Chapter 7

1.

Acids and Bases

Acids and Bases

Acid
1. Definition of acid (Arrhenius theory)
a) Chemical compound which dissociates (ionizes) to produce hydrogen ion, H + (hydroxonium ion,
H3O+) when dissolved in water.
b) Example of acid:

2.
a)
3.
a)

Definition of acid (Bronsted and Lowry)

Proton donor (H+) when dissolved in water.
Basicity of acid
The number of hydrogen ions, H+,which can be produced by one molecule of acid.

Meaning of base and alkali

1. Definition of base:
a) Chemical compound that can react with acid to form salt and water only.
Base + Acid Salt + Water
b) All oxide and hydroxide metals are bases.
c) Example:
Magnesium oxide : MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Copper hydroxide: Cu(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
d) Not all bases can dissolve in water. A base that dissolves in water is called an alkali.

2. Definition of alkali( Arrhenius theory)

a) A compound which produces hydroxide, OH- , when dissolved in water.

3. Alkali solution
Contains hydroxide ion, OH-, which move freely.
a) Hydroxide ion, OH- which are free to move in water enable an alkali to show its properties.

b) Alkali is a proton receiver.

Application of acids and alkalis in daily life
1. Examples of acids and their uses:
a) Sulphuric acid is used in making of detergents, paints fertilizers and as an electrolyte in leadacid accumulators.
b) Hydrochloric acid is used to clean metals before electroplating in the industry.
c) Methanoic acid is used to coagulate the latex in rubber industry.
d) Ethanoic acid is used to make vinegar.
e) Carbonic acid is used to make fizzy drinks
f) Nitric acid is used to make fertilizers, plastics and explosive substances.
2. Examples of bases and their uses:
a) Ammonia is used to make cleaning agents, fertilizers, nitric acids and keep latex in liquid form.
b) Magnesium hydroxide is used to make gas mixtures and gastric tablets and toothpaste.
c) Calcium hydroxide is used to make cement, lime water and neutralize acidity of soil.
d) Sodium hydroxide is used to make detergents, soaps, fertilizers and bleaching agents.
Role of water to show properties of acids
1. Role of water in the formation of hydrogen ions
a) In the presence of water,

an acid will ionise to form hydrogen ion, H+

shows the acidic properties.
b) Example: hydrochloric acid
Hydrogen chloride gas is prepared in the laboratory by reacting sodium chloride with
concentrated sulphuric acid.
NaCI (s) + H2SO4 (aq) NaHSO4 (aq) + HCI (g)
The hydrogen chloride gas is then dissolved in water or methylbenzene using the set up
shown below.

2. Table below shows a comparison of the properties of hydrogen chloride dissolved in water and
in an organic solvent.

3. The ionisation is shown by the electrical conductivity of the acid solution below:

When ethanoic acid undergoes ionisation in water, it produces ethanoate ion and hydrogen ion
which move freely in water. These mobile ions are able to conduct electric current. Hence,
aqueous solutions of acids conduct electricity.

Laboratory Activity : Role of water to show properties of acids

Aim: To study the role of water in showing the properties of an acid

Problem statement: Does water need to be present to enable an acid to show its properties?
Hypothesis: Water needs to be present to enable an acid to show its properties.
Variable:
Fixed variable
Manipulated variable
Responding variable

: Type of acid
: Type of solvent
: Change in colour of blue litmus paper

Material:
Glacial ethanoic acid, distilled water, propane and blue litmus paper.
Appratus:
Test tube, dropper, and test tube rack.
Procedure:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Three test tubes are labelled and placed in a test tube rack.
About 1 cm3 of glacial ethanoic acid is placed into each of the three test tubes.
About 2 cm3 of distilled water is added to test tube II and the mixture is shaken.
About 2 cm3 of propane is added to test tube III and the mixture is shaken.
A piece of dry blue litmus paper is dropped into each of the three test tubes.
Any changes that occur are observed and recorded in a table.

Results:
Test Tube
I
II
III

Observation
No visible change in the colour of the litmus paper, remains blue
The blue litmus paper turns red
No visible change in the colour of litmus paper, remains blue

Discussion:
1. Glacial ethanoic acid contains pure ethanoic acid. It consists entirely of ethanoic acid
molecules. Without hydrogen ions, glacial ethanoic cid cannot show acidic properties.
2. The presence of water helps the ethanoic acid molecule to ionise to produce hydrogen ion. The
hydrogen ion turns blue litmus paper red.
3. Propanone is an organic solvent. It does not allow the ethanoic acid molecule to ionise. The
ethanoic acid remains as a molecule. Without the presence of hydrogen ions, the blue litmus
paper cannot turn red.
4. An acid needs water for it to ionise to produce hydrogen ions to exhibit acidic properties.
Conclusion:
1. Ethanoic cid shows acidic properties when it is dissolved in water.
2. The hypothesis is accepted.

Role of water to show properties of alkalis

1. A base needs to dissolve in water to show basic properties. Bases in dry condition or dissolved
in organic solvents do not exhibit basic properties.
2. The base needs water to produce hydroxide ion, OH-, which is responsible for basic properties.
a) Example: Ammonia

b) Example: Calcium hydroxide

Laboratory Activity : Role of water to show properties of alkalis

Aim: To investigate whether a base needs water to show its basic properties.

Problem statement: Does a base need water to show its basic properties?

Hypothesis: A base needs water to show its basic properties.

Variable:
Fixed variable

: Type of base

Manipulated variable

: Type of solvent

Responding variable

: Change in colour of red litmus paper

Material:
Ammonium chloride, calcium hydroxide, calcium oxide, distilled water, trichloromethane and red litmus
paper.

Apparatus:
Test tube, boiling tube, beakers, filter funnel, delivery tubes, Bunsen burner, U-tube, stopper, dropper
and test tube rack.

Procedure:
1.

A solution of ammonia in water and a solution of ammonia in trichloromethane are prepared

using apparatus set up sown below.

2. Two test tubes are labelled and placed in a test tube rack.
3. About 1 cm3 of the solution of ammonia in water is placed in the first test tube (I)
4. About 1 cm3 of the solution of ammonia in trichloromethane is placed in the second test tube
(II).
5. A piece of dry red litmus paper is dropped into each of the two test tubes.

6. Any change that occur are observed and recorded in a table.

Results:
Test Tube
I
II

Observation
The red litmus paper turns blue
No visible change in the colour of the red litmus paper.

Discussion:
1. Ammonia gas is liberated when a mixture of ammonium salt is heated with an alkali.
2. Ammonia gas is a covalent compound composed of ammonia molecules.
3. In water, the ammonia molecules react with water and ionise to produce ammonium ions and
hydroxide ions.
4. The presence of mobile ions makes the aqueous solution of ammonia able to conduct
electricity.
5. The hydroxide ion turns red litmus paper blue.
6. A solution of ammonia in trichloromethane is composed of only ammonia molecules. There are
no ions present because the ammonia molecules cannot ionise in organic solvents. Without
hydroxide ions, the solution does not sow basic properties.
Conclusion:
1. The aqueous solution of ammonia shows basic properties. The hypothesis can be accepted.

Chemical properties of acids.

1. Acid reacts with metals.
Acid + metal salt + hydrogen
Example:

2. Acid reacts with bases.

Acid + base salt + water
Examples:

3. Acid reacts with carbonates.

Acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide.
Example:

Laboratory Activity : Properties of an acid

Aim: To study the chemical reactions of acids.

Materials: 2 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid, 2 mol dm-3 ethanoic acid, magnesium copper (II) carbonate,
iron (III) oxide, limewater, wooden splint and filter paper.
Apparatus: Test tubes, delivery tube, spatula, test tube holder, Bunsen burner, stopper, evaporating
dish and filter funnel.
A. Reactions of acids with bases.
Procedure:
1. About 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid is poured into a test tube.
2. The acid is warmed using a gentle flame.
3. Iron (III) oxide powder is added bit by bit with stirring to the hot acid.
4. Any change that occurs is observed and recorded.
5. The unreacted iron (III) oxide is removed by filtration.
6. The filtrate is evaporated in an evaporating dish until one third of the original volume remains.
7. The hot solution is allowed to cool for crystals to form.
8. The crystals formed are removed by filtration and dried by pressing the crystals between sheets
of filter paper.
9. The features of the crystals are noted and recorded.
10. Steps 1 9 are repeated using dilute ethanoic acid to replace dilute hydrochloric cid.
Observations:
Acid
Hydrochloric acid
Ethanoic acid

Observation
The reddish brown solid dissolves to form brown solution. Reddish brown
crystals are obtained.
The reddish brown solid dissolves to form a brown solution. Reddish
brown crystals are obtained.

Discussion:
1. Iron (III) oxide is an example of a base.
2. It reacts with acids to form salts and water.

3. The crystals are iron (III) chloride and iron (III) ethanoate.
4. Iron (III) salts dissolve in water to produce brown solutions.
B. Reactions of acids with metals
Procedure:
About 5cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid is poured into a test tube.
One spatulaful o magnesium powder is added to the acid.
A lighted wooden splint is brought to the mouth of the test tube to ignite the gas liberated.
All observations are recorded.
The unreacted magnesium is filtered out.
The filtrate is evaporated until one third of the original volume remains.
The hot solution is allowed to cool for crystals to form.
The crystals formed are removed by filtration and dried by pressing the crystals between sheets of
filter paper.
The features of the crystals are noted and recorded.

Steps 1 9 are repeated using dilute ethanoic acid to replace dilute hydrochloric acid.
Observations:
Acid
Hydrochloric acid
Ethanoic acid

The grey solid dissolves to form a colourless solution. A colourless gas that
burns with a pop sound is produced. White crystals are obtained.
The grey solid dissolves to form a colourless solution. A colourless gas that
burns with a pop sound is produced. White crystals are obtained.

Discussion:
1. Magnesium is a reactive metal.
2. Reactive metals react with acid to form salts and hydrogen. Unreactive metals such as copper
and silver do not react with dilute acids.

3. The hydrogen gas liberated can be identified using a lighted wooden splint. Hydrogen gas
burns with a pop sound.
4. The white crystals are magnesium chloride and magnesium ethanoate. They dissolve in water
to form colourless solutions.
C. Reactions of acids with metal carbonates.
Procedures:
1. About 5cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid is poured into a test tube.
2. One spatulaful of copper (II) carbonate powder is added to the acid.
3. The test tube is quickly closed with a stopper fitted with a delivery tube dipped into limewater.
4. Any change that occurs is recorded.
5. The unreacted copper (II) carbonate is filtered out.
6. The filtrate is evaporated until one third of the original volume remains.
7. The ot solution is allowed to cool for crystals to form.
8. The crystals formed are removed by filtration and dried by pressing the crystals between sheets
of filter paper.
9. The features of the crystals are noted and recorded.
10. Step 1 9 are repeated using dilute ethanoic acid to replace dilute hydrochloric acid.
Observations:
Acid
Hydrochloric acid

Ethanoic acid

Observation
The green solid dissolves
colourless gas which turns
obtained.
The green solid dissolves
colourless gas which turns
obtained.

with effervescence to form a blue solution. A

limewater milky is produced. Blue crystals are
with effervescence to form a blue solution. A
limewater milky is produced. Blue crystals are

Discussion:
Copper (II) carbonate is a metal carbonate.
It reacts with acids to form salts, water and carbon dioxide.

Copper (II) salts crystallise as blue crystals and dissolve in water to produce blue solutions.
When carbon dioxide gas is bubbled into limewater, a white precipitate of calcium carbonate is
formed. The white precipitate causes the limewater to turn milky.
Conclusion:
An acid reacts with a base to produce a salt and water.
An acid reacts with a reactive metal to produce a salt and hydrogen gas.
An acid reacts with a metal carbonate to produce a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas.
Chemical properties of alkali
1. Alkalis react with acids.
Alkali + acid salt + water

2. Alkalis react with ammonium salts.

Alkali + ammonium salts salt + water + ammonia gas
On heating, ammonia gas is liberated.
Reactions of alkalis with ammonium nitrate and ammonium carbonate do no tproduce
ammonia.

3. Alkalis react with metal ions.

Alkali + metal ion metal hydroxide

2.

The Strength of Acids and Alkalis

1. An acid produces hydrogen ions in aqueous solution. The acidity of a solution is a measure of
the concentration of the hydrogen ions in the solution.
2. The base produces hydroxide ions in aqueous solution. The alkalinity of a solution is a measure
of the concentration of the hydroxide ions in the solution.

The pH scale
1. pH scale has a range of values from 0 to 14 to indicate how acidic or alkaline an aqueous
solution is.
2. The pH value measures the concentration of hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions.
pH < 7
Acidic solution
pH = 7
Neutral solution
pH > 7
Alkaline solution
3. The lower the pH value, the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions.

4. The higher the pH value, the higher the concentration of hydroxide ions.

Concentratio
n of hydrogen
ion, H+
increases.

No hydrogen ion,
H+. Nor hydroxide
ion, OH-

Concentratio
n of
hydroxide
ion, OH-

5. The pH value of an aqueous solution can be measured by using

a) Universal Indicator
b) pH meter
c) acid base indicators
6. Table below shows examples of acid base indicators.
Indicator

pH range

Methyl orange
Bromothymol blue
Phenolphthalein

3.0 5.0
6.0 8.0
8.0 10.0

Acid
Red
Yellow
colourless

Colour change
Neutral
Orange
Green
Colourless

Alkali
yellow
Blue
Pink

Strong and weak acids

1. The strength of an acid and alkali depends on the degree of dissociation of the acid or alkali in
the water.
2. The strong acid is an acid which ionises or dissociates completely in water to produce a high
concentration of hydrogen ions.
3. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid. It is 100% ionised in water. All the hydrogen chloride
molecules that dissolve in the water ionise completely into hydrogen ions and chloride ions.

4. A weak acid is an acid which ionises partially in water to produce a low concentration of
hydrogen ions.
5. Ethanoic acid is a weak acid. Dilute ethanoic acid is about 0.4% ionised, only 4 out of every
1000 ethanoic cid molecule ionise. As fast as the acid molecules ionise to produce ions, the
ions combine back again to give the original acid molecules in reversible reaction.

6. Below are the examples of strong and weak acids:

7. The pH of an acid solution changes with concentration of the acid. The concentration of the
acid affects the concentration of hydrogen ions produced. For example:
0.10 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid: pH = 1
0.01 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid: pH = 2
8. pH values can be used to compare the acid strength of different acids. All the acids to be
compared must be of the same concentration. For example:
0.10 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid: pH = 1
0.10 mol dm-3 ethanoic acid: pH = 3
9. For two different acids of the same concentration, the acid with the lower pH value is the
stronger acid (higher degree of ionisation in water).
Strong and weak alkalis
1. Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkali. It ionises fully when dissolved in water.

2. A strong alkali is an alkali which is fully ionised in water to produce a high concentration of
hydroxide ions.
3. A weak alkali is an alkali which ionises partially in water to produce a low concentration of
hydroxide ions.
4. Ammonia is an example of weak alkali. It is only partly ionised in water, which means the
ionisation of ammonia in water is incomplete.

5. Examples of strong and weak alkalis are shown below:

6. The pH of an acid solution changes with concentration of the alkali. The concentration of the
alkali affects the concentration of hydroxide ions produced. For example:
0.10 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution: pH = 13
0.01 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution: pH = 11
7. pH values can be used to compare the acid strength of different alkalis. All the alkalis to be
compared must be of the same concentration. For example:
0.10 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide: pH = 13
0.10 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide: pH = 11
8. For two different alkalis of the same concentration, the alkali with the higher pH value is the
stronger alkali (higher degree of ionisation in water).