Water resources.

Water pollution.
Water pollution criteria.
Surface water treatment.
Wastewater treatment.
Chapter 5 & 6: Masters & Ela

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Water

Universal solvent
Water can dissolve a great variety of compounds, ranging from
simple salts to minerals
Water transports dissolved substances throughout the biosphere
High surface tension
Physical and biological processes that involve moving water
through, or storing water in, small openings or pore spaces.
Density
Water is the only common compound whose solid form is lighter
than its liquid form. It expand by about 8% when it freezes,
becoming less dense.
If ice were heavier than water, water froze from the bottom up, all
life in the water would die
High heat capacity (4184 J/kgoC)
Its capacity to hold heat has important climatic significance
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

As the worlds population and industrial production of

goods increase, the use of water will also accelerate.
In the Middle East and northern Africa, scarce water
has led to harsh exchanges and treats between
countries and could even lead to war.
The U.S. Water Resources Council estimates that
water use in the United States by the year 2020 may
exceed surface-water resources by 13%.
How can we best manage our water resources, use,
and treatment to maintain adequate supplies?

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Hydrologic cycle

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Recharge
zones
Discharge zone

Whenever the land surface drops

below the top of the water table,
consistent surface water features
such as lakes, ponds, and rivers are
likely to occur
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

1. Water pumped from

wells lowers the
groundwater level.

2. Urbanization
increases runoff to
streams.

3. Sewage treatment
discharges nutrient-rich
waters into streams,
groundwater and
reservoir

4. Agriculture
uses irrigation
water from
wells, and
runoff to
stream from
fields contains
nutrients from
fertilizers.

6. Houses with septic systems add

water through the soil to the
groundwater
and often pollute
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8
water resources

5. Reservoirs allow water

to seep into the ground
recharging groundwater

The major forms of water-quality problems:

Nutrients
Nitrogen: Power plants (NOx), municipal
wastewater, farm runoff, fertilizers
Phosphorus: municipal wastewater,
fertilizers, detergents
Pathogens
untreated or poorly treated sewage
Oxygen-depleting substances
municipal wastewater
Toxic organics
pesticides, herbicides

Toxic metals
from A to Z, esp. Arsenic, Cadmium
and Mercury
Suspended solids (siltation)
soil erosion, industrial processes

eutrophication (= excessive feeding),

that is promotion of undesirable
forms of life brown, slimy waters
disease (diarrhea, cholera) or even
death
asphyxiation of fish and other aquatic
life, produce BOD
poisoning of both human and nonhuman lives; disruption of
metabolism and reproduction
poisoning of both human and nonhuman lives
Murkiness; clogging of bed altered
bottom habitats and spawning
grounds

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

The eutrophication of a lake:

1. In a low-nutrient lake, green

algae is not abundant and the
water is clear

2. Nutrient rich (phosphorus

and nitrogen) runoff enters the
streams and the lake. Algae
start growing forming a tick
layer of biomass
3. Thick layer of algae
biomass limits light penetration
into water affecting water
species life. Dead algae
biomass increases, bacteria
growth increases and
competition for oxygen
becomes critical.
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Spread of cholera from Indonesia in 1961

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Water Quality Standard (EQA 1974)

Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulation, 1979

Standard A for
drinking water
sources;
standard B for
treated industrial
wastewater
discharge

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Surface-Water Pollution
Point source of water
pollution: discharge of
industrial water from a
chemical plant,
domestic sewage
Non-point source of
water pollution:
agriculture nutrient
rich runoff

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to
oxidize organic wastes aerobically (biochemical
decomposition process)
When BOD is high, the dissolved oxygen content (DO)
of the water may become too low to support life in the
water.
Two parts: carbonaceous oxygen demand (CBOD)
and the nitrogenous oxygen demand (NBOD)

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Determination of water quality:

Five-Day BOD Test (BOD5)

DO for water
at 20oC =
9.1mg/L

BOD5 = (DOinitial DOfinal) / P

Dilution factor = P = volume of wastewater sample / volume of wastewater plus dilution water
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

In some cases it is necessary to seed the dilution water with

microorganisms to assure that there is an adequate bacterial
population to carry out the biodegradation.
To find the BOD of the waste itself, it is necessary to subtract
the oxygen demand caused by the seed (called the blank)
from the demand in mixed sample of waste and dilution water.

BODm Vm = BODw Vw + BODd Vd

P = Vw / Vm ; (1 P) = Vd / Vm
The oxygen demand of the waste itself (BODw):
BODw = [BODm - BODd(1-P)] / P
BODw = [(DOi - DOf) - (Bi Bf)(1-P)] / P
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

BOD test
Most samples of wastewater will require more oxygen
during the incubation period than is found in the BOD
bottle, so the samples must be diluted.
At the proper dilution, the residual DO after five days will
be at least 1 mg/L and the DO uptake will be at least 2
mg/L.

Some common ranges of BOD results are as follows, in mg/L:

Influent
150-400

Primary Effluent
60-160

Secondary Effluent
10-60

Digester Supernatant 1000-4000+

Industrial Wastes
100-3000+
If river /lake water is used then most likely no dilution is
necessary (i.e. 100% sample water)
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Example. Calculation of BOD:

Bottle #
1
2
3
4

mL Seed
3
6
9
12

Initial DO , mg/L

Final DO, mg/L

7.95
7.95
7.90
7.85

5.20
3.85
2.40
1.35

Depletion
2.75
4.10
5.50
6.50

Bottle #1 BOD = [(7.95 - 5.20) x 300]/3 = (2.75 x 300)/3 = 275

Bottle #2 BOD = [(7.95 - 3.85) x 300]/6 = (4.10 x 300)/6 = 205
Bottle #3 BOD = [(7.90 - 2.40) x 300]/9 = (5.50 x 300)/9 = 183
Bottle #4 BOD = [(7.85 - 1.35) x 300]/12 = (6.50 x 300)/12 = 162
Average seed BOD = (275 + 205 + 183 + 162)/4 = 825/4 = 206 mg/L
This value represents 206 mg/L BOD exerted by 300 mL of the seed material. In
other words, a 300 mL sample of the undiluted seed material would use 206
mg/L DO if incubated at 20C for five days (assuming that oxygen was
available to the sample).
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

A 10.0 mL sample of sewage mixed with enough

water to fill a 300 mL bottle has an initial DO of 9.0
mg/L. To help assure an accurate test, it is desirable
to have at least a 2.0 mg/L drop in DO during the
five-day run, and the final DO should be at least 2.0
mg/L. For what range of BOD5 would this dilution
produce the desired results?

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

The BOD of a wastewater sample is estimated to be

180 mg/L. What volume of undiluted sample should
be added to a 300 mL bottle? Also, what is the
dilution factor using this volume? Assume that 4 mg/L
BOD can be consumed in the BOD bottle.
What is the BOD5 of the wastewater sample if the
DO values for the blank and diluted sample after 5
days are 8.7 and 4.2 mg/L, respectively?

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Oxygen demanding substances:

Two equivalent ways to describe the time dependence
of organic matter in a flask.

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Oxidation of
organic matter :
1st order
reaction:

L0=ultimate
carbonaceous
oxygen demand;
Lt=oxygen demand
left after time t;
k=BOD reaction
constant (time-1);

L0=amount of
oxygen
consumed
(BODt) + amount
of oxygen
remaining to be
consumed after
time t.

BOD remaining as a function of time (a)

IntroductionOxygen
to Environmentalalready
Engineering and
Science: THIRD EDITION
consumed
as a function of time (b)
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Example 5.3 (text book)

The dilution factor P for an unseeded mixture of waste and water is
0.030. The DO of the mixture is initially 9.0 mg/L, and often five
days, it has dropped to 3.0 mg/L. The reaction rate constant k has
been found to be 0.22 day-1.
a.What is the five-day BOD of the waste?
b.What would be the ultimate carbonaceous BOD?
c.What could be the remaining oxygen demand after five days?

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Nitrogen organic substances. Nitrification process.

Waste HN3 (ammonia)
2NH3 + 3O2 (by
Nitrosomonas)
2 NO2- (nitrite)+ 2H+ + 2H2O

2NO2- + O2
(by Nitrobacter) 2 NO3(nitrate)
Denitrification process
(anaerobic condition)
NO3- NO2 N2
(Denitrifying bacteria)
NBOD begin after a number of days
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Carbonaceous BOD

Nitrogenous BOD

Loss of dissolved oxygen (DO) in a river proceeds in two steps:

During the first five days or so, only carbon processes take place, leading to the
so-called Carbonaceous Biochemical Demand (CBOD); nitrification begins by
day six or so, adding the Nitrogenous Biochemical Oxygen Demand (NBOD).
The net BOD is the sum of the CBOD and NBOD.
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Deoxygenation

Point-source, plug flow model

Rate of deoxygenation = kdLt
kd=rate constant (day-1)
Lt=remaining BOD after waste entry (mg/L)

Eq. 5.21: L0 = (QwLw + QrLr) / Qw + Qr

L0=ultimate BOD of streamwater+wastewater (mg/L); Lr=ultimate BOD of the river just upstream of the
dischargeIntroduction
point (mg/L);
Lw=ultimate
BOD of the wastewater (mg/L); Qr=flow rate of the river just upstream of
to Environmental
Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
3
the discharge
(m /s);
rate0-13-601837-8
of wastewater (m3/s).
Gilbertpoint
M. Masters
and Q
Wendell
P. Ela
w=flow

Reaeration
The rate at which oxygen is replenished is assumed to be
proportional to the difference between the actual DO in the river at
any given location and the saturated value of dissolved oxygen.

Rate of reaeration = krD

kr = reaeration constant (time-1)
D = dissolved oxygen deficit = (DOs DO)
DOs = saturated value of dissolved oxygen
DO = actual dissolved oxygen at a given location downstream
In reality, both the wastewater discharge and the river stream are
likely to have some deficit. Thus the initial deficit at discharge point,
Mass balance approach
DO
Do = initial oxygen deficit of the mixture of river and wastewater
DOs = saturated value of DO in water at the temperature of the river
DOw = DO in the wastewater
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
DO
r = M.
DO
in the
riverP.just
upstream of the wastewater discharge point
Gilbert
Masters
and Wendell
Ela 0-13-601837-8

The town of Aveta discharges 17 360 m3/day of treated

wastewater into the Tefnet Creek. The treated wastewater has a
BOD5 of 12 mg/L and a BOD decay constant, k, of 0.12 day-1 at
20oC. Tefnet Creek has a flow rate of 0.43 m3/s and an ultimate
BOD of 5.0 mg/L. The DO of the river is 6.5 mg/L and the DO of
the wastewater is 1.0 mg/L. Compute the DO and initial ultimate
BOD, Lo, after mixing.

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Streeter-Phelps oxygen sag curve

u = stream speed
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Deoxygenation rate > reaeration rate DO drops

At critical point (xc)and
deoxygenation
rate = reaeration rate
Introduction to Environmental Engineering
Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8
Reaeration rate after (xc) increases river recovers

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

A city of 200,000 people disposes of 1.05 m3 s-1 of treated sewage

that still has a BOD of 28.0 mg/L and 1.8 mg/L of DO into a river.
Upstream from the outfall, the river has a flow rate of 7.08 m3 s-1
and a velocity of 0.37 m s-1. At this point, the BOD and DO in the
river are 3.6 and 7.6 mg/L, respectively. The saturation value of
DO (at the temperature of the river) is 8.5 mg/L. The
deoxygenation coefficient, kd, is 0.61 day-1, and the reaeration
coefficient, kr, is 0.76 day-1. Assume complete mixing and that the
velocity in the river is the same upstream and downstream of the
outfall.
What is the oxygen deficit and the BOD just downstream from the
outfall (just after mixing, before any reaction can occur)?
What is the DO 16km downstream?
Calculate the critical time and distance.
What is the minimum DO?
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

The density of water reaches a maximum at 4C

Why it is important?
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Thermal stratification of a lake; seasonal temperature profiles

Summer stratification creates essentially two separate lakes a

warm lake (epilimnion) floating on the top of a cold layer
(hypolimnion). The difference is enhanced in a eutrophic lake since
in such lakes most, if not all, of the absorption of solar energy
occurs in the epilimnion.
Similarly, in climates that are cold enough for the surface to drop
below 4oC, there will be a winter stratification.
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

pH of water.
-How pH affects water quality?
Bicarbonate Buffering
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) will react with added hydrogen ion (acid) to
form neutral carbonic acid (H2CO3). Therefore, adding acid to a
solution may have little or no effect on pH. That is, bicarbonate is
a buffer.

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Acid rains. Acidification of water bodies.

Frequency histograms of fish status for 684 Norwegian lakes

categorized as bicarbonate, transition, or acid lakes

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

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Groundwater

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

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Sources of Groundwater Contamination

Discharge from improperly operated or located septic
systems (pathogens, household chemicals)
Leaking underground storage tanks (gasoline, oil,
chemicals)
Improper disposal of hazardous and other chemical wastes

Spills form pipelines or transportation accidents (diesel fuel)

Recharge of groundwater with contaminated surface water

Leaking dumps and landfills (car battery acid, paint,

household cleaners)

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Contamination of groundwater . Contaminant transport.

Dispersion causes the plume to spread in
the longitudinal and orthogonal directions

A plume spreads as it moves down gradient

(a) In one dimension
(b) In two dimensions
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
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Effect of sorption properties in the contaminant transport . Some contaminants are

absorbed and adsorbed as they move through the medium. Retardation factor (R) =
ratio of total contaminant in a unit volume of aquifer to the contaminant dissolved in
groundwater.

Modest dispersion and emerges rather

quickly to a monitoring well
A substance sorbs at a rate
proportional to its concentration
Larger volumes of water
required to flush the system

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION

Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

In situ retardation experiment: A number of organic solutes (CTET

and PCE) were injected into the groundwater, along with a
chloride tracer (assumed to move at the same rate as
groundwater)

Plume separation for Chloride (CL), Carbon Tetrachloride (CTET)

and Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) 21 months after injection
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
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Contaminants in Groundwater
Most of the organic chemicals do not dissolve very well in water.
They are called nonaqueous-phase liquid (NAPLs)

DNAPLs = Dense Non- Aqueous-Phase Liquids (chlorinated solvent)

LNAPLs = Light Non- Aqueous-Phase Liquids (fuel hydrocarbon)

Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
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Groundwater remediation technologies

Soil vapor extraction system

Removing volatile organic compounds that leaked from
underground storage tank (leaky gasoline storage tanks); remove
NAPLs
that
tend toEngineering
sit onandthe
surface
of the saturated zone
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Science:
THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Combination of air sparging and soil vapor extraction

An air sparging system consists of a compressor that drives air through an injection
well into the saturated zone. The injected air captures volatile compounds as it
moves, and vacuumed out by SVE system.
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Air sparging with horizontal wells

A horizontal injection distribution system lies under the contamination
with a horizontal suction system that is above the contamination
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
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In situ (on site) bioremediation

Stimulating the growth of microorganisms, primarily bacteria, to
biodegrade the contaminants, especially petroleum-based
hydrocarbons.
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Combination of extraction wells and injection wells

Manipulating the hydraulic gradients (lower or raise the water table)

with multiple wells:
(a) The injection and extraction wells push and pull the plume
away from the production well
to Environmentalwell
Engineering
and Science:
THIRD
EDITION into the extraction well
(b)Introduction
The injection
pushes
the
plume
Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela 0-13-601837-8

Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRB) for treatment of

contaminated groundwater plume
PRB is only effective if the plume moves through it, the hydraulic
conductivity of PRB must be greater than that of the aquifer around it.
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science: THIRD EDITION
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PRB materials
Granular zero valent iron (ZVI) reduce halogenated organic
pollutants
Nutrient included in the PRB (stimulate microbes growth)
bioremediation and removal of some inorganic and organic
pollutants
Lime pH may be raised sufficiently that certain metals will
precipitate out
Sorbent (such as hydrous ferric oxide) adsorb
contaminations such as arsenic and lead

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