45 and 5.23 in highly polluted, moderately polluted, slightly polluted and
unpolluted. This could be as a result of the high
rainfall prevalent in the area. Also, heavy metal
influences soil pH and at low pH value most
heavy metals and trace element become more

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

available and biotoxic (Onweremadu, 2007b).


Exchangeable bases were low in both polluted
and unpolluted land units. The lowest exchangeable bases (Ca2+. Mg2+, K+, Na+) were found
in the unpolluted site (mean= 0.06 cmolkg-1 for
Ca2+, 0.033 cmolkg-1 for Mg, 0.019 cmolkg-1
for K+ and 0.13 cmolg-1 for Na+).
The low exchangeable bases (C, Mg, K, Na) in
the unpolluted site is attributed to high rate of rain-

fall prevalent in the area as soils of the humid area


are subject to leaching of basic cations (Donahue
et al., 1990; Alloway, 1996). Organic carbon was
moderately low in all the land units (Table 2). The
soil organic carbon of the unpolluted site was high
compared to the polluted site. The high OC in the
unpolluted site(1.13 %) could be attributed to the
soil origin, organic residues from plants and organic manure inputs from farmers (Edicha, 2010).

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Ndukwu et al

The low OC in the highly polluted site (0.98


%) may be attributable to decomposition of organic matter due to the agricultural activities
(Adjia et al., 2008) and soil organisms. Total
nitrogen was low in both polluted and unpolluted soils with soils having the least total nitrogen (Mean = 0.017 %). The low total nitrogen
is typical of the highly weathered soils of the
sub-humid tropics and may be attributed to high
nitrogen losses resulting from high rainfall that
brings about leaching of soil nitrates as well as
low organic matter content (Eshett et al., 1989;
Brady and Weil, 1999). The high total N in the
unpolluted site may be due to the application of
nitrate fertilizes by farmers in the area. Available phosphorus was higher in the unpolluted
site compared to the polluted site (Mean P=17.5
mgkg-1). This may be due to the soil management and cultural practices like use of organic
and inorganic fertilizers which enhances the
availability of phosphorous in the soil.
Table 3 shows the concentration of cadmium
in the studied soils. Cadmium concentration
was higher in polluted soils than unpolluted
soils. The concentration was found highest in
the highly polluted soils having a mean value
of 4.44mgkg-1. This is attributed to the high degree of automobile wastes decomposition in the
area (Adjia et al., 2008), and the levels of human
activities such as the use of lubricating oils and/
or old tyres that are frequently in use on rough
surface of road which increases the wearing of
tyres (McBride et al., 1999; Keller et al., 2001;
Abechi et al., 2010), leading to the high level of
the heavy metals in the area. Also, the high concentration of cadmium in highly polluted sites
could be due to low pH values recorded in the
area. This is in line with the findings of Onweremadu (2007b) that most heavy metals and trace
elements become more available and biotoxic at

low pH values. The low concentration of cadmium in the unpolluted soils is attributed to the
sandy nature of the soil. This is line with Onweremadu (2007b) who reported that sandy soil
promotes translocation of heavy metals down
the ground water. Also, Dowdy and Volk (1984);
and Smith (1991) have shown that where waste
disposal is made on sandy, acidic, low organic
matter soils receiving high rainfall or irrigation
water, the movement of heavy metals into lower
soil layers tends to be high. On the other hand,
Kuo et al., (1985) observed that cadmium retention is greater in fine textured soils with high
CEC than in coarse textured soils with lower
CEC. Cadmium concentration in both polluted
and unpolluted sites exceeded the critical limits of 0.2 mgkg-1 (Robert et al., 1994). This is
in agreement with the report of Onweremadu,
2007(a). Soils in the polluted site higher levels
of contamination of cadmium than 0.75 mgkg-1
(Jaradat and Momani, 1998) and 0.88 mgkg-1
(Bai et al., 2008). This could be as a result of
severe pollution of soils by cadmium especially
at the polluted sites thus high values of Cd in the
site. The high concentration of cadmium in the
unpolluted site is attributed to the effect of soilforming processes as well as agricultural activities in the area (Mashi and Alhassan, 2007).
Correlation coefficients of cadmium with soil
properties in polluted and unpolluted soils are
shown in Table 4. This coefficient measures the
strength of a linear relationship between any two
variables on a scale of -1 (perfect inverse relation)
through 0 (no relation) to +1 (perfect relation).
Cadmium had a significant negative correlation with sand (r=-0.78; P<0.05) in moderately
polluted site implying that increase in sand content decreases cadmium concentration. This shows
that less heavy metals is retained on a sandy soil.
Cadmium had a good relationship with clay in

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

both highly polluted and moderately polluted


soils (r=0.84. 0.74 P<0.05). This is in line with
Kuo et al., (1985) who observed that cadmium
retention is greater in fine textured soils with
high CEC than in coarse-textured soils with low
CEC. In humid, tropical soils, it has been well
established that clay particles migrate to deeper
soil horizons from upper soil horizons in a process called eluviation. This process leads to the
accumulation of clay particles in sub-surface
horizon leading to the formation of the argillic horizon. Since clay is an important colloid
promoting retention of metallic elements in soil
and from the study site, the sub-surface horizons
had the highest concentration of cadmium. It is
expected that such an argillic horizon can promote the retention of cadmium migrating to the
lower soil pedogenic horizons in the study sites
from where they can be lost to underground wa-

ter sources in solution, thus polluting the ground


water. Cadmium had a positive significant relationship with pH in highly polluted site (r=0.99,
p<0.05) (Onweremadu et al., 2003). It is known
that the bioavailability of metals in soil depends
on pH, organic matter, and total metal content,
competing cations in soil solution (Sauve et al.,
2000; Udom et, al., 2004), thus leading to plant
uptake or leaching to ground water. In conditions
where oxidation reactions are involved, the solubility of heavy metals increases with decreasing
pH. In reducing conditions, the solubility of Zn,
Cu, Cd, and Pb is higher in alkaline pHs, as a result of formation of stable soluble organo-mineral
complexes. On the other hand, if pH ranges between 4 and 6, the solubility of these metals would
be lower because of the formation of insoluble
sulfides or insoluble orgno-mineral complexes
(Kiekens, 1983; Mashi and Alhassan, 2007).

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CONCLUSIONS

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NJSS 25, 2015

COMBINED APPLICATION OF UREA AND SAWDUST ASH IN OKRA


PRODUCTION EFFECTS ON YIELD AND NUTRIENTS AVAILABILITY
Abdulraheem, Mukhtar Iderawumi1
Ojeniyi, Stephen Olusola2
1
Department of Agricultural Education, Emmanuel Alayande College of Education,
Oyo, Lanlate Campus, Lanlate, Oyo State, Nigeria.
m.iderawumi@gmail.com
2
Department of Crop, Soil and Pest Management,
Federal University of Technology, Akure Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Trials were conducted at Emmanuel Alayande College of Education Teaching and Research Farm
Lanlate, southwest Nigeria in 2012 and 2013 to investigate effects of combined applications of
sawdust ash (SDA)and urea (U) as fertilizer in okra production. There were five treatments and a
control, replicated three times in randomised complete block design. Treatments were a control,
urea at 240 kg/ ha, 180kg/ha U+1.5t/ha SDA, 120kg/ha U+3.0t/ha SDA, 60kg/ha U+4.5t/ha SDA
and 6t/ha SDA. The test soil was marginal in organic matter, inadequate in available P, and slightly
acidic. SDA and its combination with urea increased soil N, available P, exchangeable K, Ca and
Mg Urea increased plant N,P,K and Ca in 2012 and 2013. SDA and its combinations with reduced
rate of urea significantly increased number and weight of pods. Relative to control, urea, 1.5 t/ha
SDA +180 kg/ha U, 3.0 t/ha SDA +120 kg/ha U,4.5 t/ha SDA + 60 kg/ha U, and 6.0 t/ha respectively increased pods weight by 29. 31, 37, 52, and 38%. Combination 4.5 t/ha SDA + 60 kg /ha U
is recommended. SDA reduced need for urea by 75%
INTRODUCTION
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench)
is an important tropical vegetable grown for its
fruit (pods) and leaves. It is traditionally grown
in cote de voire, Ghana, Nigeria, Egypt, Sudan,
Togo, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. However, its productivity is limited by low soil fertility, hence its
yield is increased by application of inorganic or
organic fertilizers (Akinola and Ojeniyi, 2002,
Ojeniyi and Sanni, 2002, Ojeniyi and Folorunso., 2005, Moyinjesu and Ojeniyi 2006). However, use of the inorganic fertilizer is limited by
its cost and scarcity, also it increases the soil

acidity which adversely affect nutrient uptake


(Aduayi 1980) and organoleptic qualities of
okra pod (Taiwo, et al 2002).
Although, organic manure and soil fertility have important function in okra production
and in controlling nematode infestation (Obi et
al 2005, Moyinjesu and Ojeniyi 2006), its use
is hampered by low quality and slow release of
nutrients.
There is need to study into the use of combined
application of organic and inorganic manure in
okra production. The study of combine application

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Effects of Urea and sawdust in okra production

Abdulraheem and Ojeniyi

of animal manure and N.P.K. fertilizer was most


economically profitable compared with the sole
application of the materials. It was indicated that
NPK fertilizer was expensive and not environmentally friendly (Attigah et al, 2013).
Sawdust is derived from wood processing
industries and it is often disposed by incineration to ash. Studies have established ash as fertilizing and limiting material. It has been found
to improve soil and plants nutrients and yield
crops (Abdulhamid and Mustapha, 2000: Owolabi et al 2003; Awodun et al 2007; Odedina
et al, 2003; Ewulo et al, 2009). However its
combined use with chemical fertilizer has not
received research attention. This work therefore
investigated effect of combined application of
saw dust ash and urea on soil and plant nutrients
composition and yield of okra.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Field experiment
Trials were conducted at Emmanuel Alayande
College of Education, Teaching and Research
Farm, Lanlate Southwest, Nigeria during the cropping season of 2012 and 2013, between April

and July. The site of experiment in each year was


manually cleared. Six treatments applied to soil
grown to okra were as follows; (a) control (no
urea, no SDA), (b) 240 kg/ha SDA U, (c) 4.5 t/
ha SDA + 60kg/ha U, (d)3.0 t/ha SDA +120 kg/
ha U, (e) 1.5 t/ha SDA +180 kg/ha U and (f) 6 t
/ ha SDA. Treatments were replicated three times
using a randomised complete block design, each
of the 18 plots being 9m2. Seeds were planted at
0.60m x 0.6m. Ash and urea were applied on soil
three weeks after planting in ring form. Post planting weeding was done once.
At 14 weeks after treatment, the mean number and weight of fruit per plant were taken using five selected plants per plot.
Soil chemical analysis;
Surface (0.15cm) soil samples were taken
close to manured plants 12 weeks after treatments using steel anger and were bulked for
each treatment plot. Samples were also collected over experimental site in 2012 and bulked
for analysis. Chemical analysis was done after
air-drying of 2mm-sieved samples as described
by Carter (1993). Total N by Kjeldahl approach,
available p by Bray-1 extraction followed by

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molybdenum blue colorimetry, and K, Ca and


Mg by ammonium acetate extraction were determined. Exchangeable K was evaluated on
flame photometer, and Ca and Mg by atomic
absorption spectrophotometer. Organic matter
was determined by wet oxidation dichromate
method. The PH in water was determined using
PH meter in 1:2 soil water ratio medium.
Plant analysis: Leaf samples collected 10

weeks after treatment application in each plot


were oven dried at 70 degree C for a total of 24
hrs. Ground samples were digested using nitricperchloric acid mixture. N, P, K, Ca, Mg were
determined (IITA, 1979).
Result
Analytical data of surface soil at the site of
experiment are shown in table 1. The test soil
was marginal in organic matter (OM), adequate

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Effects of Urea and sawdust in okra production

Abdulraheem and Ojeniyi

in N, Calcuim, Magnesium and Potassium, inadequate in P and slightly acidic (Akinrinde and
Obigbesan, 2001). Therefore the soil required
application of fertilizing and liming amendment
for enhancing crop production.
Tables 2 and 3 show data of soil analysis for
2012 and 2013 respectively. Data of 2012 indicate that SDA (Sawdust Ash) alone or combine

with urea increased soil PH but increases were


not statistically significant in both years.
Increases in OM were significant in both
years. In case of N, urea alone, and combination
1.5 t/ha SDA + 180 kg/ha U and 3.0 t/ha SDA
+150 increased in N significantly, and 6.0 t/ha
SDA increased other nutrients. In 2013 urea also
increased P significantly. Exchangeable K was

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significantly increased by SDA and its combinations with urea in 2012 but the increases in
2013 were not significant relative to the control.
In both years application of urea, SDA and their
combinations significantly increased exchangeable soil Ca and Mg
Plants nutrients composition:
Data on leaf nutrients composition are shown
in table 4 and 5 respectively for 2012 and 2013.
Application of urea increased leaf N,P,K and Ca
in 2013. It was only leaf Ca that was significantly increased by SDA and combinations 3.0 t/ha
SDA +120 kg /ha U and 4.5/ha SDA + 60 kg/ha
U. The increases were significant with respect
to N, Ca and Mg. in 2012, the latter had highest
leaf N,P, and K, and the highest N in 2013.

DISCUSSION
Increase in number of okra pods and weight is
consistent with marginal levels of organic mat-

Yield Components
Effects of treatments on yield of okra are presented in Table 6. Relative to the control, urea
alone and 1.5t/ha SDA +180kg/ha U had relatively low values of number of (pods) and pods
weight in 2012 and 2013. The SDA alone, and
the combinations with low rate of urea(3.0t/ha
SDA +120kg/ha U, 4.5t/ha SDA +60kg/ha U)
increased pod weight significantly.
Relative to the control, the latter treatments
increased pods weight by 37.0 and 52.0% respectively. Therefore 4.5t/ha SDA + 60kg/ha U
is recommended.
Application of ash, and combinations of reduced rates of ash and urea enhanced yield compared with urea alone. The combination 4.5t/ha
SDA + 60kg/ha U reduced the needs for urea by
75%.

ter, inadequate available P and acidic nature of


the soil. Ash application increased these nutrients in soil when used alone or combined with
urea leading to significant increases in okra pod

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Effects of Urea and sawdust in okra production

Abdulraheem and Ojeniyi

yield. Increases in soil nutrients such as N,P,K,


Ca and Mg and soil pH are essential to improved
nutrients composition of okra.
Responses of okra yield to application of N,P,
and K fertilizers have been repeated (Law-Ogbomo et al, 2013 and Gupta et al., 1981). Also
increase in soil pH and associated reduction
in soil acidity should have increased nutrients
uptake by okra (Aduayi, 1980, 1981). It could
be seen in Table 6 that in 2013 number of okra
pods was reduced by urea. Also it was observed
that as rate of urea decreased in the combined
treatments and SDA rate increased yield of pods
tend to increase. Therefore application of ash
increased number and weight of pods significantly. This is consistent with the findings that
ash increased soil pH, OM, P, K, Ca and Mg significantly. The increases in soil nutrients led to
yield increase.
Studies have shown that ash derived from
sawdust, wood and other plant sources was effective as a liming (Nottidge et al, 2007; Ojeniyi,
2013) and fertilizing (Smith et al, 2001) material
in crops production. It increased nutrients availability (Ojeniyi et al, 2002), and yield in crops
such as Sorghum (Abdulraheem et al, 2012),
Coffee and Kola seedlings (Ajayi et al, 2007),
maize (Owolabi et al, 2003, Adu Dapaah et al,
1994; Awanlemhen and Ojeniyi, 2012), cowpea (Awodun, 2007), groundnut (Awodun and
Ojeniyi, 2005) cassava (Babadele and Ojeniyi
2013a, 2013b; Babadele et al, 2013a, 2013b)
tomato (Ewulo et al 2007) amaranthus (Ojeniyi
and Adejobi, 2002) and cocoa seedlings (Akanbi
et al, 2012). Ash also increased soil pH, organic
matter, macro and micronutrients (Odedina et al,
2003; Owolabi et al, 2003a, 2003b).
It was found in this study that combined applications of urea and SDA most increased okra

nutrients and yield. This is attributable to more


nutrients supply and balanced nutrition with respect to NPK (Table 4) and N (Table 5) which
most limit okra production (Ahmed and Tullock
Reid, 1968; Fatokun and Chedda, 1983). Also
ash tended to ensure more presence of P,K,Ca
and Mg in soil and plant.
Ash is a major supplier of P and base elements
to soil and plant (Table 2, 3 and 4), although
relatively low in OM and N compared with animal manure. Ewulo et al (2009) obtained the
values of 11.1, 0.27%, 5.8,1.5 and 4.1cmol/kg
for pH(H20), N, K, Ca and Mg respectively. Akinola et al (2013) obtained 0.48%N, available P
8.8mg/kg, exchangeable K, Ca and Mg 5.2, 64.0
and 12.0cmol/kg respectively and pH 11.1. Thus
aside from being a fertilizing material ash has
liming effect due to its content of base elements.
(Ojeniyi et al, 2006; Ojeniyi, 2013). Field trials conducted by Onwuka et al (2010) on ultisol
of southeast Nigeria found that liming materials such as cocoa pod ash, sawdust ash, oyster
shell ash, palm bunch ash and kitchen residues
increased soil available p and organic carbon,
exchangeable K, base saturation and total N.
The sawdust ash at 6t/ha was recommended to
improve chemical properties of degraded ultisol. Obiefuna et al (2012) reported the effective use of ash for controlling soil acidity and
infertility in groundnut production on ultisol of
southeast Nigeria. The emergence growth and
yield of groundnuts were optimal in soils limed
with wood ash at 2t/ha and oilpalm bunch ash at
4t/ha whereas no liming inhibited performance
of groundnut.
According to the authors, wood ash was consistently efficient and superior compared with
chemical lime such as CaO. In Agbani southeast
Nigeria, it was found that wood ash generally
improved soil pH, CEC, OM, N and aggregate

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

stability which enhanced grain yield of maize


(Mbah et al, 2010). The authors indicate that
farmers apply ash to reduce soil acidity and 4t/
ha is recommended.
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B.T. 2001. Influence of wood ash based soil
amendments on weed occurrence and diversity in a humid tropical environment. Journal
of Sustainable Agriculture and Environment.
3, 270-275.
Taiwo, L.B., J.A. Adediran, O.A. Ashaye, O.F.
Odofin and A.J. Oyadoyin 2002. Organic
okro its growth, yield and organoleptic properties. Nutrition and Food Science 32(5) 180
- 183

154

NJSS 25, 2015

CHARACTERIZATION, CLASSIFICATION AND LAND SUITABILITY


EVALUATION OF SOILS DERIVED FROM DIVERSE PARENT
MATERIALS IN CENTRAL CROSS RIVER STATE
OF NIGERIA FOR ARABLE CROPPING
Nsor, M.E., and 2Akamigbo, F.O.R.
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State
2
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State
1

ABSTRACT
The physico-chemical characterization of soils derived from five parent materials in the humid
tropics of South Southern Nigeria was studied. Soil properties such as texture, drainage, effective
soil depth, nutrients status and reserves were employed for site suitability evaluation for arable
cropping (cassava, maize and groundnut). Suitability classifications were arrived at by matching
the land qualities with the requirements of the land utilization type (arable cropping). The results
indicate that soils of mapping unit (CRCI) derived from alluvium were moderately suitable (S2) for
arable cropping, soils of basalt origin (CRC2) were marginally suitable (S3) for arable cropping,
soils of sandstone-shale (CRC3) were moderately suitable (S2) for arable cropping, soils of granite
origin (CRC4) and soils of gneiss origin (CRC5) were permanently not suitable (N2) for arable
cropping on account of permanent limitation of steep slopes (7-18%) and rock outcrops (10-70%)
of total surface. The soils were classified into three orders of the USDA Soil Taxonomy as Alfisols
(soils derived from basalt, sandstone-shale, granite and gneiss), Ultisols (soils of granite origin)
and inceptisols (soils of alluvium). These classifications were appropriately correlated with FAO/
UNESCO soil map of the world reference base (WRB) legend. Limitations observed in the study
area included low pH, low nutrient status, steep slopes and gravely/rocky surface soils.
Key words: Characterization, Classification, land Suitability, Arable Cropping.
INTRODUCTION
The soils of Central Cross River State are derived from basalt, basement complex (granite,
gneiss, quartzite and schist), sandstone-shale intercalations and alluvium (Ekwueme, 2005; Ibanga
and Armond, 1992). Soils of central Cross Rivers
State are rarely formed from a single parent material. Usually intrusions and pockets of extraneous
materials may be found in areas dominated by a
particular rock type (Ekwueme, 2003). Since par-

ent material is one of the significant factors of soil


formation, caution must be exercised in identifying the native rock or parent material and kind of
pedogenic process giving rise to the soil under investigation. Esu (2004) remarked that lack of information on the soil resources of any region contributes to the problem of soil degradation and that
of world food crises among others, due to wrong
uses and poor management of land resources.

155

Classification of soils in Cross River State

Nsor and Akamigbo

Based on its attributes and potential, every land is


suitable for a particular land use. Land suitability
evaluation is thus the process of assessing the suitability of land for a particular use (FAO, 1976).
Central Cross River State is an agrarian economy depending majorly on arable crops and other
cash crops for economic sustenance. Variations
existing in the properties of soils formed from diverse parent materials in Central Cross River have
not been extensively studied. Hence there is insufficient information to characterize and assess their
stability especially for arable cropping. This study
essentially sought to characterize, classify and
evaluate the suitability of these soils for rainfed arable farming.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

for soils of alluvium whose pits were positioned


at the backswamp and levee positions. The toposequences were sited in ovonum and Ediba (Alluvium), Last Motor and Bendeghe Ekiem (Basalt),
Ogada and Ekori (sandstone-shale), Kanyang and
Ubang (granite) and Okokori and Nsodop (gneiss)
Figure 1.
Field Work
The profile pits were dug at the most representative points of observation in each sampling location after identifying the toposequence. Morphological characterization was performed according
to FAUO (1990) guidelines. Soil samples were
taken from the profiles for routine physico-chemical analysis
Laboratory Analysis

Site Description

Soil samples for particle size data and chemiThe study area lies between latitudes 5020 cal analysis were air-dried, crushed and sieved
and 6020N and longitude 8000 and 9010E. The through a 2mm mesh sized sieve.
Particle size analysis was determined by the pimean annual rainfall of the area ranges from 25003500mm per annum. Mean annual temperature is pette method (Klute, 1986). Soil credibility index
always in the range 260C-310C. The relative hu- was estimated by evaluating the ratio of sand and
midity in the study area varies from 60-70% dur- silt contents to clay content. Clay dispersion ratio
ing the month of January to 70-80% in July. The was evaluated by determining the ratio of water
sun rays are almost vertical over the study area dispersible clay to total clay (clay content).
resulting in high intensity solar radiation with a
Soil pH was determined in a 1:2.5 soil: water
daily 3 -5 hours effective sunshine (Bulktrade and suspension. Organic carbon was determined by the
Investment Company Limited, 1989).
dichromate wet oxidation method of Walkley and
Sampling Design/Technique
Five mapping units (CRC 1-5) were identified
and classified on the basis of parent materials (Ekwueme, 2005). A stratified random sampling technique was adopted in the study. Two toposequences, were selected per parent material. A total of 28
profile pits were excavated. The profile pits were
positioned at the crest, middle slope and valley
bottoms of the identified toposequences, except

Black (Jackson, 1969). Available phosphorus was


extracted by the Bray No. 1 procedure (Bray and
Kurtz, 1945), and estimated by the molybdenum
blue colour technique (Murphy and Riley, 1962).
Exchangeable cations were extracted by leaching
the soil with in ammonium acetate solution, Exchangeable K and Na in the extract were determined by flame photometry while exchangeable
Ca and Mg were determined by the EDTA methodology. Exchangeable H and Al were determined

156

Classification of soils in Cross River State

Nsor and Akamigbo

by the titration method from an extract obtained


using 1N HCl solution. The CEC was obtained by
the summation method.

Productivity Evaluation Procedure


The Requier productivity index was adopted
for use in the study. The actual productivity index

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

for soils in the study area was estimated using the


equations below (Riquier el a!., 1970; Raji, 1999).
P1 = H x D x P x T x S x Fl

(1)
Where P1 productivity index. H = soil moisture,
D = drainage, P = effective depth, T= texture, S

158

Classification of soils in Cross River State

Nsor and Akamigbo

= slope, FI = fertility index (consisting of several


factors).
The fertility index (FI) was determined from the
relationship given below:
FI = Sr x Om x Ce x Mr x Ap (2)
Where Sr = soil reaction, Om = Orange matter. Ce = cation exchange capacity, Mr = mineral
reserves, Ap = Available Phosphorus.
The potential indices were computed after all
anticipated soil amendment such as liming, fertilization, irrigation and drainage would have been
applied to the soil. The potential productivity and
fertility indexes were equally estimated using
equations 1 and 2.
The coefficient- of improvement, Cl, which estimates the degree of improvement possible at currently acceptable cost, was estimated using equations 3
Cl = PPI/API (3)
Where Cl = coefficient of improvement, PP1
potential productivity index, API = Actual productivity index.
The values were converted to decimal and the resulting product re-converted to percentage. The following percentage ratings according to Requier et al,
1970 were used for these degrees of limitations.
Percentage ratings (%):
100 95

85

60

<40

Degree of limitation:
none slight moderate
very severe

severe

Based on the resulting productivity index (PI),


the soils were assigned productivity classes as indicated below
Class 1 -(65-100%, Excellent)
Class 2 - (35-64%. Good)

Class 4 - (8-19%, Poor)

Class 3 - (20-34%. Average)

Class 5 - (0-8%. Extremely poor).


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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

The productivity classes 1-5 are assumed to correspond to the FAO (1976) Land suitability classes
of SI (high), S2 (moderate), S3 (marginal), N1
(currently not suitable) and N2 (permanently not
suitable).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS


The texture of the soils in the study area varied
according to the different parent materials. Generally fine textured soils were observed in soils of
alluvium and basalt. The soils of gneiss origin had

160

Classification of soils in Cross River State

Nsor and Akamigbo

medium to coarse textures whereas coarse texture


soils were encountered in soils derived from granite and sandstone-shale intercalations. This collaborate the findings of Ritter (2006) and Ibanga
(2006) who remarked that soils developed over
sandstone and granite have coarse textures whereas the weathering of basalt yields soils with fine
texture while gneiss results in soils with variable
textures (Table 1).
The soil pH in the study area ranged from (pH
3.9-6.9) averaging 4.5, 4.8, 5.1, 4.8 and 4.6 for soils
derived from alluvium, basalt, sandstone - shale,
granite and gneiss parent materials, respectively (Table 2). The low pH (3.9-6.9) values in the study area
are as a result of the high rainfall of 2500-3500mm
as reported by Bulktrade and Investment Company
Limited (1989) which results in extensive leaching
of bases from the soils rooting zones; acid rains and
crop removal (Amalu, 1998). These low pH values
(high acidity) are indicative of potential micronutrient

toxicity problems as equally observed by Enwezor et


al., (1981). The low pH values especially in soils of
granite, gneiss and sandstone-shale is due to the low
content of carbonate minerals (Ca/Mg carbonates) in
these parent rocks which according to Mullen et al.,
(2007), and Akamigbo and Asadu (1993) results in
acidic soils.
Values of organic carbon ranged from 3.1 to
32.9gkg-l, averaging 13.2 gkg-1 for soils derived
from alluvium, 11.8 gkg -1 for soils of basalt origin,
8.3gkg-1 for sandstone-shale derived soils, 11.3gkg1 for soils of granite origin and 10.4gkg-1 for soils
developed over gneiss parent material (Table 4). The
low to medium level of organic carbon of soils in the
study area may be due to high clay dispersion ratios
and erodibility indexes of most of the soils as also
observed by Hudson (1995). The clay dispersion ratio in the study area was in this order of parent materials: sandstone-shale > granite > gneiss > basalt >
alluvium. The implication of clay dispersion trends

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

observed in the study area to pedogenesis is that soils


derived from alluvium and basalt with CDR below
the critical limited of 0.5 tend to develop faster (high
mineralization) with distinct horizons than soils derived from sandstone-shale, gneiss and granites with
high CDR prone to leaching and frequent loss of top

soils.
Available phosphorus ranged from 1.1 to 33.8
mgkg-1, averaging 14.4mgkg-1 for soil derived
from alluvium, 10.5 mkg-1 for soils of granite origin and 4.1 mgkg-1 for soils derived from gneiss
parent materials (Table 2), These values were rat-

162

Classification of soils in Cross River State

Nsor and Akamigbo

ed medium for soils of alluvium and basalt parent materials and very low for soils derived from
sandstone-shale, granite and gneiss. The very low
to medium values of available phosphorus in the
study area is probably due to the low phosphorus
(<1%) in all parent rocks studied as reported by
Best (1982) and complicated by the high phosphate fixing capacity of the soils (Udo, 1977).
Values of cation exchange capacity in the
study area range from 0.9 to 33.0 cmolkg-1, averaging 15.6cmolkg-1 for soils derived from alluvium, 14.6 cmolkg-1 for soils of basalt origin,
12.4cmolkg-1 for soils developed over sandstoneshale, 2.8cmolkg-1 for soils of granite origin and
2.4cmolkg-1 for soils derived from gneiss (Table
2). The high CEC values of soils derived from
alluvium and sandstone-shale is the direct consequence of their possession of medium levels of
organic matter (Foth, 1990). The low CEC in soils
of granite of gneiss parent materials is indicative
of the low levels of colloids (Clay and humus) of
these soils (Enwezor et al., 1981).
The percentage base saturation of the soils in the
study area in the range of 17.0 to 97.1%, averaging
65.7% for soils derived from alluvium, 63.9% for
soils derived from basalt, 85.1% for soils of sandstone-shale origin, 46.8% for soils derived from
granite and 54.0% for soils of gneiss origin (Table
4). These values are rated high for soils derived from
sandstone-shale, medium for soils developed on alluvium, basalt and gneiss but low for soils of granite
origin. This result indicates that the soils in the study
area will release cations to growing crops in this order
of availability, Sandstone-shale < alluvium basalt
< gneiss. < granite. These observations collaborate
the findings of Eshett (1987); Amalu (1998); and
Enwezor et al., (1981) working on soils of similar
parent materials, who observed that Ca and Mg are
the predominant cations in most soils because of their
adsorption power. Furthermore, their studies revealed

that soils of basalt, shale, sandstone origin dominated


in Ca and Mg contents.
Taxonomic Classification of the Soils
CRCI (Soils derived from Alluvium)
The soils of this mapping unit at the back swamp
have Histic epipedons as evident in structural units
less than 30 cm diameter, high base saturation
(by NH4OAc) > 50% or more, high organic carbon content and cambic sub-horizons. They have
Aquic moisture regime and are therefore classified
under the Inceptisol soil order and as Aquepts at
the sub-order level. At the sub group level these
soils are classified as Histic Humaquepts due to the
presence of Histic sub surface diagnostic horizon
(Soil Survey Staff, 2010).
The levee soils were classified as Vertic Dystrudepts at the sub-group level due to their possession of minor cracks (about 5mm) wide within
125cm of soil depth. The F AO/UNESCO equivalent of Histic Humaquepts is Eutric Fluvisols and
Vertic Dystrudepts is Dystric Fluvisols,
CRC 2 (Soil derived from Basalt).
The upland soils of basalt parent material (Crest
and middle slope) of this mapping unit possess Kandic and argillic sub-surface diagnostic horizons and
occur under Udic soil moisture regime qualify placing these soils under Alfisol soil order and as Udalfs
at the sub-order level of USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil
Survey Staff, 2010). Due to their possession of more
than 50% colours with 2.5YR or redder throughout
the entire kandic horizon they, qualify as Typic Rhodudalfs of the sub-group level.
The lowland soils of basalt parent material
(Valley bottom) of this mapping unit posses sandy
skeletal soil particle size class and about 5% or
more zone of plinthization hence these soils are
classified under Alfisol soil order and as Arenic

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

Plinthic Kandiudalfs at the sub-group level. The


FAO/UNESCO equivalents of Typic Rhodualfs
and Arenic Plinthic Kandiudalfs Vertic Luvisol
and Eutric Plinthosols respectively.
CRC 3 (Soils derived from Sandstone-Shale).
The upland soils of sandstone-shale parent material possess kandic and argillic sub-surface diagnostic horizons with base saturation more than
50% by NH4OAc. These soils occur under Udic
moisture regime and thus qualify them as Alfisols
and Udalfs at the order and sub-order levels. Their
possession of skeletons on faces of peds qualify
them as Kandiudalfs at the great group level. At
the sub-group level these soils are classified as
Typic Kandiudalfs (Soil Survey Staff, 2010).
The occurrence of the lowland soils of these mapping units under Aquic moisture regime qualified
placing them under Alfisols soil order and as Aqualfs
at the sub-order level. Due to their possession of
sandy particle size throughout a layer extending from
the mineral soil surface to the top of the kandic horizon at depth of 50cm to 100cm, these soils are classified as Arenic Kandiaqualfs at the sub-group level.
The FAO/UNESCO equivalent of Typic Kandiudalfs
and Arenic Kandiaqualfs is Arenic Luvisols and Euric Fluvisols.
CRC 4 (Soils of Granite Origin)
The upland soils of granite origin possess kandic
sub-surface diagnostic horizons. These soils have
low base saturation less than 35% by NH4OAc with
very gravely sub soils, and occur under Udic moisture regime, qualify their placement under the Ultisol
soil order and as Udalfs at the sub-order level. Their
possession of Kandic sub-surface horizons and more
than 50% of colours with hue of 2.5YR, qualify these
soils as Kandiudults at the great group level. These
soils are further classified as Rhodic Kandiudults at
the sub-group level due to their having low CEC less
that 24cmlkg-1 by NH4OAc.

The occurrence of the low land soils of this mapping unit under aquic moisture regime and possession of horizons having at least 25cm thick layers
within 100cm of the mineral soil surface with recognizable bioturbation, qualifies these soils as Vermaqualfs at the great group level. These soils are
classified as Typic Vermaqualfs at the sub-group
level (Soil Survey Staff, 2010). The FAO/UNESCO equivalent of Kanhaplic Rhodustalfs and
Typic Vermaqualfs is Hapiic Luvisols and Dystric
Fluvisols respectively.
CRC 5 (Soils of gneiss origin)
The upland soils of gneiss origin were characterized with ochric surface and argillic subsurface
horizons. These soils have medium base saturation
(>50% by NH4OAc) and occur under Udic moisture regimes. These soils are thus classified under
the Alfisol order. Their possession of evidence of
plinthization, qualify their classification as typic
plinthudalfs at the sub-group level. The presence
of recognizable bioturbation in the top soils of
valley bottom pedons and their occurrence under
Aquic moisture regime, qualify the low land soils
of gneiss origin as Typic Vermaqualfs at the subgroup level. The FAO/UNESCO equivalents of
Typic Plinthudalfs and Typic Vermaqualfs is Eutric plinlhosols and Eutric Fluvisols respectively.
Land Suitability Evaluation for Arabic Cropping.
All the soils in the study area were observed to
occur within zones with the ecological requirements for arable crops as was deduced from rainfall and other climatic data of the study area (Udoh
et al., 2005). The arable crops under consideration
include cassava, maize and groundnut.
The actual productivity index of soils derived
from alluvium representing about 14.1% of the
study area was 38% and rated moderately suit-

164

Classification of soils in Cross River State

Nsor and Akamigbo

able (S2) for arable crops (Table 7). However if


the limitations of poor drainage and high acidity
are removed, a potential productivity index of 76%
is possible thus making these soils highly suitable
(SI) for arable cropping. The low coefficient of improvement (Cl) is indicative of the low cost with
which these soils can be improved to a higher suitability class.
The actual productivity index of soils of basalt
origin representing about 5.7% of the study area
was 23% and rated marginally suitable (S3) for
arable crops. However, if the limitations of low
pH and poor fertility are corrected through liming
and fertilization, a potential productivity of 81% is
achievable, thus making these soils highly suitable
(SI) for arable cropping (Table 7).
Soils of sandstone-shale origin representing
55.3% of the study area had an actual productivity
index of 9% and rated currently not suitable (Nl)
for arable crops on account of root zone limitation
and poor fertility status. The removal of these limi-

tations through appropriate erosion control mechanisms and proper fertilization will make the soils
moderately suitable (S2) for arable crop (Table 7).
The actual productivity of soils developed from
granite representing 3.3% of the study area was
10.81% and rated permanently not suitable (N2)
for arable crops on account of poor rooting zone
(coarse fragment contents), very steep slope (718%) and rock outcrops (10-70%) of total surface.
Only the application of fertilizer which can correct
the poor fertility status is feasible, thus it is only
possible for these soils to be improved to currently
not suitable (Nl) for arable crops (Table 7).
The soils of gneiss origin representing 21.6%
of the study area had actual productivity index
value of 3% rated permanently not suitable (N2)
on account of poor fertility and steep slope (714%). However if the fertility limitation is tackled
through adequate manuring, fertilization, and erosion control, it is possible for these soils to have a
potential productivity index of 22% and could be

165

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

rated marginally suitable (S3) for arable crops. The


detailed suitability map is shown in Figure 1.
The high coefficient of improvement for soils
derived from granite and gneiss is indicative of
the fact that these soils require high cost for their
improvement, which is not cost effective and not
advisable, for the cultivation of arable crops, the
suitability of the soils studied is in this order of
preference of parent materials: alluvium > basalt >
sandstone-shale > gneiss > granite. However other
uses could be made of soils of low degree of suitability. The land occupied by these soils can be put
to afforestation programme / tree crops. The percentage occurrence of the soil orders in the study
area is about 80.2% (Alfisols), 14.1% (Inceptisols)
and 5.7% (Ultisols). Their percentage occurrences
in the study area are CRC 1 (soils derived from
alluvium) 14.1%, CRC 2 (soils of basalt origin)
5.7%, CRC 3 (soils derived from sandstone-shale)
55.3%, CRC4 (soils of granite origin) 3.3% and
CRC 5 (soils of gneiss origin) 21.6%.
CONCLUSION
Soil characterization, classification, suitability
evaluation and mapping are the necessary ingredients

required for enhanced productivity of our soils. This


will ensure food security as well as for the assessment
of availability of environmental conditions for various uses, thus ensuring environmental sustainability.
Land suitability evaluation enables more accurate
and useful predictions to be made for specific purposes and eliminates costly and avoidable mistakes,
hence incidence of soil degradation emanating from
land misuse will be reduced.
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Amalu. U.C. (1998). Evaluation of properties of selected soils of Cross River Area and their management for increase cassava yield. Global Journal of
Pure and Applied Science, 4(3): 17-26.
Akamigbo F.O.R. and C.L.A. Asadu (1993). Influence of parent materials on the soils of Southeast
Nigeria. East African Agriculture arid forestry
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Best, M.G. (1982). Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. WU. Freeman and Company, New York.
Bray, R. H. and L.T. Kurtz (1945). Determination of
total, organic and available forms of phosphorus.
Soil Science, 59:45-49.

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Bulktrade and Investment Company Limited (1989).


Soil and Landuse Survey of Cross River State,
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Ekwueme, B.N. (2005). Geological Excursion Guide
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Eshett, E.T. (1987). The Basaltic Soils of South Eastern Nigeria: Properties, Classification and Constraints to productivity. .Journal of Soil Science,
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in Nigeria, keynote address presented at the 29lh
Annual Conference of the Soil Science Society
of Nigeria, held at the University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta. Ogun State.
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Klute, A. (1986). Method of soil Analysis: Physical
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http:ohiohne.osu.edu.
Murphy. J. and J.P. Riley (1962). A modified solution
for the determination of phosphorus in natural
waters. Analytical chemist, 27(3): 1-36.
Nsor, M.E. (2011). Characterization and Land Suitability Evaluation of Soils Derived from Diverse
Parent Materials in Central Cross River State, Nigeria; Ph.D Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Raji, B.A. (1999). Productivity Evaluation of Quartzipsamments and Haplustults, derived from contiguous dune field for rain fed agriculture, pasture
and forestry, NW Nigeria. Proceedings of the
2511 Annual Conference, held at Benin. Pp 5361.
Requier, J; D. L. Bromao and J.P. Cornet (1970). A
New System of Soil Appraisal in terms of Actual
and Potential Productivity, FAO, Rome, 44pp.

Foth. H.D. (1978). Fundamental of Soil Science (6,h


ed). John Wiley and Sons. New York.

Ritter, M.E. (2006). The Physical Environment: An


Introduction to Geology. Longman Group Limited. London, 706pp.

Hudson, N. (1995). Soil Conservation, BT. Balsford


Limited, London.

Soil Survey Staff (2010). Keys to Soil Taxonomy,


Tenth Edition.

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soils of Cross River State, Nigeria. Cross River
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Udo E.l. (1977). Clay mineralogy of Five Surface


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167

NJSS 25, 2015

MORPHOLOGICAL, PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL


PROPERTIES OF SOILS DEVELOPED FROM BASALT ATIKOM,
CROSS RIVER STATE, NIGERIA
I. E. Esu, U. Uko* and E. E. Aki
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
*Corresponding Author: ukoitohowo@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Soils developed from basalt were studied along a toposequenceof a deeply excavated basaltic quarry site at Ikom, Cross River State, Nigeria. The soils were very deep and occupy gently sloping
plains of 0 8% gradients. Each pedon examined, had four distinct layers, the Ap, BA, Bt and
Crtg horizons. The Ap horizons have dark reddish grey (5YR 4/2) to dark reddish brown (5YR
3/4) colours while the Bt horizons have mostly red (2.5 YR 4/6) colour with friable consistence.
The Crtg horizons have dominantly grey (2.5Y 5/0) to greyish brown (2.5Y 5/2) matrix colours
and contain many, medium, distinct dark grey (2.5YR 4/0) to weak red (2.5YR 4/2) mottles and
many rotten basaltic fragments. Soil texture was uniformly clay with Bt horizon values of 61 to
67% clay. The soils were well aerated with macroporosity, which ranged from 4.8 to 18.8% in all
the horizons studied. The soils were extremely to strongly acid in reaction with pH (H2O) ranging
from 4.4 to 5.2 in all horizons of the three pedons examined. Organic carbon content was low with
values which varied from 6.22 to 8.78 gkg-1in the Ap horizons. Total N, available P, and exchangeable cations were all low to very low indicating that the soils are impoverished of plant nutrient
elements. Cation exchange capacity (pH 7.0) values were low to very low with values ranging from
4.0 to 7.10 cmolkg-1 with a mean of 4.8 cmolkg-1in all the three pedons studied. X-ray diffraction
studies of the whole soils indicated that kaolinite constitute 71 to 78% of the mineralogy of the
soils while only very resistant minerals such as quartz, anatase (TiO2), hematite (Fe2O3) and goethite (FeOOH) were detected in the soils. The properties of the soilsindicate that they are highly
leached, highly weathered, nutrient-poor, sesquioxidicand kaolinitictropical soils.
Keywords: Basaltic soil, humid tropics, morphology, physicochemical properties and mineralogy
INTRODUCTION
Soils formed on basalticparent material usually have tremendous agricultural potential
(Kparmwang, 1993). This is because according
to Hatch et al. (1972), basalts are composed predominantly of ferromagnesian minerals, mainly

plagioclase feldspars and pyroxenes. These


minerals readily decompose into clay and free
iron oxides releasing a lot of bases in the process
(Singer, 1966). The bases so released, make the
basaltic soils initially quite fertile.

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Morphological, Physicochemical and Mineralogical properties of soils

Basaltic soils are, however, prone to two


main problems that can limit their agricultural
potentialities. First, under high rainfall conditions such as we have in Ikom area (MAR =
2700mm), the bases can easily be lost through
leaching. The second problem that basaltic soils
are prone to is plinthizationdue to the preponderanceof free iron and aluminium oxides released
during weathering. Plinthization is said to be
formed by alternating wetting and drying conditions, a condition that is quite pronounced in the
Ikom area of Nigeria. Althoughplinthite is initially formed below the soil surface and remains
soft, it is often exposed to the surface through
erosion and hardens irreversibility to ironpan
making the land quite unusable for agriculture
(Sivarajasinghamet al., 1962; Esu, 2010).
In order to have adequateknowledge of the
properties and thus adequately manage basaltic soils, anywhere they occur, it is necessary to
possess a full understanding of the morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of the soils. According to Eshett (1987),
early studies of the environment and soils of
eastern Nigeria by Jungerius (1964) and Floyd
(1969) identified the red clayey soils derived
from tertiarybasalt around Ikom and Obubra
areas of Cross River State. The soils were described as the best soil type in the region (Jungerius, 1964) and has been used over the years
for large plantations of cocoa (Theobromacacoa) and Gmelina(Gmelinaarborea) as well as
for the cultivation of food crops such as yams,
cassava, maize and pineapple. Regrettably, all
the documented studies of the soils by Eshett
(1987), Egbe (1972), Wessel (1966) and Jungerius (1964) have involved only limited physicochemical and morphological properties, while
no single mineralogical characterization of the
soils have been carried out.

Esu et cal

The objective of the present study was therefore, to truly extend the earlier limited contributions by various soil scientists to include a comprehensive characteristics of the morphological,
physicochemical and mineralogical properties
of very deep pedonsof basaltic soils exposed
along a toposequence at a quarry site in Ikom.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
StudyArea
The project site was located within the
CCECC Basalt Quarry site in Ikom, which lies
within longitude 08o 43 E and latitude 06o
13 N (Figure 1) at an elevation of 20m above
mean sea level. The area consists of gently sloping plains of 0 4% gradient. It has an udic
soil moisture regime with a mean total annual
rainfall of 2700mm and an isohyperthermic soil
temperature regime with mean annual temperature minimum of 25oC and maximum of 32oC
(Table 1). Ikom lies within the typical tropical
rainforest zone of Nigeria.
FieldStudies
Three soil profile pits were dug at the summit,
backslope and footslope positions along a gently slopingtoposequence lying adjacent to a very
deeply excavated basalt quarry site. The morphological properties of the soils were described
following the procedure specified in the Field
book for describing and sampling soils, version
3.0 (Schoenenbergeretal., 2012). Undisturbed
core samples were also collected in duplicates
from the genetic horizons of representative profiles for bulk density, water content, total porosity and macroporosity determinations.
LaboratoryStudies
Soil samples collected from the field were
air-dried, ground and sieved to remove mate-

169

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

rials greater than 2mm fraction. The samples


were then analyzed for their physical, chemical
and fertility properties. Particle size distribution
was determined by the hydrometer method using sodium hexametaphosphate (calgon) as the
dispersant (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Bulk density
was determined by the undisturbed core method
of Blake and Hartge (1986). Soil pH was determined in a 1:1 soil/water and 1NKCl ratios with
a glass electrode pH meter. Exchangeable acidity was determined by the 1NKCl method, while
exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K and Na) were
determined using NH4OAc saturation method
and the Ca and Mg in solution were determined
using AAS, while K and Na were determined on
a Flame Photometer (IITA, 1979). Organic carbon was determined by the Walkley and Black
dichromate wet oxidation method (Nelson and
Sommers, 1982). Total nitrogen was determined
by the micro-Kjeldahl technique (Bremner and
Mulvaney, 1982). Cation exchange capacity
(CEC) was determined by the 1N NH4OAC pH
7.0 saturation method and the effective CEC
by summation of exchangeable bases and exchangeable Al3+ (Soil Survey Laboratory Staff,
2004). Percentage base saturation was calculated as the sum of all base forming cations divided
by CEC and multiplied by 100. Available forms
of micronutrient elements (Cu, Mn, Zn and Fe)
were determined by the diethylenetriaminepenta-acetic acid (DTPA) extraction method
(Udoetal., 2009).
The mineralogical studies were carried out
in the Geodata Services Limited Laboratory in
Ghana. Two samples, one from the Bt horizon
and the other from the Crtg horizons of Pedon
1 were subjected to X-ray diffraction analysis.
The samples were prepared for XRD analysis
using a back loading preparation method, which
involved the addition of 10% internal stand170

Morphological, Physicochemical and Mineralogical properties of soils

Esu et cal

ard (flourite) and the sample


micronized. The micronized
material was then analysed by
XRD utilizing a PAN Analytical Empyrean Diffractometer
with pixceldetector and fixed
slits with Fe filtered Co-k radiation. The phases were identified using XpertHighscore
Plus software. The XRD analysis was used to determine the
crystalline mineral phases present in the sample. The abundance of each phase (weight
%) was determined by the Rietveld Refinement method.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
MorphologicalProperties
Table 2 presents the morphological properties of the
three pedons studied on the
summit, backslope and footslope positions along a toposequence. The soils occur on
gently sloping plains of 0 to
4% slopes at the summit,and
gradually merge into gradients
of 4 8% towards to the backslope to footslope landscape
positions. The footslope also
grades into existing stream valleys without any pronounced
toeslope. The soils have very
deep solum with the Crtg horizons (saprolite) occurring
at 315cm, 160cm and 50cm
at the summit, backslope and
footslope positions respective171

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

ly. Solid basalt rock which was being quarried


often occurred within 1000cm to 400cm from
the summit to the footslope position.
A typical soil profile representing the soils
consisted of well drained, dark reddish brown
(5YR 3/4) to dark brown (7.5YR 3/2) clay

to reddish brown (2.5YR 4/4) to mostly red


(2.5YR 4/6) clay subsoils. The C horizons were
strongly gleyed (2.5Y 5/0) and dark grey (2.5Y
4/0) matrix with many medium distinct dark
grey (2.5YR 4/0) to weak red (2.5YR 4/2) mottles. The soils had weak to moderate medium
subangular blocky structure and generally had friable moist consistence
especially within the soil solum (A
and B horizons). Horizon boundary
characteristics were clear smooth from
the Ap to the transitional BA horizons,
but gradual wavyand irregular within
the Bt horizons and abrupt smooth to
the Crtg horizons particularly because
of the higher organic matter content in
the Ap horizons and the abrupt change
in colour from red in the Bt to grey in
the Crtg horizons. Clay and Fe-oxyhydroxidecutans were quite obvious on
ped faces and in pores, an indication
that eluviation-illuviation process was
active in the soils. Common ant holes
and worm casts were also within the
soil solum, indicating that faunal pedoturbation is also an active process in
the soils.
Physicochemical Properties of the
Soils
Table 3 contains the physical properties of the soils. Particle-size distribution analysis indicates that the soils
have uniformly clay texture from the
Ap to the Crtg horizons. However,
clay content increased from about 41
to 47% in the Ap to 61 to 67% in the Bt
horizons and then decreased slightly
towards the Crtg horizons; indicating
the exsistence of a definite clay bulge
which suggests the occurrence of ar-

172

Morphological, Physicochemical and Mineralogical properties of soils

Esu et cal

gillic or kandicdiagnostic horizon in the soils


(Fig.3). Silt content was the lowest of the three
size-fractions, with the lowest values of 4 10%
in the Bt horizons. This low silt content is completely at variance with the results obtained for
the same soils by Eshett (1987), but compares favourably with values obtained for basaltic soils
in the Nigerian savanna region by Kparmwang
(1993) and for basalt derived soils in Northern
Ireland (McAleese and McConaghy, 1957).
Basaltic soils especially in regions with high
rainfall and temperature regimes often weather
readily to the clay fraction but are strongly aggregated because of high Fe-oxide content and
so improper dispersion during analysis could
result in grossly exaggerated values of silt and
sand separates such as those obtained by Eshett
(1987). The sand fraction varied conversely
with the clay fraction, with values varying from
37 45% in the Ap horizons to 27 33% in the
Bt horizons. The Crtg horizons were very gravelly to cobblydue to the abundance of weathered
basalt fragments.
Bulk density was generally low with values
ranging from 0.88 1.29 Mgm-3 in all the horizons of the three pedons studied. These low
value is an indication that the soils are porous
and non-compacted as corroborated by the high
total porosity which ranged from 51.3 66.8%.
However, air-filled porosity decreasedsharply
towards the strongly gleyedCrtg horizons, but
averaged a very satisfactory value of 13.32% in
the Ap horizons. Thus, the soils are well aerated
within the soil solum.
Chemical and Fertility Properties of the Soils
The chemical and fertility properties of the
soils are presented in Tables 4 and 5. Soil pH
(H20) varied from 4.8 to 5.2 while pH (KCl)
varied from 3.9 to 4.4 throughout all the hori173

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

zons in the three pedons studied and indicates


that the soil profiles are uniformly, very strongly
to strongly acid in reaction (Schoenebergeretal.,
2012). Exchangeable Al3+also varied from 1.0
to 2.4 cmolkg-1, an indication that exchangeable Al3+ is a major contributor to the acidity
of the soils.
Exchangeable Ca, Mg and K are low but are
within the threshold of critical limits for deficiencies and likely response to fertilization
(Habyetal., 1990 and Obigbesan, 2009). Also,
Mg/K ratio varied from 4.2 to 8.5 and averaged
6.7 in the plough layer (Ap and BA horizons)
of the soils. According to Lombin (1974), deficiency of Mg in maize was observed in Southwestern Nigeria only when the Mg/K ratio fell
below 2 and when exch. Mg2+ was below 0.28
cmolkg-1.Exchangeable Ca varied from 2.0
to2.4 cmolkg-1.Mg ranged from0.50 to 0.80
cmolkg-1 and exchangeable K varied from 0.08
to 0.19 cmolkg-1 within the plough layers of the
pedons studied. These values represent moderate levels of the plant nutrients in the soils.
Organic carbon, total N, available P and cation exchange capacity were generally low to

very low in the soils according to the ratings of


Enwezoretal (1989), Sims (2002), Obigbesan
(2009) and Esuetal. (2009). The soils would
therefore require the application of liberal doses
of N and P fertilizers to maintain adequate soil
fertility. The application of dolomitic limestone
would also increase soil pH, release fixed phosphorus and boost the levels of Ca and Mg in the
soils.
Percentage base saturation by NH4OAc (pH
7.0) ranged from 36 to 64% and averaged 53%
in the Ap and BA surface soil horizons but decreased sharply to a range of 36 42% with
an average of 39 % in the Bt subsoil horizons.
Similarly, the CEC per 100g of clay for the Bt
horizons ranged from 6.8 to 10.2 cmolkg-1and
averaged 8.7 cmolkg-1 (by NH4OAc pH 7.0
CEC) and ranged from 5.8 to 7.4 cmolkg-1 with
a mean of 6.7 cmolkg-1 by ECEC. These values
all indicate that the soils are highly weathered
and highly leached to the oxic state as the values
are below the 16 cmolkg-1 and 12 cmolkg-1respectively for the identification of oxic or kandic diagnostic subsurface horizons in soils (Soil
Survey Staff, 1999).

174

Morphological, Physicochemical and Mineralogical properties of soils

Surprisingly, despite the highly leached and


highly weathered conditions of the soils, they
appear tocontain sufficient levels of micronutrient Cu, Zn, Mn and Fe (Table 5). All the values obtained for each of the DTPA extractable
micronutrients are above the critical limits for
their responses to fertilization (Sims and Johnson, 1991; Esuetal., 2009). Cottenieetal. (1981)
reported that Nigerian soils derived from basic
rocks such as basalt and amphiboles are richer
in micronutrients than those derived from acid
granites and sandstones.
Mineralogical Properties of the Soils
X-ray diffraction analysis of whole soil within the Bt and Crtg horizons reveal that kaolinite,
quartz, goethite, anatase and hematite in that order, are the dominant crystalline minerals present in the soils (Figure 2). Kaolinite accounted
for 71 to 78%, while quartz accounted for 7.95 to
15.52% and goethite accounted for 6.3 to 8.28%
in both the Bt and Crtg horizons. The highly resistant minerals Anatase, accounted for 2.47 to

Esu et cal

2.77% in the soils (Table 6). According to the


stability series of the resistance of minerals
to weathering proposed by Goldrich (1938) and
Jackson etal., (1984), kaolinite, hematite, goethite and anatase represent the 10th, 12th and
13th most resistant minerals in soils in a series
ranked from 1 13. This means that, the basaltic soils of Ikom are so highly weathered to the
extent that they no longer possess any further
weathering potential. They have indeed, reached
the oxic state of weathering.
CONCLUSION
The basaltic soils of Ikom occur within the
tropical rain forest zone of Cross River State,
Nigeria with total annual rainfall of 2700mm,
mean annual temperature of 28oC and relative
humidity of 82%. The soils, therefore, have udic
soil moisture and isohyperthermic soil temperature regimes. The soils lie on gently sloping
plains of 0 8% gradients from the summit to
the toeslope of the landscape. The soils are very
deep with clayey, very fine particle-size class
and are reddish in colour. They also have well
definedkandic horizons with oxic properties and
are well drained with friable consistence.
Chemically, they are very strongly acid in
reaction, low to moderate in exchangeable
bases, but deficient in total N and available P.
They are however, quite sufficient in micronutrient elements, especially Cu, Zn, Mn and
Fe. X-ray diffraction analysis indicates that
the dominant minerals in the soils are mainly
kaolinite, quartz, hematite, goethite and the titanium oxide, anatase. The dominance of these
highly resistant minerals in the soils indicate
that the soils are highly weathered. The most
dominant soil-forming process in the soils appear to be leaching, eluviation-illuviation,
laterization,braunification and faunal pedotur-

175

Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

bation. Soil weathering appears to have attained


the oxic state to the extent that the soils virtually
have zero weathering potential.
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Jackson, M. L., Tyler, S. A., Willis, A. L, Beurbean, G. A. and Pennington, R. P., 1984.
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Hatch, F. H., Wells, A. K and Wells, M. K, 1972.


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analysis.IITA Manual Series.No. 1.Juo, A. S.
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Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. 176pp.
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Singer, A., 1966. The Mineralogy of the clay


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NJSS 25, 2015

PEDOLOGICAL STUDY OF SOILS DEVELOPED ON SCHIST IN BIASE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, CROSS RIVER STATE, NIGERIA.
*K. I. Ofem and I. E. Esu
Department of Soil Science, University of Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria
*Email: ofem8303@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Soils developed on schist in Biase LGA of Cross River State were pedologically investigated regarding
their morphology, selected physical, chemical and mineralogical properties. The soils were further classified according to the criteria of the USDA Soil Taxonomy and FAO-WRB for soil resources. The Ap
horizons were quite thin (4cm to 19cm) with an extensive B horizon (21cm to 156cm) and were of variable depths to the weathered rock (Cr) (30-160cm). The soil colour varied between dark brown (7.5YR
3/4) on the soil surface to red (2.5YR 4/6) in the underlying soils with a dominant red hue in the entire
Bt horizons with yellow (10YR 8/6) few medium and distinct mottles in the soils at the footslope. Gravelly loamy sand and sandy loam textures were underlain by gravelly clay and sandy clay loam textures.
Weak, moderate granular structures were underlain by moderate, medium subangular blocky structures
with slightly sticky, sticky and very sticky consistence. The soils have a good distribution of quartz,
roots and micaceous minerals. The particle size distribution was variable with values as follows: gravel
(1.6-76.5%), sand (350-830g/kg), silt (60-180g/kg) and clay (70-570g/kg) with the development of distinct clay bulge at the B horizons. The soil bulk density was low (1.01-1.67Mg/m3) while the air filled
porosity (20.2-39.8%) was high in the surface soils. The soils were very strongly to strongly acidic with
pH(H2O) (4.3-5.2) and pH(kCl) (4.1 4.9) in the soil surface. Moderate values of organic C (11.8-32.7g/
kg), total N (0.98-1.82g/kg), SulphateS(5.43-19.32mg/kg), and ECEC(4.16-6.82cmol/kg) occurred on
the soil surface. But values of CEC at pH7 (5.9-8.1cmol/kg), available P (5.08-9.98mg/kg), exchangeable cations;Ca(1.6-3.4cmol/kg), Mg(0.4-1.1cmol/kg), K(0.14-0.36cmol/kg) and Na(0.09-0.14cmol/kg)
were low in thesurface soils. Irrespective of the landscape position, the mineralogy obtained from XRD
showed the dominance of quartz (65.35-79.53%) followed by kaolinite (6.59-17.86%) and muscovite
(6.01-8.95%) in both the fine sand and clay fractions. Plagioclase (3.39-9.91%), microcline (2.99-4.09
%) and sepiolite (0.55-1.2%) were also detected in the soils. At the subgroup level of classification;
pedons II, III, IV, V and VI were classified as Typic Kanhapludults in the USDA Soil Taxonomy system
and Clayic Acrisol in the FAO-ISSS-ISRIC World Reference Base for Soil Resources Classification
System while pedon I was classified as Typic Paleudults (Skeletic Acrisol).
Keywords: Schist soils, Pedological properties, Mineralogy, Classification
INTRODUCTION
In modern Soil Science literature, pedology

connotes the combined activity of soil genesis,

180

Pedological study of soils developed on schist

Ofem and Esu

classification and mapping (Esu, 2010). It seeks


to explain how the properties and distribution patterns of soils worldwide have developed along
with broader landforms, biogeochemical environments and habitats of living organisms. Schist
constitutes a group of medium grade metamorphic rocks and contains more than 50% platy and
elongated minerals, often finely interleaved with
quartz, feldspars and garnet (Hugh, 1911). These
rocks are easily broken along the lamination and
have quartz as the predominating mineral.
The background concentration of metals (or/
and chemical elements) in soils depend primarily on the bedrock type from which the soil parent materials are derived (Donahue et al., 1983;
Ekwueme, 2004 and Ibanga, 2006). The morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical
properties of soils developed on schistose parent
materials are highly variable depending on the
nature of soil forming factors and soil forming
processes operating around such areas as well as
soil parent materials. Stevenson (2005), described
schist soils as those that contain heat wells and are
rich in Mg2+ and K+ but poor in organic nutrients and nitrogen while Gleason et al. (2010), described them as poor in terms of nutrients because
they have a low level uptake of Mg, K, P and N
as compared to basaltic soils. A soil depth of less
than 45cm (Kosmas et al., 1999) and 40cm (Mahia et al., 2006) was obtained for soils developed
on schistose materials; these soils are described as
shallow soils but could be deeper (50 100cm) at
higher elevations (Chorover et al., 2009).
Schist soils are good soils for the cultivation of
grape vine but the use and purpose of these soils
depend on the mineral found in it. In Biase, the
soil has been used profitably in the production of
oilpalm, cassava, cocoa and plantain. Several studies have been carried out on the soils developed
on schist in southwest Nigeria (Rahaman, 1976;

Fagbami, 1976; Kayode, 2006; Ajayi and Ogbedengbe, 2003; Folami, 1992 and Ajayi, 1981)
while Orimoloye et al. (2010), identifiedschist
in Northern Cross River State. However, little is
known about the soils developed on schist in Biase
LGA of Cross River State. On the other hand,the
detailed geologicalmap of Okurike and environs in
Biase LGA shows that schist occupies about 34%
of Biase Local Government Area.In other words,
the soils are reasonably extensive and important
for agricultural production in the area. The objectives of this research were therefore to:
1) Characterize the soils for the benefit of improved agricultural production.
2) Classify the soils according to the criteria
of the USDA Soil Taxonomy System (Soil Survey
Staff, 1999) and the World Reference Base for Soil
Resources Classification System (FAO, 2006).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Environment of Study Area
Biase LGA (5000N and 5047N and 80 06E
and 8011E) is located in southern Cross RiverState
and is bordered by Abia state, Akamkpa, Odukpani and Yakurr local Government Areas. It is characterized by a rainfall range between 1,963mm
and 3,143mm per annum, an annual temperature
range of between 270C and 330C while its relative humidity is between 80% and 90% (Ayoade,
2004). Based on estimation from meteorological
data, an udic soil moisture regime and an Isohyperthermic soil temperature regime are inferred.
The areais gently to steeply sloping while the toe
slope areas are nearly level. The study area falls
within the tropical rainforest zone with patches of
portions occupied by secondary forests.
Schistose parent materials constitute about 34%
of the underlying geological formation of Biase
Local Government Area. The major rock types are

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

ancient rocks which are now referred to as quartzbiotite-muscovite schist (Ekwueme, 1987). Detailed geological map of the study area is shown
in Figure 1.

Field Studies
Field reconnaissance visit was carried out to areas of Biase whose underlying geology had been
mapped and identified as schist. Two toposequences

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Pedological study of soils developed on schist

Ofem and Esu

were identified within the area and three profile pits


dug at the summit, shoulder and footslope positions
of each toposequence. Each of the profiles was described using soil description sheets according to the
USDA (Soil survey Staff, 2002). Undisturbed core
samples were collected for bulk density determination (Blake, 1965) and soil samples were collected
from each pedogenic horizon, transported to the laboratory and processed for analyses.

Laboratory Studies
The soil samples were air dried, ground and
sieved through a 2mm mesh sieve. Particles larger
than 2mm were weighed and expressed as percent
gravel for all the soil samples in each horizon (Soil
Survey Staff, 2002).
The fine earth materials (<2mm) were used for
various laboratory analyses. The particle size distribution was carried out by the Bouyoucos Hy-

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

drometer method (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Soil pH


was determined potentiometrically in a 1:1 soil:
water and soil : 1N KCl suspension and organic C
was determined by the Walkley and Black wet oxidation method (IITA, 1979). The Bray No. 1 method was used for the determination of available P
as described by Murphy and Riley (1962) while
exchangeable Ca, Mg, K and Na were extracted
using 1N NH4OAc (pH 7). Exchangeable Ca2+

and Mg2+were determined by atomic absorption


spectrophotometry (Thomas, 1982) while Na+ and
K+ were determined by flame photometry. Cation exchange capacity was determined in ammonium acetate (NH4OAc) (CEC pH7) as described
in IITA (1979) while the ECEC was determined
by the sum of exchangeable metallic cations and
exchangeable acidity. The cation exchange of the
mineral clay colloids was estimated from CEC

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Pedological study of soils developed on schist

Ofem and Esu

at pH 7.0 and the percent organic C as described


by Sombroek and Zonneveld (1971). The total
nitrogen was determined by the macro Kjeldahl
digestion method (Bremner, 1965). Exchangeable
acidity (Al3+ and H+) was determined by using
1M KCl as extracting reagent (Thomas, 1996), the
extract was titrated against 0.01M NaOH.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Morphological Properties
The morphological features of the soils on the
summit (pedons I and II), shoulder (pedons III and

IV) and footslope (pedons V and VI) positions of


the two toposequences in the study area are presented in Table I.The soils were generally deep to
water table and consolidated rocks as none of these
was encountered at 200cm, however, there were
relative variation in depths to weathered rock. The
A horizons of the soils were thin (4cm to 19cm)
probably due to surficial erosion with an extensive B horizon which had a range in width of between 20cm (pedon I) and 156cm (pedon VI) with
depths to weathered parent materials varying between 30cm (pedon I) and 160cm (pedon VI) from
the soil surface. Orimoloye et al.(2010) obtained

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

similar results while Kosmas et al. (1999), described schist cultivated soils as shallow (<45cm)
to weathered residuum. The extensive B horizon
is probably due to high rate of eluviation-illuviation processes. Dominant dark brown (7.5YR 3/4)
(pedon I) and reddish brown (5YR 4/3) (pedon
VI) gravelly sandy loam to loamy sand textures
were underlain by reddish (2.5YR 4/8) gravelly
clay to sandy loam subsoils. The red and brightly coloured subsurface soils are likely due to the
well drained nature of the soils with oxidized iron
(ferric) compounds and the onset of lateritization
process. Weak to moderate medium granular structures overlie moderate medium subangular blocky
structures with soil pores, roots, ants, worms and
termites being distributed down the profiles. Angular and subangular blocky structures may be attributed to the illuviation of clay in the subsurface
horizons and further suggests the presence of argillic or kandic horizons; which is an indication of active soil development. Mica flakes and quartz were
identified in all the horizons with iron and manganese nodules being distributed at the subsurface
soils of pedons II, IV and VI. The ease of deformation of the underlying weathered rock makes root
penetration beyond the argillic horizon-weathered
rock interphase possible.
Soil Physical Properties
Bulk density values ranged between 1.01 Mg/
m3 and 1.67 Mg/m3in all the pedons studied with

mean values of 1.21 Mg/m3, 1.38 Mg/m3 and 1.55


Mg/m3 in the Ap, B and C horizons respectively
(Table 2). The surface mean values are within the
range of values (1.1 Mg/m3 1.4 Mg/m3) suggested for cultivated loams by Donahue et al.,(1983).
Also, the values were all less than 1.60 Mg/m3,an
indication that air and water movement in the soils
are optimum for plant growth (Esu,2010).
Percent gravel was highest at the B horizons
with mean of 65.7% and least at the Ap horizons
with mean of 46%. The particle size distribution
was such that, sand decreased down the profiles
with a mean of 790g/kg and 497.7g/kg in the Ap
and B horizons respectively. On the other hand,
clay increased with depth from a mean of 93.3g/
kg in the Ap horizons to 418.6g/kg in the Cr horizons while silt varied irregularlydown the profiles
(Table 2). Silt may have undergone transformation
into clays or has been eroded into valley areas to
have been so depleted in the soils. The air-filled
porosity values (20.2 39.8%) of the surface soils
are high and likely tohave been responsible for the
good soil aeration and consequent high activities
of earthworms, ants and termites or faunal pedoturbation processes noticeable in the area.
Soil Chemical Properties
The pH(H2O) of the soils varied between mean
values of 4.9 and 4.7 in the Ap and B horizons
respectively while the pH(kCl) had a mean of
4.3 and 4.1 in the Ap and B horizons (Table 3).

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Pedological study of soils developed on schist

Ofem and Esu

This indicates that the soils are strongly to very


strongly acidic in reaction and shows that significant amounts of exchangeable Al3+ and H+ are
present to affect plant growth (Esu, 2010; Udo
et al., 2009). Since the values of pH(kCl) are less
than pH(H2O), the entire soils have net negative
charges on colloids (Uehara and Gillman, 1981

and Kparmwang et al., 1992) and will encourage


cation adsorption on the soil exchange complex.
The carbon to nitrogen ratio of the soil was less
than 25 with5.08-9.98mg/kg as the range of values
of available P in the Ap horizons. These values are
low for the requirement of most crops in productive soils (Holland et al., 1989). The exchange-

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

able cations; Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+had mean


values of 2.6cmol/kg, 0.7cmol/kg, 0.21cmol/kg
and 0.11cmol/kg respectively in the surface soils.
These values decreased with soil depth (Table 3)
and are rated low (Holland et al., 1989). The low
exchangeable cations are likely due to the high degree of leaching associated with the high rainfall
regime in the area. The exchangeable acidity had a
mean and range of 1.5cmol/kg and 0.6 2.0cmol/
kg on the surface soils while the CEC/clay had
mean values of 12.3cmol/kg and 16.2cmol/kg at
the Ap and B horizons, these values indicate the
dominance of kaolinite in the soils. The low values of CEC/clay of less than 16cmol/kg is an indication that the prevailing Bt horizons are kandic
rather than argillic diagnostic horizons.
The base saturation (CEC at pH 7.0) was highest
at the Ap horizons with a mean and range of 52%
and 38-69% respectively; these values are rated
medium (Holland et al., 1989). This is probably

because the roots of the vegetation in the area had


concentrated the bases at shallower depths. Moderate levels of organic C, total N and ECEC were
also recorded at the soil surface (Holland et al.,
1989) with range of11.8 32.7g/kg, 0.98 1.82g/
kg and4.16 6.82g/kg respectively while moderately high amounts of sulphate S (5.43-19.32mg/
kg) were recorded in the soils. The moderate level
of organic C may have been because the soil has
been cultivated only to a limited extent as the soils
are rather gravelly.
Mineralogy of the Soils
Figures 2 and 3 present the X-Ray Diffractograms( XRD) of the clay and fine sand fractions
of the soils while Figure 4 shows the percentage
abundance of the minerals in the size fractions. The
XRD results indicate that quartz (65.35 74.31%),
kaolinite (12.71 17.86%) and muscovite (6.01
8.95%) with strong peaks at 3102, 2402 and

188

Pedological study of soils developed on schist

Ofem and Esu

3002 respectivelyare the most abundantminerals


in the fine sand and clay fractions of the soils (Table 4). Other minerals present in the size fractions
are plagioclase (3.39 9.91%), microcline (3.26
4.09%) and sepiolite (0.97 1.20%) indicating
that the presence of feldspars is significant in the
soils as well as the fact that the soils still possess
considerable amount of weathering potentials.
It also appears that enough silica seems to accumulate in the weathering environment under the
good drainage conditions of the soils to stabilize
kaolinite(Esu and Ojanuga, 1989). The relatively
high amount of quartz, muscovite and feldspars in
the soils is a clear evidence of their being inherited
from the schistose parent rock from which the soils
are presumed to have been derived.

Soil Classification
Based on the criteria of the USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), the soils meet the
requirement for placement in the soil order; Ultisols since the base saturation by NH4OAc pH 7.0
is less than 50% in the Bt horizon with argillic or
kandic diagnostic subsurfacehorizons. The soils
also occur in an environment with a udicsoil moisture regime and therefore qualify for placement
in the Suborder of Udults. The presence of kandic horizons in the soils with percent clay that decreases from its maximum amounts by more than
20% within 150cm places the soils in the great
group; Kanhapludults while pedon I is categorized
as Paleudult as the profile does not possess a kandic horizon with clay distribution of less than 20%

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Nigerian Journal of Soil Science

from its maximum amount. At the subgroup category, the Kanhapludults and Paleudults typify their
great groups and the soils are thus classified at the
subgroup level as Typic Kanhapludults (pedons II,
III, IV, V and VI) and Typic Paleudults (pedon I).
Based on the FAO ISSS ISRIC World Reference Base for Soil Resources Classification System (FAO, 2006), pedons I and IV are Skeletic
Acrisols while pedons II, III, V and VI are Clayic
Acrisols.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The schist soils in Biase LGA of Cross River
State, Nigeria are developed on Quartz-Mica
Schist. They occur on strongly undulating landforms and are thus subjected to severe surficial
water erosion. Thus, they have very thin Ap horizons and are very gravelly to cobbly especially
in the rather extensive Bt kandic horizons. Weathered parent rock (Cr horizons) often occur within a
depth of 120 150cm and soil texture varies from

gravelly loamy sand and gravelly sandy loam in


the surface horizons to vey gravelly sandy loam
to gravelly clay subsoils. The soils are strongly
to very strongly acid in reaction but they contain
moderate to low plant nutrient reserves.
X ray diffraction analysis indicates that quartz,
kaolinite and muscovite dominate the mineralogy
of the clay fraction, while plagioclase, microcline
and sepiolite also occur in small amounts, indicating that the soils still possess reasonable level of
weathering potential.
The dominant soil - forming processes influencing pedogenesis in the soils are inferred to include,
eluviation-illuviation of clay and Fe-oxyhydroxides, surficial water erosion, leaching, kaolinization, ferruginization and faunal pedoturbation. According to the criteria of the USDA Soil Taxonomy
System, the soils are classified as Typic Kanhapludults, while they qualify for classification as
skeletal/clayic Acrisols in the FAO-WRB System.

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Ofem and Esu

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