Pavement & Material Design, Tanzania

MAY 1999
ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 1 - 5
THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

MINISTRY OF WORKS
Pavement and Materials

Design Manual - 1999
Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999
MAY 1999
ISBN 9987 8891 1 5
Reproduction of extracts from this Manual may be made
subject to due acknowledgement of the source.
Although this Manual is believed to be correct at the time of
printing, Ministry of Works does not accept any contractual,
tortious or other form of liability for its contents or for any
consequences arising from its use. People using the information contained in the Manual should apply and rely on their
own skill and judgement to the particular issue that they are
considering.
Printed by: Allkopi AS, Oslo Norway
Layout: Jan Edvardsen, ICG Oslo Norway
Ministry of Works
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
Preface
The Ministry of Works has prepared this Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 for design of new roads
and rehabilitation of existing roads in order to standardise design practises in the country. The road network
comprises a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate standards for design, construction and
maintenance in order to give a high level service. As the length of the engineered road network is steadily
growing, appropriate choice of methods to preserve this investment becomes increasingly important for
optimal use of available resources.
This Manual has particular reference to the prevailing conditions in Tanzania and reflects the Ministry of
Works experience gained through activities within the road sector during the last 20 to 30 years. The Manual
supersedes the Pavement Design and Materials part of the Draft Road Manual of 1989 and the intention is to
update the Manual when new technical information and performance data become available.
The design standards set out in this Manual shall be adhered to unless otherwise directed by the Ministry of
Works. However, it is emphasised that careful consideration to sound engineering practice shall be observed
in the use of the Manual, and under no circumstances shall the Manual waive professional judgement in
applied engineering.
It is my sincere hope that this Manual will provide all involved parties with a ready reference standard and
assist in a cost-effective operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road network. I look
forward to incorporating the practices contained in this Manual into our operations, thereby making a
substantial contribution to the improved infrastructure of our country.
Dar es Salaam
May, 1999
Ministry of Works
Ministry of Works
Acknowledgements
This Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 has been prepared as a component under the Institutional
Cooperation between the Ministry of Works (MoW), Central Materials Laboratory (CML) and the Norwegian Public
Roads Administration (NPRA). The Government of Tanzania and the Norwegian Agency for International
Development (NORAD) have jointly financed the project, which forms part of a programme to establish technical
standards and guidelines for highway engineering.
This Manual has been prepared by a Working Group under the supervision of a Steering Committee comprising the
following members from the Ministry of Works:
Mr.
JL
Ngumbulu Director of Trunk Roads (Chairman)
Mr.
JW
Kijazi
Ag. Director of Rural Roads
Mr.
DJ
Mariki
Ag. Chief Engineer, CML
Mr.
LJ
Mujjungi
Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and Construction, Trunk Roads
Mr.
GJ
Kinyero
Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and Construction, Rural Roads
The Working Group consisted of the following members:

Mr.
AS
Idabaga
MoW
Mr.
ST
Rwegumisa MoW
Mr.
Overby
NPRA
Mr.
Refsdal
NPRA
Mr.
Johansen
Norconsult (Secretary)
The Steering Committee and the Working Group wish to acknowledge the significant contribution from all people
giving critical comments and advice during the preparation of this Manual. In particular, the comprehensive input
from contributors within the Ministry of Works, professional bodies, the private sector, educational institutions and
other stakeholders who commented on the draft, is gratefully acknowledged.
Ministry of Works
Summary of Terminology
Definitions of terms and abbreviations are presented in full in /Appendix A1/ and /Appendix A3/. Selected terms,
definitions and abbreviations are tabulated below for ease of reference in the use of this manual.
Materials testing methods
Base course
Bituminous binders
Bitumen emulsion (anionic, cationic, inverted)
Cutback bitumen (e.g. MC3000, MC800, MC30)
Penetration grade bitumen (e.g. 60/70, 80/100)
Bituminous layers
Asphalt concrete surfacing
Bitumen emulsion mix
Dense bitumen macadam
Foamed bitumen mix
Large aggregate mix for bases
Penetration macadam
AC
BEMIX
DBM
FBMIX
LAMBS
PM
Bituminous seals
Emulsion fogspray
Slurry seal
Surface treatments:
Surface dressing
Cape seal
Otta seal
Sand seal
Cemented materials (lime or cement)
C4
Stabilised,
UCS >4
C2
Stabilised,
UCS >2
C1
Stabilised,
UCS >1
CM
Modified,
UCS >0.5
Climatic zones
Dry
Moderate
Wet
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
Design depth
Earthworks
Fill
Improved subgrade layers
Roadbed
Environmental Impact Assessment
Fogspray (Sprayed on a surface dressing)
Granular materials
CRR Crushed fresh rock
CRS Crushed stones and oversize
G80 Natural gravel CBR >80%
Gravel roads
GC
Grading coefficient
GW
Gravel wearing course
SP
Shrinkage product (LSx%pass.75mm)
Materials for earthworks
DR
Dump rock: un-sorted rock
G15 Natural gravel/soil CBR >15%
G7
Natural gravel/soil CBR >7%
G3
Natural gravel/soil CBR >3%
(cold)
(hot)
(cold)
(hot)
(cold)
CBR
GM
ICL
LL
LS
MDD
OMC
PI
PL
TFV
UCS
California bearing ratio

Grading modulus
Initial consumption of lime
Liquid limit
Linear shrinkage
Maximum dry density
Optimum moisture content
Plasticity index
Plastic limit
Aggregate strength (10% fines value)
Unconfined compression strength
Materials testing standards

AASHTO
ASTM
BS
CML
NPRA
TMH
Issued by the American Association for

State Highway Officials
Issued by the American Society for Testing and
Materials
British Standard
Central Materials Laboratory (Ministry of Works),
Norwegian Public Roads Administration
Technical Methods for Highways (South African
series of standards)
Prime (Sprayed on granular layers)

Problem soils
Expansive soils
Dispersive soils
Saline soils/water
Subbase
Subgrade
Improved subgrade layers
In-situ subgrade and fill
S15
CBR > 15%
S7
CBR > 7%
S3
CBR > 3%
Surfacing
Binder course, bituminous hot mix
Surface treatments
Wearing course, bituminous hot mix
Tack coat (Sprayed on bituminous layers)
Traffic
Design period
E80 - Equivalent standard axle (8160 kg)
Heavy vehicles:> 3t un-laden weight
Very heavy goods vehicles:
4 or more axles
Heavy goods vehicles:
3 axles
Medium goods vehicles:
2 axles
> 40 seats
Buses:
Light vehicles: < 3t un-laden weight
VEF Vehicle equivalency factor (the number of E80 per
heavy vehicle)
Unfavourable subgrade conditions
Cavities, termites, rodents
High water table and swamps
Wells
Wet spots
Ministry of Works
Centre
line
Roadway
Cut back slope
Shoulder breakpoint
Carriageway
Shoulder
Open side drain
Lane
Shoulder
Lane
Embankment side slope
Figure 1 Cross section terms
Original ground level

Finished road level
Cutting
Pavement layers
Formation level
Improved
subgrade layers
Fill
In-situ subgrade
Roadbed
Subgrade
Figure 2 Cross section elements
Asphalt concrete surfacing
Surface treated pavements
Wearing course
Binder course (if required)
Surfacing
Surfacing
Subgrade
Subgrade
Gravel roads
Surfacing
Structural layer (improved subgrade, if required)
Subgrade
Figure 3 Pavement details
Ministry of Works
Table of Contents
Preface .......................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
Summary of Terminology ............................................................................................................................................. 6
List of Tables and Figures ........................................................................................................................................... 13
1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1.1

1.1
The Manual - Background ...................................................................................................... 1.2
1.2
Purpose of the Manual ............................................................................................................ 1.2
1.3
Structure of the Manual .......................................................................................................... 1.2
1.3.1
Comment text ......................................................................................................................................... 1.2
1.3.2
Structure of the contents ........................................................................................................................ 1.2
1.4
Design Aspects and Policy ...................................................................................................... 1.4
1.4.1
Pavement design analysis ..................................................................................................................... 1.4
1.4.2
Material testing methods ....................................................................................................................... 1.4
1.4.3
New roads .............................................................................................................................................. 1.4
1.4.4
Pavement rehabilitation (paved roads) ................................................................................................. 1.5
1.4.5
Gravel roads .......................................................................................................................................... 1.5
1.5
Construction and Maintenance Considerations Affecting Pavement Design ......................... 1.6
1.5.0
General .................................................................................................................................................. 1.6
1.5.1
Extent and type of drainage .................................................................................................................. 1.6
1.5.2
Use of stabilisation with lime or cement .............................................................................................. 1.6
1.5.3
Availability of equipment and materials ............................................................................................... 1.6
1.5.4
Construction under traffic ..................................................................................................................... 1.7
1.5.5
Maintenance strategy ............................................................................................................................ 1.7
1.5.6
Type of surface on the shoulder ............................................................................................................ 1.7
1.5.7
Use of stage construction ...................................................................................................................... 1.7
References ........................................................................................................................................... 1.9
Environment ................................................................................................................................................ 2.1
2.0
General .................................................................................................................................... 2.2
2.1
Climatic Zones ........................................................................................................................ 2.2
2.2
Moisture Regime .................................................................................................................... 2.3
2.2.0
General .................................................................................................................................................. 2.3
2.2.1
Design moisture ..................................................................................................................................... 2.4
2.3
Pavement Temperature ........................................................................................................... 2.5
2.3.0
General .................................................................................................................................................. 2.5
2.3.1
Bituminous materials ............................................................................................................................ 2.5
2.3.2
Non-bituminous materials ..................................................................................................................... 2.5
2.4
Unfavourable Subgrade Conditions........................................................................................ 2.5
2.4.0
General .................................................................................................................................................. 2.5
2.4.1
Identification ......................................................................................................................................... 2.6
2.4.2
Treatment ............................................................................................................................................... 2.6
2.5
Other Physical Features .......................................................................................................... 2.7
2.5.1
Topography ........................................................................................................................................... 2.7
2.5.2
Geology ................................................................................................................................................. 2.7
2.5.3
Vegetation .............................................................................................................................................. 2.7
2.6
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ............................................................................... 2.8
2.6.1
Purpose of EIA ...................................................................................................................................... 2.8
2.6.2
Commissioning of EIA .......................................................................................................................... 2.8
2.6.3
Implementing EIA ................................................................................................................................. 2.8
References
.................................................................................................................................. 2.9
Ministry of Works
Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage ....................................................................................................... 3.1

3.1
Standard Cross Section ........................................................................................................ 3.2
3.2
Shoulders .............................................................................................................................. 3.2
3.2.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 3.2
3.2.1
Bearing capacity of the shoulders ......................................................................................................... 3.2
3.2.2
Surface treatments for shoulders .......................................................................................................... 3.2
3.2.3
Preventing cracks to develop in the shoulders ...................................................................................... 3.3
3.2.4
Unpaved shoulders .............................................................................................................................. 3.3
3.3
Drainage ................................................................................................................................ 3.4
3.3.1
Drainage of the road surface ................................................................................................................ 3.4
3.3.2
Drainage of the pavement layers .......................................................................................................... 3.4
3.3.3
Drainage of the subgrade ..................................................................................................................... 3.4
References
................................................................................................................................. 3.6
Traffic ........................................................................................................................................................... 4.1
4.0 General ...................................................................................................................................... 4.2
4.0.1
Magnitude of the loads ......................................................................................................................... 4.2
4.0.2
Contact pressure .................................................................................................................................. 4.2
4.0.3
Load repetitions .................................................................................................................................... 4.2
4.1 Design Period ............................................................................................................................ 4.2
4.2 Design Traffic Loading ............................................................................................................ 4.3
4.2.1
Traffic counts ........................................................................................................................................ 4.4
4.2.2
Axle load surveys .................................................................................................................................. 4.4
4.2.3
Equivalency factors ............................................................................................................................... 4.5
4.2.4
Axles loaded to above 13 tonnes ........................................................................................................... 4.5
4.2.5
Traffic growth ........................................................................................................................................ 4.5
4.2.6
Lane distribution .................................................................................................................................. 4.6
4.2.7
Construction traffic ............................................................................................................................... 4.6
4.3
Traffic Load Classes (TLC) ................................................................................................. 4.6
4.4
Presentation of Data ............................................................................................................. 4.7
References ......................................................................................................................................... 4.8
Subgrade . ........................................................................................................................................ 5.1
5.0
General ................................................................................................................................. 5.2
5.1
Design Depth ........................................................................................................................ 5.2
5.2
Centreline Soil Surveys ....................................................................................................... 5.2
5.2.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 5.2
5.2.1
Depth of investigations ......................................................................................................................... 5.3
5.2.2
Materials testing frequency ................................................................................................................... 5.3
5.2.3
Determination of CBRdesign ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5.4
5.3
Laboratory Testing ............................................................................................................... 5.5
5.4
Subgrade Classes ................................................................................................................. 5.5
5.5
Improved Subgrade Layers ................................................................................................. 5.6
5.5.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 5.6
5.5.1
Design of improved subgrade ............................................................................................................... 5.6
5.5.2
Material characteristics ........................................................................................................................ 5.6
5.6
Fill .......................................................................................................................................... 5.8
5.7
Roadbed Preparation ........................................................................................................... 5.8
5.8
Filter Layers .......................................................................................................................... 5.8
5.8.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 5.8
5.8.1
Filter criteria for soils/gravel ................................................................................................................ 5.9
5.8.2
Draining properties of filter layers ....................................................................................................... 5.9
Ministry of Works

5.8.3
5.8.4
References
6
5.9
Cost ...................................................................................................................................................... 5.9
............................................................................................................................... 5.10
Geo-textiles as filter ..............................................................................................................................
Problem Soils .............................................................................................................................................. 6.1

6.0
General ................................................................................................................................. 6.2
6.1
Low-Strength Soils (CBR < 3%) ......................................................................................... 6.2
6.2
Expansive Soils .................................................................................................................... 6.2
6.2.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 6.2
6.2.1
Type of distress ..................................................................................................................................... 6.3
6.2.2
Identification of expansive soils ............................................................................................................ 6.3
6.2.3
Classification of expansive soils ........................................................................................................... 6.4
6.2.4
Design on expansive soils ..................................................................................................................... 6.5
6.2.5
Construction on expansive soils ........................................................................................................... 6.6
6.3
Other Problem Soils ............................................................................................................. 6.7
6.3.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 6.7
6.3.1
Dispersive soils .................................................................................................................................... 6.7
6.3.2
Saline soils or presence of saline water ................................................................................................ 6.8
6.3.3
Other deleterious matter ....................................................................................................................... 6.9
References
............................................................................................................................... 6.10
Pavement Materials ................................................................................................................................. 7.1
7.0
General ................................................................................................................................. 7.2
7.1
Material Types ....................................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1.1
Crushed, fresh rock or boulders ........................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1.2
Weathered rocks and laterites ............................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1.3
Coral rock and calcrete ......................................................................................................................... 7.3
7.1.4
Volcanic tuff (scoria) ............................................................................................................................. 7.3
7.1.5
Self-cementing materials ....................................................................................................................... 7.3
7.2
Unbound Materials .............................................................................................................. 7.4
7.2.1
Natural gravel ....................................................................................................................................... 7.4
7.2.2
Crushed materials ................................................................................................................................ 7.5
7.3
Cemented Materials ............................................................................................................. 7.6
7.3.1
Classification ........................................................................................................................................ 7.6
7.3.2
Material requirements .......................................................................................................................... 7.6
7.3.3
Type of stabiliser ................................................................................................................................... 7.7
7.3.4
Content of stabiliser .............................................................................................................................. 7.7
7.3.5
Construction ......................................................................................................................................... 7.8
7.3.6
Other chemical stabilisers .................................................................................................................... 7.9
7.4
Bituminous Base Course Materials ..................................................................................... 7.9
7.4.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 7.9
7.4.1
Classification ...................................................................................................................................... 7.10
7.4.2
Hot bituminous mixes ......................................................................................................................... 7.10
7.4.3
Penetration macadam ......................................................................................................................... 7.12
7.4.4
Cold bituminous mixes ....................................................................................................................... 7.12
7.4.5
Construction ....................................................................................................................................... 7.14
7.5
Deleterious Minerals .......................................................................................................... 7.16
7.6
Surveys for Construction Materials .................................................................................. 7.16
7.6.1
Borrow pits ......................................................................................................................................... 7.16
7.6.2
Quarries ............................................................................................................................................. 7.17
7.7
Manufactured Materials ..................................................................................................... 7.17
10
Ministry of Works

7.7.1
Geo-textiles used as separating layers ................................................................................................ 7.17
7.7.2
Geo-grids for reinforcement ............................................................................................................... 7.18
References ....................................................................................................................................... 7.18

8
Pavement Design New Roads ................................................................................................................. 8.1

8.1
Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 8.2
8.2
Pavement Types .................................................................................................................... 8.2
8.2.1
Flexible pavements ................................................................................................................................ 8.2
8.2.2
Semi-rigid pavements ........................................................................................................................... 8.3
8.2.3
Rigid pavements .................................................................................................................................... 8.4
8.3
Structural Design .................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.1
Input data ............................................................................................................................................. 8.4
8.3.2
Pavement design catalogues ................................................................................................................. 8.6
References
............................................................................................................................... 8.12
Pavement Rehabilitation ............................................................................................................................. 9.1

9.0
General ................................................................................................................................. 9.2

Rehabilitation needs .............................................................................................................................. 9.2
9.0.2
Pavement evaluation ............................................................................................................................. 9.2
9.0.3
Rehabilitation design ............................................................................................................................ 9.2
9.0.4
Rehabilitation options ........................................................................................................................... 9.2
9.1
Pavement Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 9.2
9.1.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 9.2
9.1.1
Confidence level .................................................................................................................................... 9.3
9.1.2
Design traffic loading ........................................................................................................................... 9.3
9.1.3
Pavement investigation procedure ......................................................................................................... 9.3
9.1.4
Extent of investigations ......................................................................................................................... 9.6
9.1.5
Distress criteria .................................................................................................................................... 9.7
9.1.6
Data interpretation ............................................................................................................................... 9.8
9.2
Rehabilitation Design Methods ........................................................................................... 9.8
9.2.0
General ................................................................................................................................................. 9.8
9.2.1
Maximum deflection method ................................................................................................................. 9.9
9.2.2
Structural number method .................................................................................................................. 9.13
9.2.3
Mechanistic method ............................................................................................................................ 9.15
9.3
Rehabilitation Options ....................................................................................................... 9.16
9.3.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 9.16
9.3.1
Overlays ............................................................................................................................................. 9.16
9.3.2
Partial reconstruction ......................................................................................................................... 9.19
9.3.3
Full reconstruction ............................................................................................................................. 9.19
9.4
Methods to Prevent Reflective Cracking ......................................................................... 9.19
9.4.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 9.19
9.4.1
Conventional methods for overlays .................................................................................................... 9.19
9.4.2
Special methods and materials for overlays ....................................................................................... 9.20
9.4.3
Surface treatments .............................................................................................................................. 9.20
References
............................................................................................................................... 9.21
9.0.1
10
Bituminous Surfacings .............................................................................................................................. 10.1

10.0 General ............................................................................................................................... 10.2
10.1 Priming ............................................................................................................................... 10.2
10.1.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 10.2
Ministry of Works
11

10.1.1
Materials and construction ................................................................................................................. 10.2
10.2
Surface Dressing ................................................................................................................ 10.3

10.2.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 10.3
10.2.1
Application rates for planning purposes ............................................................................................. 10.3
10.2.2
Aggregate requirements ..................................................................................................................... 10.3
10.2.3
Binder ................................................................................................................................................. 10.4
10.2.4
Traffic .................................................................................................................................................. 10.5
10.2.5
Single surface dressing - reseals ........................................................................................................ 10.5
10.2.6
Double surface dressing ..................................................................................................................... 10.6
10.2.7
Aggregate spread rates ....................................................................................................................... 10.8
10.2.8
Pre-coating of aggregate .................................................................................................................... 10.8
10.2.9
Emulsion fogspray .............................................................................................................................. 10.9
10.2.10 Adhesion agents .................................................................................................................................. 10.9
10.3 Otta Seal .............................................................................................................................. 10.9
10.3.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 10.9
10.3.1
Aggregate and binder ...................................................................................................................... 10.10
10.3.2
Types of Otta Seals .......................................................................................................................... 10.10
10.3.3
Material requirements and design of Otta Seals ............................................................................. 10.10
10.3.4
Construction .................................................................................................................................... 10.11
10.4 Other Surface Treatments ................................................................................................ 10.12
10.4.1
Sand seals ........................................................................................................................................ 10.12
10.4.2
Combined seals using a sand cover-seal ......................................................................................... 10.13
10.5 Slurry Seals ....................................................................................................................... 10.13
10.5.0
General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.13
10.5.1
Materials, design and construction ................................................................................................. 10.13
10.6 Surface Enrichment .......................................................................................................... 10.14
10.6.0
General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.14
10.6.1
Materials and construction .............................................................................................................. 10.14
10.7 Surfacing for Shoulders ................................................................................................... 10.15
10.7.0
General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.15
10.7.1
Selection and design of shoulder seals ............................................................................................ 10.15
10.8 Asphalt Concrete .............................................................................................................. 10.16
10.8.0
General ............................................................................................................................................ 10.16
10.8.1
Required properties ......................................................................................................................... 10.17
10.8.2
Severely loaded areas ...................................................................................................................... 10.17
10.8.3
Mix requirements ............................................................................................................................. 10.18
10.8.4
Construction .................................................................................................................................... 10.19
References
............................................................................................................................. 10.20
Gravel Roads ............................................................................................................................................. 11.1
11.0 General ............................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1 Design Principles ............................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1.1
Pavement and materials ...................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1.2
Crossfall and drainage ....................................................................................................................... 11.2
11.2 Material Requirements ....................................................................................................... 11.3
11.2.0
General ............................................................................................................................................... 11.3
11.2.1
Earthworks ......................................................................................................................................... 11.3
11.2.2
Gravel wearing course (GW) ............................................................................................................. 11.3
11.3 Improved Subgrade and Pavement Design ...................................................................... 11.4
11.3.1
Subgrade CBR .................................................................................................................................... 11.4
11
12
Ministry of Works

11.3.2
Major gravel roads ............................................................................................................................. 11.4
11.3.3
Minor gravel roads ............................................................................................................................. 11.5
References
............................................................................................................................... 11.6
Appendices
A1
Definitions of Terms ..........................................................................................................................A2
A2
Units of Measurements .....................................................................................................................A8
A3
Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................................A9
A4
Cross Section and Pavement Performance ................................................................................... A12
A5
Handling of Bitumen Products ...................................................................................................... A13

A5.1 Safety - General .................................................................................................................. A13
A5.2 Heating Procedures ........................................................................................................... A13
A5.3 Temperature for Storage .................................................................................................... A14
A5.4 Cutting-back Operations ................................................................................................... A14
A5.5 Anti-Stripping Additives ..................................................................................................... A15
A5.6 Check of Bitumen Distributors .......................................................................................... A16
A5.7 Waste Disposal and Spillage ............................................................................................. A16
A6
Problem Soils Investigation Procedures .................................................................................... A17

A6.1 Expansive Soils .................................................................................................................. A17
A6.2 Dispersive Soils .................................................................................................................. A18
A7
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) .................................................................................... A21
A8
Worked Examples .......................................................................................................................... A23

A8.1 Design Traffic Loading ...................................................................................................... A23
A8.2 Subgrade CBR design ............................................................................................................. A25
A8.3 The CUSUM Method to Establish Homogenous Sets of Data ....................................... A27
A8.4 Pavement Rehabilitation Design Maximum Deflection Method ................................. A28
A8.5 Pavement Rehabilitation Design Structural Number Method ..................................... A29
A8.6 Surface Dressing Design Including Determination of ALD ........................................... A31
A9 Maps
A9.1
A9.2
A9.3
A9.4
A9.5
Physical (topography)
Geology
Soils
Vegetation
Rainfall
List of Tables and Figures

Summary of Terminology
Figures
1
Cross section terms ..................................................................................................................7
2
Cross section elements .............................................................................................................7
3
Pavement details .......................................................................................................................7
Chapter 2 - Environment
Tables
2.1
Climatic zones ...................................................................................................................... 2.2
2.2
Design moisture .................................................................................................................... 2.4
Ministry of Works
13
Figures
2.1
Map showing climatic zones ............................................................................................... 2.3
Chapter 4 Traffic
Tables
4.1
Heavy vehicle categories .................................................................................................... 4.4
4.2
Traffic load distribution between lanes .............................................................................. 4.6
4.3
Traffic Load Classes - TLC .................................................................................................. 4.7
Figures
4.1
Design period ....................................................................................................................... 4.3
4.2
Procedure to determine the design traffic loading ............................................................ 4.3
Chapter 5 - Subgrade
Tables
5.1
Design depth ......................................................................................................................... 5.2
5.2
Minimum materials testing frequency ................................................................................ 5.3
5.3
Density for determination of CBR ...................................................................................... 5.5
5.4
Subgrade strength classes ................................................................................................... 5.6
5.5
Material requirements for improved subgrade layers ....................................................... 5.7
5.6
Required standards for fill ................................................................................................... 5.8
5.7
Required roadbed compaction ............................................................................................ 5.8
Figures
5.1
Design depth ......................................................................................................................... 5.2
5.2
Procedure to determine CBRdesign ........................................................................................ 5.4
5.3
CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value ............................................................................................. 5.5
5.4
Design of improved subgrade layers.................................................................................. 5.7
Chapter 6 - Problem Soils
Tables
6.1
Features of expansive soils soil descriptions ................................................................. 6.4
6.2
Expansive soils - classification ........................................................................................... 6.5
6.3
Expansive soils methods for treatment............................................................................ 6.6
Figures
6.1
Procedure to classify expansive soils ................................................................................. 6.3
6.2
Cross section and construction on expansive soils .......................................................... 6.7
6.3
Cross section and construction on expansive soils with soil replacement ..................... 6.7
Chapter 7 - Pavement Materials
Tables
7.1
Natural gravel, material classes ......................................................................................... 7.4
7.2
Material requirements G80 and G60 .............................................................................. 7.4
7.3
Material requirements G60 and G25 .............................................................................. 7.5
7.4
Crushed materials, material classes .................................................................................. 7.5
7.5
Material requirements CRR and CRS .............................................................................. 7.6
7.6
Cemented materials, material classes ................................................................................ 7.6
7.7
Material requirements C2, C1 and CM ........................................................................... 7.7
7.8
Selection of stabiliser for cemented materials ................................................................... 7.7
7.9
Cemented materials, time for completion of the layer ...................................................... 7.8
7.10 Bituminous base course material classes ..................................................................... 7.10
7.11 Material requirements DBM ........................................................................................... 7.10
7.12 Material requirements LAMBS ....................................................................................... 7.11
7.13 Material requirements penetration macadam .............................................................. 7.12
7.14 Requirements for foamed bitumen .................................................................................... 7.13
14
Ministry of Works
7.15 Material requirements FBMIX ....................................................................................... 7.14

7.16 Material requirements BEMIX ........................................................................................ 7.15
7.17 Sulphide minerals in aggregates ....................................................................................... 7.16
7.18 Borrow pits minimum test pit frequency prior to opening ............................................ 7.17
7.19 Geo-textile separating layers - required weight per m2 ................................................... 7.18
Chapter 8 Pavement Design New Roads
Tables
8.1
Traffic Load Classes - TLC .................................................................................................. 8.4
8.2
Pavement materials ............................................................................................................... 8.5
8.3
List of pavement design catalogues .................................................................................... 8.6
8.4
Pavements with granular base course - dry or moderate climatic zones ........................ 8.7
8.5
Pavements with granular base course - wet climatic zones .............................................. 8.8
8.6
Pavements with cemented base course ................................................................................ 8.9
8.7
Pavements with a bituminous mix in the base course ...................................................... 8.10
8.8
Pavements with penetration macadam base course ......................................................... 8.11
Chapter 9 Pavement Rehabilitation
Tables
9.1
Conditions that require scheme A or B respectively for frequency of investigations ..... 9.6
9.2
Required extent of pavement investigations ....................................................................... 9.6
9.3
Pavement distress criteria..................................................................................................... 9.7
9.4
Selection of appropriate design method ............................................................................. 9.9
9.5
Design parameters used in the deflection design charts ................................................ 9.12
9.6
Material coefficients (a) for existing pavement layers .................................................... 9.14
9.7
Determination of required structural number, SNrequired ................................................... 9.15
9.8
Material coefficients (a) for new pavement layers .......................................................... 9.17
9.9
Overlay design .................................................................................................................... 9.18
Figures
9.1
Pavement evaluation and rehabilitation procedure ........................................................... 9.3
9.2
Assessment of one homogenous section .............................................................................. 9.4
9.3
Interpretation of pavement data .......................................................................................... 9.8
9.4
Design procedure, maximum deflection method ............................................................... 9.10
9.5
Deflection design chart, graular base course ................................................................. 9.12
9.6
Deflection design chart, lightly cemented base course ................................................... 9.13
9.7
Determination of required strengthening SNdiff ................................................................ 9.13
Chapter 10 Bituminous Surfacings
Tables
10.1 Surface dressing application rates for planning purposes ......................................... 10.3
10.2
Aggregate requirements for surface dressing .................................................................. 10.4
10.3 Bitumen spray rates, single surface dressing and reseals .............................................. 10.6
10.4 Aggregate sizes for double surface dressing ................................................................... 10.7
10.5 Bitumen spray rates - 1st layer ........................................................................................... 10.7
10.6 Bitumen spray rates - 2nd layer .......................................................................................... 10.8
10.7 Recommended Otta Seal concept..................................................................................... 10.10
10.8 Material requirements for Otta Seals .............................................................................. 10.10
10.9 Design of Otta Seals ......................................................................................................... 10.11
10.10 Aggregate requirements for sand seals ........................................................................... 10.12
10.11 Bitumen and aggregate application rates for sand seals.............................................. 10.12
10.12 Aggregate requirements for slurry seals ......................................................................... 10.14
10.13 Mix requirements for asphalt concrete ............................................................................ 10.18
Ministry of Works
15
10.14 Mix proportions for asphalt concrete ............................................................................. 10.19

10.15 Temperature for field compaction of AC layers ............................................................. 10.19
Figures
10.1 Expected resurfacing frequency ........................................................................................ 10.2
Chapter 11 Gravel Roads
Tables
11.1 Material requirements - gravel wearing course (GW) ..................................................... 11.3
Figures
11.1 Expected performance of gravel wearing course materials ........................................... 11.4
11.2 Pavement and improved subgrade major gravel roads ............................................... 11.5
11.3 Pavement and improved subgrade minor gravel roads ................................................ 11.5
Appendices
Tables
A1.1 Definitions of Terms, CML Test Methods with References ............................................. A7
A2.1 Definition of prefixes ............................................................................................................ A8
A2.2 Basic units, multiples and sub-multiples ............................................................................. A8
A4.1 Cross section design for enhanced pavement performance ........................................... A12
A5.1 Maximum temperature for storage .................................................................................... A14
A5.2 Cutters ................................................................................................................................ A14
A6.1 Features of expansive soils - soil descriptions ................................................................. A17
Figures
A6.1 Crumb test bottom of the glass ....................................................................................... A19
A8.1 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 1 ..................................................................... A26
A8.2 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 3 ..................................................................... A26
A8.3 Determination of median size ............................................................................................. A31
A8.4 Determination of average least dimension ....................................................................... A32
16
Ministry of Works
Project appraisal
Ch
Cross Section,
Shoulders and Drainage
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement Materials
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment
Pavement DesignNew Roads

Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads
Comparison of alternatives and

selection of design
Refinement of design, if required
Ministry of Works
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments:
1.1 The Manual Background

The need to update the Pavement Design and Materials part of the Draft
Road Manual of 1989 has been realised for some time. Preparation of the
new Pavement and Materials Design Manual 1999 was commissioned
following an extensive desk study of relevant road design manuals from
the region and other relevant guidelines with validity for countries with
similar environment. /1-17/. The Manual is a reflection of the Ministry of
Works experience gained in the road sector through the last 20 30 years.
1.2 Purpose of the Manual

The main purpose of this Manual is to ensure a standardised policy in the
procedures for structural pavement design of new roads and rehabilitation
of old pavements.
Although the Manual is primarily a standard for the design policy of the
Ministry of Works, the Manual may serve as a reference for other
authorities that design and construct roads and assist in training carried
out by educational institutions. The Ministry of Works has aimed to
present a user-friendly format of the Manual and worked examples are
provided as deemed necessary to improve clarity.
1.3 Structure of the Manual

1.3.1
Comment text
1.3.2
Structure of the contents
Comment text is clearly distinguished from the formal main text of this
Manual by separate columns. The purpose of the comment text is to
provide background and additional information to explain the main text and
to improve clarity.
The Manual is divided into 11 main chapters. Following the general
introduction given in Chapter 1 Introduction, the environmental
factors that affect pavements design and performance are dealt with in
Chapter 2 Environment. In this chapter 2 a country map defines three
climatic zones established for the purpose of pavement design. The
chapter furthermore offers guidance to engineers on the need for
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) and explains the use of an EIA
when available.
Chapter 3 Cross section, Shoulders and Drainage presents factors
affecting the function and performance of paved and unpaved shoulders
and outlines elements of cross section layout affecting structural pavement performance. The basic requirements for drainage of the pavement
and subgrade are furthermore discussed in the chapter.
The effect of traffic loading on paved roads is described in Chapter 4
Traffic. The chapter sets out methods to assess design traffic loading,
division into traffic classes for the purpose of pavement design and gives
minimum requirements for presentation of data in project design reports.
1.2
Ministry of Works
Chapter 1
The chapter establishes procedures to assess the effect of heavily loaded

axles in excess of 13 tonnes.
Introduction
Comments:
Chapter 5 Subgrade defines design depth, describes centreline soil

surveys, and sets out the required laboratory testing and material
requirements for earthworks. Subgrade strength classes are defined in this
chapter and the procedure for design of improved subgrade layers,
including fill and roadbed preparation, is given.
Occurrences of problem soils in the project area are too often neglected,
resulting in unnecessary high maintenance cost and even costly premature
pavement rehabilitation. Such conditions are brought to the designers
attention in Chapter 6 Problem Soils, which describes identification,
classification and construction methods on low-strength soils and
expansive soils. Other problem soils such as dispersive soil, saline soils,
organic matter in large quantities and deleterious minerals are also dealt
with in this chapter.
The required properties of materials to use in the pavement structure are
defined in Chapter 7 Pavement Materials. As far as possible all unbound
material types commonly used in the country are included. The chapter
describes the use of crushed materials, weathered rocks, laterite, coral rock,
calcrete and volcanic tuff. The chapter gives requirements for cemented
layers and bituminous mixes produced in a hot or cold process and gives
limits to the content of deleterious minerals in pavement layers. Minimum
frequencies of material testing to carry out at the time of prospecting are
given and the laboratory test standards of Central Materials Laboratory,
Ministry of Works are referred to wherever possible. Finally the chapter
gives requirements for geo-textile materials and provides directives for
use of geo-grids in reinforcement of earthworks.
Pavement design for new roads is dealt with in Chapter 8 Pavement
Design New Roads. The pavement design uses a catalogue format and
is based on a minimum subgrade strength of CBR 15%, that shall be
achieved by using improved subgrade layers where necessary. The design
is based on traffic loading, defined into seven Traffic Load Classes. The
consequences of heavy axle loads (above 13 tonnes) are shown in the
pavement design procedure, which puts restrictions on certain material types
in the base course under such conditions. A deeper structure is necessary
in such heavily loaded pavements requiring the addition of one additional
improved subgrade layer. The chapter describes flexible pavements and
pavements containing one or more cemented layers. Literature references
are made for design of concrete pavements, but detailed procedures for
design of such pavements are not given.
Chapter 9 Pavement Rehabilitation is based on measured properties
of materials and thickness of layers in the existing pavement, alternatively
criteria for maximum surface deflection. Based on either design method a
catalogue design for overlays is provided, alternatively partial or full
reconstruction is employed depending on the condition of the existing
pavement. Procedures for pavement evaluation and selection of
rehabilitation design methods and rehabilitation options are described.
Ministry of Works
1.3
Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments:
Chapter 10 Bituminous Surfacings describes the design and material

requirements for surfacing layers of asphalt concrete and surface
treatments such as surface dressings, Otta Seals (using graded
aggregate), sand seals and slurry seals.
Material requirements and structural design procedures for gravel roads
are given in Chapter 11 Gravel Roads. Fully engineered gravel roads
and minor gravel roads are described separately in the chapter.
Nine appendices to the Manual include worked examples and five maps
presenting features that are useful in pavements design.
1.4 Design Aspects and Policy

1.4.1
Pavement design analysis
Distress is primarily induced by traffic loading while direct environmental

influence on pavement performance, such as thermal stress and associated damage, is not included. Indirect environmental influence, such as the
temperatures effect on the stability of bituminous layers and the moisture
contents effect on the strength soils and granular materials, is included
wherever necessary in the design procedure. Normal maintenance is
assumed to take place throughout the design period of the pavement.
Expected axle loading of this magnitude
in the traffic stream is reflected in the
design of improved subgrade layers, and
in the design catalogue by limiting the
type of material allowed in the base
course.
The method to determine the traffic design load includes procedures to

assess the effect of heavily loaded axles in excess of 13 tonnes.
This Manual assumes drained conditions for the pavement throughout its
design period, ensured through adequate maintenance of the drainage
system. Methods to ensure internal drainage of the pavement layers are
described in the manual while surface drainage and flow calculations are not
included. Varying risk of moisture ingress, and associated loss of strength, is
reflected by the manner in which climatic zone influences the pavement
design. Climatic zone affects the selection of pavement material types,
material requirements for pavement and earthworks, moisture for testing
of CBR and design of improved subgrade layers.
The Manual gives requirements for soils and materials, and nominal
compaction requirements for pavement and earthworks layers. Statistical
acceptance criteria for assessment of field test data obtained during
construction control are given in Standard Specifications for Highway
Construction.
1.4.2
Material testing methods
1.4.3
New roads
In order to ensure consistency in road construction and maintenance

work, the material testing methods adopted in the Manual follows those of
the Central Materials Laboratory (CML) of Ministry of Works.
References to the CML test methods are shown tabulated in /Appendix A1/.
The aim of structural design of pavements is to protect the subgrade by
provision of appropriate pavement layers to achieve a determined level of
1.4
Ministry of Works
Chapter 1
service - with maintenance - over a chosen design period. A successful

pavement design will meet these requirements at the lowest possible total
cost over the design period. The design catalogue for paved roads requires
that all subgrade is brought to a design strength of CBR minimum 15% by
constructing one or more improved subgrade layers before the pavement
is placed.
1.4.4
Introduction
Comments:
Pavement rehabilitation (paved roads)
General
Pavement rehabilitation is defined as taking constructive measures to
restore the structural and functional condition of roads where distress has
caused unacceptable pavement serviceability. It is normally understood to
mean measures whereby the structural strength of the existing pavement
is utilised to some extent in the design of the rehabilitated pavement.
Pavement evaluation
One of the most important steps in this procedure is the evaluation of the
existing pavement. This involves relating the symptoms of pavement
distress to their causes, explaining how the distress mechanism develops.
The outcome of this exercise is largely decisive in selection of the method
to rehabilitate a given section of distressed pavement.
Rehabilitation design
The Manual describes pavement rehabilitation based on the maximum
deflection method or the use of Structural Number determined on the basis
of laboratory tests to assess the existing pavement and calculate its strength
deficiency. Mechanistic design is not described in detail, but reference is
made to recommended procedures if such analysis is required.
Rehabilitation options
Rehabilitation measures may include the following options:
a)
re-processing of one or more of the pavement layers, or
b)
overlays with one or more new pavement layers
c)
combinations of the two - a) and b)
The time of intervention determines the extent and degree of required

rehabilitation measures.
Pavement overlay may be the chosen option for pavement rehabilitation or
be an exercise to strengthen an existing pavement although terminal
serviceability has in fact not been reached yet. Measured to minimise
reflective cracking through pavement overlays are specifically outlined.
1.4.5
The rate of deterioration is often rapid

towards the end of the service life and
successful prediction of the pavements
condition at the time when physical
construction work can start requires
good knowledge about contract
procurement besides sound technical
judgement.
Gravel roads
Design of gravel roads is limited to roads with a traffic volume up to AADT

of 300 at the time of construction. The manual sets out design standards
for fully engineered major gravel roads as well as minor gravel roads and
a catalogue format is used in structural pavement design. A flexible approach is required in the design of gravel roads as construction economy is
usually of vital importance for successful execution of these projects.
Ministry of Works
1.5
Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments:
Knowledge about past performance of locally occurring materials for gravel

roads is essential. One may divert from the given material standards if
necessary to take advantage of available gravel sources provided past
experience has proved they give satisfactory performance.
1.5 Construction and Maintenance

Considerations Affecting
Pavement Design
1.5.0
General
The design procedures set out in the Manual assume that appropriate
standards of construction and maintenance practice will be adopted.
However, several construction and maintenance considerations must be
taken into account in the pavement design because they can influence the
type of pavement that is adopted or material standards and type of
surfacing to be used. The significant construction and maintenance
factors are:
n extent and type of drainage
n use of stabilisation
n availability of equipment, materials and human resources
n construction under traffic
n maintenance strategy
n use of stage construction
Underestimation of the need for drainage

may cause early pavement distress and
premature need for costly rehabilitation.
Stabilisation can give increased speed

of construction and reduced need for
replacement or processing of soils in
locations with high natural moisture
content.
1.5.1
Extent and type of drainage
1.5.2
Use of stabilisation with lime or cement
1.5.3
Availability of equipment and materials
Special drainage provisions such as subsurface drains may be desirable,

but economically prohibitive. In such cases it may be possible to minimise
the risks of pavement failures by deepening of surface ditches and paying
particular attention to maintenance of the drainage system.
Materials stabilised with lime or cement have minimal sensitivity to moisture. Stabilisation can therefore give benefits during construction and
reduce the risks of failure in locations where future upkeep of the
drainage system is particularly difficult, like in cuts or near urban centres.
The availability of specialised equipment and materials in the construction

industry needs to be considered when selecting material types in the pavement design. This is particularly important when considering admixture of
stabilisers and the choice of bituminous seals or mixes. Specialised materials
or equipment requiring specialised skills shall as far as possible be avoided
in the design as these resources may not be readily available at competitive
prices.
1.6
Ministry of Works
Chapter 1
1.5.4
Construction under traffic
1.5.5
Maintenance strategy
Some projects may be particularly demanding with regards to the control

of public traffic during construction. Construction of the road while open
to traffic or with a minimum period of closure at a time may be necessary.
Such conditions can be decisive in the choice of material types for pavement layers by provision of materials that can be trafficked soon after
construction.
Certain conditions may justify periodic maintenance to be carried out at a

low frequency with extensive methods such as overlay being employed, as
opposed to a conventional and more frequent resealing schedule using surface
treatments. Such conditions can include locations that are particularly
hazardous for the traffic or where there is profound inconvenience and
cost to the public by disruption of traffic.
Introduction
Comments:
Particular attention to maintenance

strategy is required for project roads
passing through urban or industrial
centres, or those carrying large amounts
of traffic.
Aspects concerning maintenance strategy can affect the choice of surfacing type or pavement type and requires careful consideration with due
regard for current policies.
1.5.6
Type of surface on the shoulders
Surfacing for shoulders shall be bituminous, or concrete which is used only

under special site conditions encountered in urban areas.
Gravel surfaced shoulders are not part of standard cross sections for
paved roads, and shall not be used for reasons that include:
n exessive maintenance is required in order to ensure adequate
performance
n increased risk of water ingress into the pavement layers
n reduced traffic safety where shoulders are unpaved
n edge drop from the surface to the gravel shoulders increases traffic
hazards
1.5.7
Unpaved shoulders will reduce traffic

safety.
Use of stage construction
Stage construction consists of planned improvements to the pavement

structure at fixed times through the design period. Stage construction of
the pavement structure in paved roads shall not be employed because
such design systems carry risks that future upgrading does not take
place at the appropriate time thus resulting in lost benefits from the
project.
Stage construction shall be considered in the context of designing
appropriate parts of the work to give construction cost benefits at the
time of future upgrading of the road. Such parts of the work include:
Bridges and other major structures are

normally designed with a longer time
horizon for their useful life than the rest
of the works.
n earthworks and culverts

n horizontal and vertical alignment
n bridges and other major structures
Ministry of Works
1.7
Chapter 1
Introduction
Comments:
1.8
References
1-1
AUSTROADS (1992). Pavement Design: A guide to the structural

design of road pavements. Sydney, Australia.
1-2
BOTSWANA ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1994). Draft Volume 3,

Materials and Pavement Design. Ministry of Works, Transport and
Communications, Roads Department. Republic of Botswana.
1-3
BS 6100: Part 0: 1992. Glossary of Building and civil engineering terms.

Part 0. Introduction.
1-4
BS 6100: Subsection 2.4.1:1992. Glossary of Building and civil engineering terms. Subsection 2.4.1 Highway engineering.
1-5
COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 4 (1997):

Structural design of flexible pavements for interurban and rural roads.
CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
1-6
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION. SI

units and recommendations for the use of their multiples and of certain
other units. International Standard ISO 1000-1981.
1-7
JONES T E, R ROBINSON and M S SNAITH (1984). A field study on

the deterioration of unpaved roads and the effect of different
maintenance strategies. Proc. 8th Regional Conference for Africa on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Harare, Zimbabwe.
1-8
MITCHELL, R L, C P VAN DER MERWE and H K GEEL (1975).

Standard Flexible Pavement Design For Rural Roads with Light to
Medium Traffic. Republic of Zimbabwe.
1-9
ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1987). Part III, Materials and Pavement

Design for New Roads. Ministry of Transport and Comm., Roads
Department. Republic of Kenya.
1 - 10
SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of practice for pavement
rehabilitation. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
1 - 11

COMMISSION - SATCC (1997). Draft: Pavement Design Guide. CSIR,
Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
1 - 12
THE ASPHALT INSTITUTE (1969). Asphalt overlays and pavement

rehabilitation. Asphalt Institute manual (MS-17), USA.
1 - 13
TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1988). A guide to road

project appraisal. Overseas Road Note No. 5. TRL, Crowthorne, for
ODA, London, UK.
1 - 14
TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the

structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne, for
ODA, London, UK.
1 - 15
WEINERT, H H (1980). The natural road construction materials of

Southern Africa. Academica, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
1 - 16
YODER E J, WITCZAK M W (1975). Principles of pavement design.

Second edition. A Wiley-Interscience Publication, USA and Canada.
1 - 17
CENTRAL MATERIALS LABORATORY (1997). Desk Study of Pavement/Materials Design Manuals. CML Report No. I 010. Ministry of
Works, Tanzania.
Ministry of Works
Project appraisal
Ch
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement Materials
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment

Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 2
Environment
Chapter 2
Environment
Comments:
2.0 General
This manual describes procedures which enable pavements to be
designed to withstand load-associated distress. Circumstances in which
environmentally induced distress is the major distress mode are not
specifically discussed although such cases have been noted elsewhere,
particularly in /Chapter 6 -Problem Soils/.
The environmental factors having the greatest effect on pavement
performance are:
n moisture regime in the pavement structure
n pavement temperature
n unfavourable subgrade conditions related to the environment
The purpose of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), and the procedure
for its commissioning and implementation, is briefly described in this chapter.
The inclusion of EIA has been made in order to highlight the importance
of EIA in all stages of road design and construction, to ensure that projects
do not achieve their own goals at the expense of loss or inconvenience to
non-beneficiaries or future generations.
2.1 Climatic Zones

For the purpose of pavement design, Tanzania can be divided into three
climatic zones:
n a dry zone in the interior
n a large moderate zone
n several wet zones, mainly at high altitudes
The length of time a pavement is exposed
to a surplus of moisture is a better
indicator of the likelihood of moisture
ingress into the structure and associated
risks of failures than rainfall alone. This
parameter has been expressed as the
duration of the period when rainfall
exceeds the potential evaporation from
an open surface of water.
2.2
The three climatic zones are shown on a map in Figure 2.1. The climatic
zones are demarcated on the basis of the number of months in a year with
surplus of rainfall over potential evaporation as presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Climatic zones
C limatic z one
N umber of months per y ear with

higher rainfall than ev aporation
D ry
Less than 1 month
Moderate
1 to 3 months
Wet
More than 3 months
Ministry of Works
Chapter 2
2.2 Moisture Regime

2.2.0
Environment
Comments:
General
The moisture regime has a major influence on a pavements performance

as the stiffness and strength of subgrade soils and granular materials vary
with their moisture content.
The map reflects the macro-climate significant to pavement moisture
conditions. Within each climatic zone there may be localised areas with
different moisture conditions.
Figure 2.1 Map showing climatic zones
Ministry of Works
2.3
Chapter 2
Environment
Comments:
/Chapter 3 - Cross Section, Shoulders
and Drainage/
Moisture changes in pavements usually ensue from one or more of the

following sources:
A. relative permeability of pavement layers and subgrade, and
B. infiltration from the surface and shoulders
Both can be controlled through appropriate design of the cross section and
internal drainage of the pavement layers
C. seepage from higher ground, and

D. fluctuation in the water table
Both can be controlled by adequately installed subgrade and pavement drains.
E. transfer of moisture within the structure due to differences in moisture

content or temperature
Cannot normally be controlled other than by attempting to keep the moisture
content near constant.
2.2.1
Design moisture
New roads
Nominal CBRdesign values of subgrade and pavement materials shall be
specified at the specimen moistures presented in Table 2.2. For dry
climatic zones, where nominal CBRdesign values are specified at OMC,
there are additional requirements for minimum CBR after 4 days soaking.
These limits are presented in the respective chapters where the material
requirements are set out.
Table 2.2 Design moisture
C limatic
z one
D ry
L ay er
Subgrade
C BRDESIGN
Subbase
B a se
course
OMC
OMC
OMC
Addi ti onal requi rements are gi ven for

mi ni mum C BR after 4 days soaki ng. Both
C BR requi rements, soaked and un-soaked,
shall be met.
Gravel wearing
course
Soaked
Moderate Soaked
Soaked
Soaked
Soaked
Wet
Soaked
Soaked
Soaked
Soaked
'Soaked' and 'OMC ' refer to standard 4 days soaki ng and the opti mum moi sture content
determi ned i n accordance wi th C ML tests 1.9 and 1.11 at BS-Heavy compacti on effort.
Pavement rehabilitation
The design moisture content for the purpose of pavement rehabilitation
design is determined by estimation of likely future equilibrium moisture
contents of the subgrade and within the existing pavement structure.
The moisture contents presented in Table 2.2 shall be used where information
about the moisture regime under the existing pavement is lacking or is
deemed to be an unreliable indicator of future equilibrium moisture content.
2.4
Ministry of Works
Chapter 2
2.3 Pavement Temperature

2.3.0
Comments:
General
The designer at project level shall obtain detailed data on the temperature
conditions in the project area and observe this when selecting material
types and design parameters for pavement layers. Temperature conditions
can be expected to correlate closely with site altitude.
2.3.1
Environment
Except for variation due to altitude, the

Tanzanian climate is broadly uniform
across the country. Temperature decreases with elevation by 0.60C per 100
metres. The influence of other local
factors on temperature are almost
insignificant.
Bituminous materials
Bituminous mixes
The pavement temperature is taken into consideration in mix designs,
having a significant effect on the performance of bituminous mixes with
regards to:
n
n
n
n
load distributing properties

resistance to deformation
resistance to fatigue cracking
rate of ageing
Surface treatments
The performance of surface treatments depends largely on pavement
temperature and is taken into account in the surfacing design. This applies
to the short term performance related to bleeding and loss of aggregate,
and also to the rate of binder ageing in the long term.
2.3.2
/Chapter 7 - Pavement Materials/ and

/Chapter 10 Bituminous Surfacings/
give requirements for design of all layers
using bituminous material. The effect of
temperature in bituminous layers can be
critical in combination with severe road
gradients and low traffic speed.
Non-bituminous materials
General
The effect of temperature in non-bituminous layers is not specifically
taken into account in the pavement design.
Cemented layers
The pavement temperature - and changes in temperature - affects the
performance of all cemented materials by inducing thermal stresses in
layers, with associated crack developments.
Granular layers
Within soils and granular layers, the movement of moisture caused by
changes in temperature can indirectly affect the strength of the layers.
2.4 Unfavourable Subgrade

Conditions
2.4.0
General
Unfavourable subgrade conditions are those that require special treatment

to be rendered suitable as foundation for the pavement. This is not due to
the properties of the subgrade soils, but rather the environment in which
they perform. Unfavourable subgrade conditions shall also be given
Ministry of Works
For treatment of subgrade soils that, due

to their properties, require special
attention to become suitable as
foundation for the pavement, refer to
/Chapter 6 - Problem Soils/.
2.5
Chapter 2
Environment
Comments:
Method for classification of the subgrade
into S15, S7 or S3: /Chapter 5
Subgrade/.
attention when they occur below design depth as defined in /Chapter 5 Subgrade/.
The objective of special treatment for unfavourable subgrade conditions is
to bring the subgrade to sufficient stability and strength to meet the design
classes S15, S7 or S3 for input into the pavement design procedure.
2.4.1
Identification
Unfavourable subgrade conditions include:

n cavities made by burrowing animals, like termites or rodents, or any
other flaws causing lack of support or non-uniform support and
potential for uneven settlement
n localised areas with high moisture content
n subsurface wells
n swamp areas
2.4.2
Treatment
The methods for treatment of unfavourable subgrade conditions depend

on site conditions and may include one or more of the following measures:
Cavities
n excavation and replacement with fill
n special compaction techniques
Localised areas with high moisture contents
n
n
n
n
excavation and replacement with fill

raising of the vertical alignment
special drainage measures
modification with lime or cement
Subsurface wells
n special drainage measures
n use of filter layers
n use of geotextile filter drains or other special materials or methods.
n raising of the vertical alignment
Areas with high water table or swamps
n raising of the vertical alignment
n use of geotextiles, geo-grids or other special materials or methods
n special drainage measures
2.6
Ministry of Works
Chapter 2
2.5 Other Physical Features

2.5.1
Environment
Comments:
Topography
The country has four main topographic types:

n lowlands (mainly the coastal plain below 200 metres above sea
level, with isolated hills up to 300 metres in height)
n broad nearly flat areas of inland drainage, notably the Malagarasi swamp
n plateau
n highlands
Topographical map: /Appendix A9.1/

Soil map: /Appendix A9.3/
Rainfall map: /Appendix A9.5/
The highlands include the following mountain ranges of altitudes generally

between 1500 m and 3000 m:
n Northern Highlands - Usambara, Pare and the volcanic peaks stretching
from Kilimanjaro (5895 m) westwards to the Serengeti plains
n Central Highlands - stretching from Morogoro to the Iringa area
n Southern Highlands - Tukuyu - Mbeya - Sumbawanga
n Western Highlands - forming much of the western boundary of the country
The plateau rises from the coastal plains to an altitude between 1000 m
and 1500 m, adjoining the highlands listed above.
Except for the mountainous and steep rolling terrain of the highlands, the
terrain is generally flat to gently rolling in the plateau and lowland.
2.5.2
Geology
Metamorphic granitic rocks of the early Archaean - more than 2000 million
years old - occupy much of the central plateau of Tanzania, forming a large
block surrounded by younger fold belts, also of Precambrian age.
Sedimentary rocks of the Karoo age - 220 to 140 million years old - occur
to the north-east of Lake Nyasa.
Geological map: /Appendix A9.2/
Distinctive volcanic features of Neogene age are the recent volcanic

centres in northern Tanzania and near Mbeya in the south. In the north,
widespread volcanic activity that probably started 13 to 15 million years ago,
stretches westwards from the Kilimanjaro peaks to Serengeti and into
Kenya. Some volcanic centres in this area are moderately active today.
Younger marine deposits, associated with reef formation, are seen along
the coast line and are in places raised by local warping to form low hills of
reef limestone, commonly called coral rock.
Lake beds and Neogene deposits of limestone, sand, silts and clays that
are formed in basins with restricted drainage, are widespread in the
interior of the country.
2.5.3
Vegetation
The vegetation of Tanzania is characterised by large areas of woodland,

bushland and thicket. However considerable stretches of savannah,
grassland and cultivation are found in several locations and occupy large
areas in the northern part of the country. Forests and swamps occur in
comparatively small localised areas, and mangrove forests are found
in the tide zone along the coast line.
Ministry of Works
Vegetation map: /Appendix A9.4/
2.7
Chapter 2
Environment
Comments:
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

discovers unintended consequences of
a project. Those are impacts. Such
impacts may affect:
- cultural heritage
- society
- the local economy
- natural resources, now or in the future
Advice may be sought from National
Environment Management Council
(NEMC) on any aspect of EIA in Tanzania
/Appendix A7/.
2.6 Environmental Impact

Assessment (EIA)
2.6.1
Purpose of EIA
2.6.2
Commissioning of EIA
The purpose of EIA is to ensure that a project does not achieve its own
goals at the expense of loss or inconvenience to non-beneficiaries or
future generations.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is commissioned by the Ministry

of Works. The conduct of EIA is a mandatory requirement in Tanzania, for
new roads and road up-grading, as for other substantial developments.
EIA is not required for regravelling and similar periodic maintenance.
Environmental assessment is conducted in three stages:
1. scoping, parallel to feasibility study (reported as preliminary
Environmental Impact Statement - EIS)
2. detailed EIA, conducted at the same time as preliminary design
(reported as full EIS, for implementation mainly by detailed design)
3. continued EIA (by monitoring throughout the project)
2.6.3
Very rarely will an EIA conclude that a
project should be halted.
Implementing EIA
Mitigation measures
Usually the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) includes a set of
mitigation measures to bring potentially adverse impacts within tolerable
limits. This is done in three ways.
n Vulnerable ecosystems or land uses may be by-passed by realignment
of the road.
n Recommendations may be made for conditions to be observed during
construction and maintenance.
n Compensation is the mitigation measure of the last resort, to be used
when potentially adverse impacts cannot be avoided by either
realignment or operational conditionalities.
Displacement of illegal structures within

a road reserve does not normally require
a RAP; but the Ministry of Works should
be consulted on a case-to-case basis.
2.8
Implementing RAP
Implementing a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) requires detailed records
of persons and properties affected, negotiation of compensation in keeping
with prevailing regulations, and satisfactory conclusion of the actual resettlement. The principle of fair compensation is that compulsory resettlement
should leave the displaced persons and businesses no worse off, and preferably slightly better off, than they were previously.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 2
References
2-1
AUSTROADS (1992): Pavement Design: A guide to the structural

2-2
BROOKS, A, F BROWN, T COLES AND C. EASTMAN et al. (1997).

Guidelines for the environmental assessment of road traffic. Guidelines
Notes n 1. Institute of Environmental Assessment, Lincoln (UK).
2-3
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION

ASSOCIATION (1988). Laterite in road Pavements. Special
Publication 47. CIRIA, London, UK.
2-4
HATHOUT, A S (1983). Soil atlas of Tanzania., University of Dar es

Salaam, Geography Department.
2-5
LANTRAN, J M, J BAILLON AND J-M PAGS (1994). Road Maintenance and the Environment. Contracting out road maintenance
activities: Volume 5. Guidance for taking care of environment when
preparing and carrying out road maintenance activities. The World
Bank, Economic Commission for Africa and the Sahelian Operations
Review. Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Program. Road Maintenance
Initiative.
2-6
MINERAL RESOURCES DIVISION, TANZANIA. Summary of the

geology of Tanzania.
2-7
PENNY ANDERSON ASSOCIATES (1993). Roads and Nature

Conservation. Guidance on impacts, mitigation and enhancement.
English Nature, Peterborough, UK.
2-8

COMMISSION - SATCC (1997). Draft: Pavement Design Guide.
Report CR-97/105, CSIR, South Africa, for SATCC.
2-9
STEVENSON, S R (1994). Environmental impact assessment of

transportation projects in Africa. Paper presented at the All-Africa
Engineers Conference on the Role of the Engineer in Sustainable
Development, 1994, Nairobi, Kenya.
2 - 10
STEVENSON, S R (1997). Environmental considerations in respect of

road transport in Tanzania. Tanzania Roads Association,. Proc. 1st
Annual Roads Convention, Dar Es Salaam.
2 - 11

ODA, London, UK.
2 - 12

ODA, London, UK.
2 - 13

2 - 14
WORLD BANK. Environment Department (1991). Environmental

Assessment Sourcebook. Volume II, Sectoral Guidelines. World Bank
Technical paper N 140. Washington DC, USA.
2 - 15
WORLD BANK. Transport, Water & Urban Development Department

(1994). Roads and the Environment: a Handbook. Washington DC, USA.
Ministry of Works
Environment
Comments:
2.9
Project appraisal
Ch
Cross Section, Shoulders

and Drainage
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement Materials
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment

Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 3
Cross Section,
Shoulders and
Drainage
Chapter 3
Cross Section,
Comments:
Required alterations to standard cross
sections for design on problem soils are
described in /Chapter 6 - Problem Soils/.
/Appendix A4/ outlines various cross
section features that give technical
benefits to the performance of the
pavement.
3.1 Standard Cross Section

The cross section design for a road is normally determined by current
geometric standards applied to the project, including technical
considerations such as problem soils in the subgrade. Standard cross
sections are given by the Ministry of Works for the various road types and
are not included in this manual.
3.2 Shoulders
3.2.0
Bitumen surfaced shoulders will normally
be part of standard cross sections.
Gravel surfaced shoulders are in general
not recommended for reasons that
include:
- high demands for maintenance to
perform adequately
- increased risks of water ingress
into the pavement layers
- disadvantages to traffic safety,
often made worse by a typical
development of an edge drop from
the surface to the gravel shoulder
General
Shoulders are particularly important when granular materials are used in

the base course, requiring lateral support for the layer.
Important functions of paved shoulders are:
n provision of lateral support for pavement layers
n minimising risks of moisture ingress into load bearing parts of the
pavement
n reducing changes in moisture contents in pavement layers
n improved traffic safety by allowing occasional traffic outside the
carriageway
Use of the same pavement structure for the shoulders as for the adjacent
carriageway is the preferred method. The additional costs of using more
expensive materials in the shoulders may be offset by simplified
construction methods provided the shoulder widths are not excessive.
3.2.1
Bearing capacity of the shoulders
Bearing capacity of the shoulders must be ensured by appropriate selection

of materials and layer thickness where shoulders are designed with a
different pavement than the carriageway. Site conditions will determine the
required strength of the pavement depending on the likelihood of heavy traffic
using the shoulder, such as built-up areas or adjacent to climbing lanes.
Use of the same pavement structure for the shoulders as for the adjacent
carriageway eliminates problems in achieving sufficient bearing capacity
of the shoulders.
3.2.2 Surface treatments for shoulders

General
A durable and water proof type of bituminous surfacing shall be used on
paved shoulders. Priming alone is inadequate for treatment of shoulders
and shall not be used without being followed by a bituminous seal.
Type of surfacing
Type of seals with a closed texture shall be the preferred type of
surfacing for the shoulder in order to prevent disintegration following loss
of aggregate by drying out of the surfacing. Economical types of
surfacing that provide a favourable texture and good durability are:
3.2
Ministry of Works
Chapter 3
n single surface dressing with a sand cover seal

n single Otta Seal with a sand cover seal
Where a considerable amount of traffic is expected to use the shoulders,
e.g. in towns and built up areas consideration shall be given to applying
the same type of surfacing on the shoulders as on the adjacent
carriageway.
Colour and texture of the surface
Surface treatments for shoulders should wherever economically possible
be designed to give the shoulders a different texture or colour than the
adjacent carriageway.
3.2.3 Preventing cracks to develop in the shoulders

Longitudinal cracks
Longitudinal cracks in shoulders are normally associated with:
n shrinkage in earthworks or pavement layers, often in conjunction with
road widening, due to differential changes in moisture contents over
the cross section after construction
n settlement in earthworks, particularly in conjunction with road
widening
n expansive soils in the roadbed
Cross Section,
Comments:
Single surface dressing is not a

preferred option as it tends to dry out
quickly. /Chapter 10 - Bituminous
Surfacings/.
Traffic safety benefits can be achieved

by selecting aggregates of a different
colour for surface treatments of the
shoulders than the carriageway,
alternatively aggregate with a different
size, or a different type of surfacing
altogether.
Additional maintenance effort on manual

sealing of cracks before the first
scheduled reseal is often sufficient to
arrest cracks reoccurring once they
have emerged. However, expansive
soils that produce very active cracks
normally require repeated crack repairs
if design and construction countermeasures have been insufficient to fully
prevent damage.
Favourable cross section details that minimise the movement of moisture

over the cross section, thus the risk of cracks developing in the shoulders,
are described in /Appendix A4/. Good earthworks techniques for road
widening, in accordance with Standard Specifications for Highway
Construction minimise the risk of cracks caused by settlement in
conjunction with road widening. Design and construction measures to
minimise the risk of cracks developing in the shoulders due to expansive
soils are set out in
/Chapter 6 Problem Soils/.
Transversal cracks
Transversal crack that develop in shoulders are commonly associated with
thermal movements in bituminous layers, but can also be caused by
shrinkage in cemented pavement layers or self-cementing properties of
natural gravel. There are no particular measures to be taken against this
form of cracking than to ensure that normal periodic maintenance by
resealing is duly carried out.
3.2.4
Unpaved shoulders
Shoulder materials shall meet the requirements for gravel wearing course
in the event that the shoulders will not receive a bituminous seal for any
reason. This cross section requires particular attention to the internal
drainage of the pavement layers as suitable gravel for the shoulders is
likely to be nearly impermeable thus preventing drainage from the base
course /Chapter 11 Gravel Roads/.
Ministry of Works
3.3
Chapter 3
Cross Section,
Where the base course in the carriageway is made of permeable materials, e.g. crushed stone, the following alternative measures are required:
Comments:
75 mm
Water
Base
course
Pervious material
Subbase
Alt.1: Place a 75 mm thick drainage layer of pervious material

immediately below the layer of shoulder gravel, see illustration.
Alt.2: Install a special drainage facility.
3.3 Drainage
The costs and construction problems
involved in ensuring proper internal
drainage of the pavement under these
circumstances may justify the technically
preferred method of extending the base
course through the shoulder and
applying a bituminous seal.
3.3.1
Drainage of the road surface
3.3.2
Drainage of the pavement layers
Drainage of the road surface is ensured by providing sufficient crossfall of

the carriageway and shoulder in accordance with the standard cross
sections.
Proper drainage of granular pavement layers is essential for their
performance and is ensured by appropriate attention to cross section
details.
Water
Granular
base course
Subbase
Granular base course

Where a granular base course and paved shoulders are used, the base
course and subbase layers shall be extended to the full width of the
shoulders.
Cemented or bituminous base course
Where economically possible the base course should be extended to the
full width of the shoulders.
Boxed-in pavements
Boxed-in pavement structures, where water may be trapped in the pavement, shall not be used. Appropriate measures to ensure proper drainage
of the pavement layers shall be included in the design where internal
drainage of the layers may be impaired for any reason. The following
circumstances carry particular risks of attaining a boxed-in structure:
n where shoulders are designed with different materials than the
carriageway using unfavourable combinations of materials
n where kerbstones are extended into granular layers of the pavement
n where un-paved shoulders made of near impermeable materials are used
3.3.3
Drainage of the subgrade
General
Provision of sufficiently deep open side drains or alternatively, special
drainage facilities such as subsurface drains will ensure proper drainage
of the subgrade. Special consideration to design and construction details
is required where the occurrence of rock may trap water in the subgrade
or pavement structure.
Sufficient depth of open side drains is
essential for the proper drainage of the
subgrade.
3.4
Ministry of Works
Chapter 3
Open side drains - general

Open side drains shall at no point be less than 0.5 metres deep, measured
from the bottom of the drain up to the formation level.
Cross Section,
Comments:
General requirement
min 0,5 m
Pavement
Open side drains in cuttings

The general requirement for the depth of open side drains in cuttings is
minimum 1.0 metres measured from the bottom of the drain up to the
Formation level. This depth can be reduced to 0.5 metres provided
cement or lime modification of the subgrade is employed. In such cases
the minimum depth of cement or lime modification is 200 mm. The given
requirements refer to cuttings in soils. For cuttings in solid rock the
required drainage measures depend on site conditions and shall be
decided in each individual case.
The method for drainage of cuttings shall be specifically described in the
detailed design of projects. The need for subsurface drains as an alternative to open side drains in cuttings shall be assessed.
Subsurface drains
The need for subsurface drains depends on site conditions and requires
careful consideration due to the high construction cost of these facilities.
Urban areas, occurrence of subsoil wells and cuttings are among typical
conditions where use of subsurface drains shall be considered.
Formation
level
Cuttings - general requirement

min 1,0 m
Pavement
Formation
level
Cuttings - lime modified subgrade

min 0,5 m
Pavement
Formation
level
Proper drainage in cuttings is often critical

for the performance of the pavement.
The traffic safety hazards of deep open
side drains may in urban areas prompt
the use of subsurface drains in
combination with a subsurface storm
water system.
Lined drains are often used where the

amount and speed of water is high.
Ministry of Works
3.5
Chapter 3
Cross Section,
Comments:
3.6
References
3-1

3-2
COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH 15

(1994): Subsurface drainage for roads. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of
South Africa.
3-3

3-4

3-5

COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of Practice for the Design
of Road Pavements.CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
3-6

ODA, London, UK.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 4
Traffic
Project appraisal
Ch
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement Materials
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment

Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 4
Traffic
4.0 General
Comments:
This chapter describes the procedure for establishing the design traffic
loading, selection of traffic load class and presentation of traffic data.
Other elements of loading arising from
axle combinations, suspension system,
tyre types, load distribution over the
pavement surface and the type of load,
i.e. static, dynamic and breaking, would
be difficult to investigate and impossible
to apply in practice for the purpose of
structural pavement design.
tonnes load
contact pressure
kPa
load per area
loads
t1 t2 t3 t4.......tn
The structural deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic mainly

depends on:
n magnitude of the loads (axle loads)
n contact pressure from the loads (mainly from tyre pressure)
n number of load repetitions
4.0.1
Magnitude of the loads
4.0.2
Contact pressure
4.0.3
Load repetitions
The damage that vehicles do to a road depends greatly on the magnitude

of the axle loads as reflected in the system used for determination of design
loading, where the damaging effect of an axle loading follows an exponential
function. The traffic stream may however, contain heavier loads than the
range where these calculation models are valid. Special concessions have
therefore been made for roads where a large proportion of the design load
consists of very heavy axles.
Contact pressures set up by vehicles in the traffic stream are difficult to
estimate practically and thus cannot be expressed with any confidence as
a quantity that is useful in structural pavement design. The main factors
affecting levels of contact pressure from the traffic are however known.
These are primarily related to type of tyres used, tyre pressure and indirectly influenced by the axle loading. Potential damage to the pavement
by high contact pressures is offset by the provision of material types with
sufficient strength in the base course and surfacing layers. The pavement
design procedure indirectly compensates for high contact pressures by
setting limits for the material types allowed in the base course and surfacing layers for the respective traffic load classes.
Depending on site conditions - a sufficiently large number of load repetitions
above a certain magnitude causes fatigue of bound layers and deformations in granular pavement layers.
The damaging effect of all axles expected to traverse the road is converted
into Equivalent Standard Axles (E80) and added up over a chosen design
period to become the basis for the structural pavement design. This figure
is termed the design traffic loading and is expressed in millions E80. The
design traffic loading is the cumulative traffic expected to use the heaviest
loaded lane during the design period.
4.1 Design Period

The design period is defined as the number of years until a terminal value
of accepted serviceability is expected to be reached. The design period
starts when the completed pavement is opened to public traffic over the
entire length of a construction project or a pre-determined part of a
project. Any public traffic or construction traffic using the completed
pavement before the start of the design period shall be estimated
4.2
Ministry of Works
Chapter 4
Traffic
separately and included in the design traffic loading for the purpose of
pavement design Chapter 4.2 - Design Traffic Loading.
Strengthening of the pavement is normally required for the road to carry
further traffic at an acceptable level of serviceability after the end of the
design period. Normal maintenance is assumed to take place throughout the
design period for the design to be valid. Premature failures may result if
normal maintenance is neglected during the design period. The specified
length of the design period shall be 20 years for new or rehabilitated bitumen
surfaced pavements. However, the Ministry of Works may, at its discretion,
change the design period depending on circumstances of individual projects.
Figure 4.1 illustrates the definition of the design period in relation to
terminal serviceability and required maintenance during the design period.
Comments:
Design period must not be confused with

pavement life or surfacing life since the
pavement may have a considerable
residual life at the end of the design period.
The pavement life may be extended by
periodic strengthening of the pavement
structure /Chapter 9 Pavement
Rehabilitation/.
(no
Reseal
Pavement
rehablitation
Reseal
Pavement serviceability
eal
res
Terminal value
of serviceability
Design Period
Completed
pavement on
the entire
project
Project construction, the

pavement being
completed in parts.
Figure 4.1 Design period
4.2 Design Traffic Loading

The flow chart in Figure 4.2 shows the procedure to determine the design
traffic loading.
Traffic count
for each
direction
Chapter 4.2.1
Vehicle
equivalency
factor
Chapter 4.2.3
Axle load survey

for each
direction
Chapter 4.2.2
Vehicle
equivalency
factor
Chapter 4.2.3
/Appendix A8.1/
Proportion of
E80 made up
from axles
heavier than 13t
Chapter 4.2.4
Classify
as'heavy' or not
Chapter 4.2.4
Worked Example
Apply
traffic growth
Chapter 4.2.5
and lane
distribution
Chapter 4.2.6
Proportion of
E80 made up
from axles
heavier than13t
Chapter 4.2.4
Socio -economic
studies
Include
construction
traffic
Chapter 4.2.7
Design traffic
loading
Classify into
Traffic Load Class
Chapter 4.3
Figure 4.2 Procedure to determine the design traffic loading
Ministry of Works
4.3
Chapter 4
Traffic
Comments:
Light traffic affects the performance of
surface treatments and gravel wearing
courses, but has an insignificant effect in
the context of structural pavement design.
4.2.1
Traffic counts
Only heavy vehicles should be counted for the purpose of structural

pavement design. Heavy vehicles are defined as those having a registered
un-laden weight of 3 tonnes or more. Large buses having a seating capacity
of 40 or more are included as heavy vehicles.
Traffic counts shall be carried out in a manner that results in a grouping of
vehicle types into the categories given in Table 4.1. Inclusion of other
vehicle categories, or a further sub-division of the categories may be
desirable for other purposes. However, manipulation of data shall not
obscure the prescribed division into the four heavy vehicle categories.
Table 4.1 Heavy vehicle categories
H eav y v ehicle category
D efinition
Medi um Goods Vehi cle

MGV
- 2 axles, i ncl. steeri ng axle, and

- 3 tonnes empty wei ght, or more
Heavy Goods Vehi cle

HGV
- 3 axles, i ncl. steeri ng axle, and

Very Heavy Goods Vehi cle

VHGV
- 4 or more axles , i ncl. steeri ng axle, and

Buses
Seati ng capaci ty of 40, or more
4.2.2
Axle load surveys
All design of bitumen surfaced road pavements shall be based on projectdedicated axle load surveys. The surveys shall be carried out separately
from weigh-bridge measurements undertaken for the purpose of enforcing
axle load limits.
The measurements shall include minimum one survey of 7 days duration over 24 hours - covering each lane. The method for conducting axle load
surveys shall follow current procedures of the Ministry of Works.
It is not necessary to distinguish between
single wheels, and between dual wheels
and steering axles and fixed axles for the
purpose of determining design load. The
varying effect on pavement structures
from such differences in wheel
configuration are likely to be offset by other
inherent inaccuracies in all pavement
design methods.
The required minimum information from the axle load survey shall
include the following:
n axle loads of all heavy vehicles whether they are empty or loaded
n vehicle category
n loading in each lane (direction) of the road
Each axle in a multi-axle combination (e.g. bogie, triple, etc.) shall be
measured separately.
The survey point shall be equipped with sufficient capacity to weigh all
heavy vehicles that are passing in one direction at a time, both empty and
loaded.
4.4
Ministry of Works
Chapter 4
Traffic
4.2.3
Equivalency factors
The damaging effect of an axle passing over the pavement is expressed by

the equivalency factor related to an equivalent standard axle (E80) of
8160 kg load:
Comments:
Equivalency factor = [Axle Load (kg) / 8160] 4.5

The Vehicle Equivalency Factor (VEF) for every vehicle in the axle load
survey is determined and an average value is subsequently calculated for
each heavy vehicle category, for each lane separately. The average VEF
for each heavy vehicle category, for each lane, can then be applied to the
results from traffic counts to give the cumulative E80s traffic loading the
pavement is subjected to over a given period.
4.2.4
Axles loaded to above 13 tonnes
The proportion of the design traffic loading as a result of axles loaded to

above 13 tonnes shall be calculated from axle load survey data. If this
proportion is 50% or higher then the design traffic loading is defined as
Heavy, denoted by an index to the Traffic Load Class as input to the
pavement design catalogue. One should not confuse the proportion of the
design traffic loading as a result of axles loaded to above 13 tonnes with
the counted proportion of these axles in the traffic stream, the latter being
incorrect. A moderate number of very heavy axles will make up a considerable proportion of the design traffic loading.
/Chapters 5, 8, 9 and 10/ set out measures

in the design of pavement and improved
subgrade layers to offset the effect of a
large proportion of very heavy axle loads.
The percentage of the design traffic load (E80) attributed to axles loaded
to above 13 tonnes shall be calculated based on detailed data from project
dedicated axle load surveys. The axle load data from the lane with the
highest value of E80 shall be used.
The heavy axles proportion of E80 is calculated as follows:
Heavy Axles
Proportion =
of E80 [%]
4.2.5
Number of E80 from axles of 13 t and heavier in the survey

Total number of E80 from all heavy vehicles in the survey
x 100
Research is not yet conclusive on issues

related to the effect of very heavy axle
loads on a variety of pavement types.
Traffic growth
General
The following estimations of future growth are required:
n growth in the number of heavy vehicles
n growth in the number of E80 per vehicle (Vehicle Equivalency Factor)
Types of traffic
The forecasting of traffic growth shall include separate estimates for the 4
vehicle categories. It is necessary to assess future traffic in respect of the
following types:
n normal traffic:
that would use the route regardless of the condition of the road
n diverted traffic:
that moves from an alternative route due to the improvement of the
road, but at otherwise unchanged origin and destination
n generated traffic:
additional traffic occurring due to the improvement of the road
Ministry of Works
There is a considerable uncertainty and

risk of making large errors in estimations
of traffic growth since a number of
individually uncertain factors are brought
together in the analysis. Where little
information is available, historical data,
origin-destination surveys and records
from Ministry of Works and Statistical
Bureau are among the sources of
information for assessment of traffic
growth. The designer may have to resort
to the use of growth figures for GDP in
the estimation of movement of goods.
4.5
Chapter 4
Traffic
Comments:
Total growth rate

For each heavy vehicle category the total E80 growth rate is calculated
from the formula:
E80 growth rate = [(1+h/100) x (1+v/100) - 1] x 100
where:
h=
v=
4.2.6
growth rate in traffic volume for the heavy vehicle category

growth rate in vehicle equivalency factor (E80 per vehicle) for the heavy
vehicle category
Lane distribution
The design traffic loading shall be corrected for the distribution of heavy
vehicles between the lanes in accordance with Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Traffic load distribution between lanes
C ross
section
Si ngle
carri ageway
P av ed
width
C orrected design Explanatory notes

traffic loading E80
< 3.5 m
D ouble the sum of

E80 in both
directions
The d riving p atte rn o n this

cro ss se ctio n is ve ry
channe lle d
Mi n. 3.5 m,
but less
than 4.5 m
The sum of E80 i n

both di recti ons
Traffic in b o th d ire ctio ns use

the same lane
Mi n. 4.5 m,
but less
than 6 m
80% of the sum of

E80 i n both
di recti ons
To allo w fo r o ve rlap in the

ce ntre se ctio n o f the ro ad
Total E80 i n the

6 m or wider heavi est loaded
di recti on
More than
one lane i n
e a ch
di recti on
4.2.7
Loading from construction traffic can
have a significant effect on pavements
designed for low traffic.
90% of the total

E80 i n the studi ed
di recti on
Minimal traffic o ve rlap in the

ce ntre se ctio n o f the ro ad
The majo rity o f he avy ve hicle s

use o ne lane in e ach d ire ctio n
Construction traffic
The calculation of design traffic loading shall include construction traffic

and public traffic that is expected to use the completed pavement before
the start of the design period.
4.3 Traffic Load Classes (TLC)

After finally determining the design traffic loading, E80, and the heavy
axles proportion of E80, the values are placed into their correct class in
accordance with Table 4.3.
4.6
Ministry of Works
Chapter 4
Traffic
Table 4.3 Traffic Load Classes - TLC
Comments:
Design traffic loading [ E80 x 106 ]
Traffic Load C lass (TLC )
< 0.2
TLC 02
0.2 to 0.5
TLC 05
0.5 to 1
TLC 1
1 to 3
TLC 3
3 to 10
TLC 10
10 to 20
TLC 20
20 to 50
TLC 50
Where the heavy (>13 t) axles proportion of E80 is 50% or higher the
Traffic Load Class shall be given an index, i.e.:
TLC 05-H
TLC 1-H
TLC 3-H
TLC 10-H
TLC 20-H
TLC 50-H
Insufficient sample of data for these low

traffic roads < 0,2 million E80, makes it
difficult to achieve a realistic traffic loading
design. Hence, a traffic load class
TLC 0,2 -H is not established.
4.4 Presentation of Data

The following information for each direction of the road shall be
presented in the detailed design report for paved roads:
n cumulative E80 over the design period
n the proportion of the design traffic loading that is a result of axles
above 13t (in %)
n assumed construction traffic before the start of the design period
n the Traffic Load Class for use in the pavement design
The above is the minimum information required. Additional information
may be necessary.
The following details shall be presented, for each of the four heavy
vehicle categories classified:
n weighing data for all axles on heavy vehicles as obtained in the axle
load survey
n summary of traffic counts
n Vehicle Equivalency Factors used
n growth rate in average E80 per vehicle
n total growth rate in E80 for each heavy vehicle category
The background data used in estimates of growth rates and construction
traffic shall be presented.
Ministry of Works
4.7
Chapter 4
Traffic
Comments:
4.8
References
4-1
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (1987).

Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4.08. Philadelphia, USA.
4-2

4-3

(1997): Bituminous pavement rehabilitation design. CSRA, Pretoria,
Republic of South Africa.
4-4

Guidelines for roads construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa.
4-5

4-6
HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD (1962). The AASHO Road Test.

Report 5, Pavement Research. Highway Research Board Special
Report No. 61E. National Research Council, Washington DC, USA.
4-7
PINARD M I and KGOBOKO K (1990). Issues associated with the

choice of vehicle load limits in Southern Africa. Proc. TRL - Regional
Roads Course, Gaborone, Botswana.
4-8

4-9

COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of Practice for the
Design of Road Pavement. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
4 - 10

ODA, London, UK.
4 - 11

ODA, London, UK.
4 - 12

Ministry of Works
Chapter 5
Subgrade
Project appraisal
Ch
Traffic
Subgrade
Subgrade
Problem Soils
Pavement Materials
Ch
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment

Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacing
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 5
Subgrade
Comments:
5.0 General
This chapter describes the methods for subgrade evaluation for structural
pavement design of new roads, conventional sampling and laboratory testing.
Subgrade strength is classified on the basis of CBR values. Strength
indicators other than CBR may be used provided they are adequately
correlated to CBR values and are approved by the Ministry of Works at
project level.
/Chapter 9 Pavement Rehabilitation/
Alternative field investigation methods to determine subgrade strength may

be employed for the purpose of pavement rehabilitation or overlay design.
5.1 Design Depth

Properties of soils below the design depth
may indirectly affect pavement performance, but are generally unrelated to
traffic loading.
The design depth is defined as the depth from the finished road level to
the depth that the load bearing strength of the soil no longer has an effect
on the pavements performance in relation to traffic loading. Figure 5.1
shows the design depth in relation to the main structural components of
pavement and earthworks and Table 5.1 gives the design depth values in
relation to design road type.
Table 5.1 Design depth
D esign depth [m]

R oad ty pe
General requi rements
Heavy load classes

TLC 05-H to TLC 50-H
Paved trunk roads
0.8
1.2
Other roads
0.6
1.0
Design depth
Original ground level

Finished road level
Pavement layers
Other roads
Paved trunk roads
Figure 5.1 Design depth
5.2 Centreline Soil Surveys

A desk study shall always be carried out to gather available information
about previous investigations, topography, climate, geology, soils, known
material sources, road type, design standard and expected traffic load
conditions (i.e. whether large number of very heavy axle loads are likely).
Issues related to slope stability and foundation of structures shall be
addressed separately.
5.2.0
General
Subgrade soils and their properties, including strength, shall be classified

based on soil surveys by the use of trial pits excavated along the road line.
5.2
Ministry of Works
Chapter 5
Subgrade
5.2.1
Depth of investigations
Comments:
General
Soil surveys shall be planned and conducted in a manner that classifies all
materials according to their suitability in load bearing layers within the zone
of the design depth. A preliminary vertical alignment shall be assumed at
the time of the soil survey in order to ensure that soil samples for subgrade
classifications are actually taken at levels that fall within the design depth
of the road.
Initial contingency sampling at depths

outside the assumed design depth can
minimise re-sampling later in the design
process in the case of major changes to
the final vertical alignment.
Investigations shall be extended to below design depth as required to

detect problems that need special consideration. These include:
n presence of problem soils
n unfavourable subgrade conditions
n features associated with slope and embankment stability
Investigations in cuttings
Excavation of sample pits may be impractical in cuts deeper than 3 metres,
where special equipment may have to be employed. If possible, postponement
of sampling until the time of construction should be considered under
such conditions.
The time consumption and cost of the

investigations in deep cuttings should be
carefully assessed against the urgency of
obtaining soil characteristics for the
particular section.
Embankment areas
Evaluation of subgrade strength in embankment areas shall be based on the
best possible information about likely sources of earthworks fill materials
for use within the design depth.
5.2.2
Materials testing frequency
Test pits shall be excavated for the purpose of sampling the subgrade
along the road line, and materials testing carried out at a minimum average
frequency as shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Minimum materials testing frequency
R oad ty pe
Indicator
testing
C B R strength Minimum number of

testing
C B R tests for any
homogenous section
Min. for
statistical
analy sis
Paved trunk
roads
Mi n 4 per km
Mi n 2 per km
Other paved
roads
Mi n 2 per km
Mi n 1 per km
Gravel roads Mi n 2 per km
Absolute
minimum
(ref. Chapter
5.2.3)
Mi n 1 per 2 km
Indicator testing referred to in Table 5.2 includes Atterberg limits and

grading of particles larger than 75mm. Additional investigations, such as
hydrometer analysis, field measurements or specialised tests shall be
scheduled separately as required. The test methods referred to in Table 5.2
refer to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.7, 1.9 and 1.11.
Ministry of Works
5.3
Chapter 5
Subgrade
Comments:
The testing frequencies in Table 5.2 are minimum averages and shall be
increased as required according to site conditions.
Occurence of more than one significant

soil horizon requires increased material
testing accordingly.
The test pit locations may be distributed un-evenly along the road line to
capture changes in soil conditions and as required for optimum use of
resources allocated for investigations.
5.2.3 Determination of CBRdesign

General
The CBRdesign is the CBR value of a homogenous section, for which the
subgrade strength is classified into S15, S7 or S3 for the purpose of
pavement design. The procedure to determine CBRdesign is shown in the
flow chart in Figure 5.2.
Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 2/
Site
reconnaissance
Compilation
of input data
Design improved
subgrade as
required
CBRdesign :
Classify
S3, S7, S15
Demarcation of
homogenous
sections
Min 3 CBR
tests per uniform
section
Yes
Use lowest
CBR value
Cut ?
Yes
No
Special
assessment
of the
section
Determine 90%-ile value

at the 0.1 X (n-1) point
on the curve
No
Min 5 CBR
tests per uniform
section
Plot values
in ascending
order
Yes
Figure 5.2 Procedure to determine CBRdesign

There is potential for confusion on site if
the demarcation of homogenous sections
is excessively detailed and leads to
frequent changes of construction methods.
Identification of homogenous sections
should therfore take into account
constructibility and potential cost
implications.
Homogenous sections
Identification of sections deemed to have homogenous subgrade conditions
is carried out by desk studies of appropriate documents such as geological
maps, followed by site reconnaissance that includes excavation of inspection
pits and initial indicator testing for confirmation of the site observations.
Due regard for localised areas that require individual treatment is an
essential part of the site reconnaissance. Demarcation of homogenous
sections shall be reviewed and changed as required when the CBR test
results of the centreline soil survey are available.
Statistical analysis
The flow chart in Figure 5.2 shows the procedure to determine CBRdesign.
The CBRdesign for a section is the 90%-ile value of the CBR test results for
a section with homogenous strength. The method illustrated in Figure 5.3
shall be used for determination of CBRdesign of each homogenous section.
Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 3/
5.4
CBRdesign in cuttings
The lowest CBR value encountered shall be used as the CBRdesign for
sections through cuttings.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 5
Subgrade
16
CBR values plotted

in ascending order
14
The 90%-ile value for a section is the

CBR value which 10% of the test results
fall below. The use of normal distribution
and standard deviation is an unsuitable
method for determining CBRdesign.
12
10
CBR(%)
Example
CBR data
6
8
9
9
9
90% -ile
11
7.6
12
CBRdesign
12
14
8%
Comments:
n = 9 tests
d = 0.1 x (n-1)
= 0.8
6
4
2
A statistical method, cumulative sums

(CUSUM), can be used to establish
homogenous sections. /Appendix A8.3/
d=0.8
0
1
5
Test
Figure 5.3 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value
CBR
Lower subgrade
150 - 300
93
93
BS-Heavy
Fi ll
More than 300
90
90
BS-Heavy
In-si tu
More than 300
100
BS-Li ght
(i mproved layer or i n-si tu)
BS-Li ght compacti on effort i s used on poor i n-si tu soi ls and deep i n-si tu soi ls rather than
BS-Heavy due to i ts better correspondence wi th the actual effect from compacti on
equi pment under condi ti ons wi th poor support for compacti on.
CBR can alternatively be determined at a higher density to upgrade sections

to a higher subgrade class if this can be realistically achieved in the field.
Specimen moistures to apply in determination of CBRdesign are given in
Table 5.4.
% of MDD
BS-Heavy compaction is used for all

imported materials.
The savings in earthworks as a result of
upgrading of sections to a higher subgrade
class can be substantial under the
following conditions:
- in cuttings
- on sections where improved
subgrade layers are constructed
solely for the purpose of providing
foundation strength for the
pavement
- on projects where earthworks
materials are particularly scarce
The specified nominal field density and
the respective acceptance criteria shall
be adjusted accordingly in the contract
documents for construction.
5.4 Subgrade Classes

The subgrade shall be classified according to its CBR strength as shown
in Table 5.4.
Ministry of Works
104
95
95
BS-Heavy
102
0 - 150
(i mproved layer or i n-si tu)
100
Upper subgrade
1
96
D ensity for determination of C B R

[% of MD D ]
98
D epth below
formation lev el
[mm]
94
L ay er
10
88
Table 5.3 Density for determination of CBR
100
92
The CBR value is determined at the nominal field density specified for
the respective earthworks operations, as set out in Table 5.3.
90
CBR measurements in the laboratory shall be carried out at minimum three

density values to give a CBR Density relationship for the material.
4 days soaked (%)
5.3 Laboratory Testing
5.5
Chapter 5
Subgrade
Table 5.4 Subgrade strength classes
Comments:
Subgrade
class
CBRdesign [%]
Wet or moderate
climatic zones
4 days soaked value
S15
S7
S3
Min 15
7 - 14
3-6
Dry climatic zones

(both requirements shall be met)
Tested at OMC
Min 15
7 - 14
3-6
4 days soaked value

Min 7
3 - 14
2-6
Density for
determination
of CBRdesign
[% of MDD]
95 BS-Heavy
93 BS-Heavy
100 BS-Light
Problem soils: Special treatment is required. /Chapter 6/

Soaked and OMC refer to standard 4 days soaking and the optimum moisture content determined in
accordance with tests CML1.9 and CML 1.11. Climatic zones are shown in /Figure 2.1/.
BS-Light compaction effort is used on poor in-situ soils and deep in-situ soils rather than BS-Heavy due to its
better correspondence with the actual effect from compaction equipment under conditions with poor support
for compaction. The referred laboratory test methods are CML 1.9 and 1.11.
Comments:
The design catalogue requires that all
subgrade is brought to a design strength
with a minimum CBR of 15% by constructing one or more improved subgrade
layers before the pavement is placed.
5.5 Improved Subgrade Layers

5.5.0
General
All subgrade shall be brought to a strength of CBR minimum 15% by

constructing one or more improved subgrade layers where necessary. The
use of improved subgrade layers has a number of advantages, such as:
n provision of a deeper pavement structure, having advantages under given
conditions such as occurrence of heavy axle loads in the traffic stream
n protection of earthworks below
n provision of a running surface for the traffic during construction
n improved compaction of pavement layers above
n provision of homogenous subgrade strength
n the improved subgrade acts as a filter layer between pavement layers
and poorer soils below
n provision of a gravel wearing surface in the case of stage construction
for future upgrading to a bitumen surfaced road
n economical use of local materials
5.5.1
Design of improved subgrade
Figure 5.4 shows the design of improved subgrade layers depending on the
subgrade CBRdesign determined in soil surveys and assessments of field data.
5.6
Ministry of Works
Chapter 5
Subgrade
Subgrade classes
S7
*)
Lower layer *) Upper layer *)
Improved subgrade
layer to be constructed
S15
S3
General
Heavy traffic
requirement classes (-H)
General requirements
Moderate
or dry
Wet
climate
300mm
150mm
none
G15
G15
150mm
150mm
G15
G15
Heavy traffic classes (-H)

Moderate
or dry
300mm
300mm
G15
G15
300mm
150mm
none
none
G7
Comments:
300mm
150mm
G7
none
Wet
climate
Heavy traffic classes:

/Chapter 4 Traffic/
Climatic zones:
/Chapter 2 Environment/
G7
G7
Material requirements for improved subgrade layers, including limits for maximum compacted layer
thickness are given in Table 5.5.
Figure 5.4 Design of improved subgrade layers
5.5.2
Material characteristics
Soils
Soils used in improved subgrade layers shall be non-expansive, nondispersive and free from any deleterious matter. Laboratory test results
shall meet the requirements in Table 5.5.
Dump rock
Dump rock is un-graded waste rock where the content of fines is sufficiently low so that the larger particles rest against each other when placed
in earthworks layers. Dump rock (DR) can be used as improved subgrade
when constructed in sufficiently thick layers, if necessary constructed
together with fills in one operation, so that the maximum particle size
does not exceed 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness.
Construction of improved subgrade made of dump rock shall be finished
off by filling in the voids in the surface with subgrade soils meeting the
requirements in Table 5.5. The filter criteria are given in Chapter 5.8.
Table 5.5 Material requirements for improved subgrade layers
CBR [%], wet or moderate

climatic zones 1)
CBR [%], dry climatic zones 1)
(both requirements shall be met)
CBR-swell [%] 2)
PI [%]
Max particle size, dMAX
Compacted layer thickness [mm]
Material standards for dump rock are

presented in Table 5.5.
subgrade layers
(150 +150 mm)
Formation level
Compacted layer
thickness (max 1m)
dMAX
Roadbed or previous fill layer
Max 2/3 of compacted

layer thickness
Dump rock - cross section
Modification with lime or cement is the

preferred method where soils meeting the
required standards are unavailable at
economical haulage distances.
/Chapter 7 Pavement Materials/
Min 15 after 4 days soaking
Min 15 at OMC
Max 1.5
Max 25
2/3 of layer thickness
Max 250
Min 7 at OMC
Max 2.0
Max 30
2/3 of layer thickness
Max 250
1.9 and
1.7
1.2 and 1.3
1,7
1) Climatic zones are shown in /Figure 2.1/. CBR values shall be assesed at density as given in Table 5.3.
Soaked and OMC refer to standard 4 days soaking and the optimum moisture content determined in
accordance with tests CML test methods 1.9 and 1.11
2) CBR-Swell is measured at 100% BS-Heavy compaction effort.
Ministry of Works
5.7
Chapter 5
Subgrade
5.6 Fill
Comments:
Soils used in fill shall be non-expansive, non-dispersive and free from any
deleterious matter. Laboratory test results shall meet the requirements in
Table 5.6.
Table 5.6 Required standards for fill
Better soil qualities than G3 should be used
wherever possible. Dump rock is normally
a preferred type of fill material wherever
available.
Material
properties
G3
G3
Mi n C BR [%]
Mi n 3
C BR-swell *)
Max 2.0%
Max parti cle si ze,

dM A X
2/3 of layer
thi ckness
2/3 of layer
thi ckness
C ompacted layer
thi ckness
Max 250 mm
Max 1 m
(Soils )
4 days soaked value
at 90% BS-Heavy
C ML test
method
DR
DR
(D umprock)
1.11
1.17
-
*) C BR-Swell i s measured at 100% BS-Heavy compacti on effort.
5.7 Roadbed Preparation

Future formation level
Depth
150mm
After clearing of all topsoil the roadbed shall be scarified to a depth of

150mm, mixed and compacted. The compaction requirements depend on
the level of the roadbed in relation to the formation level. The compaction
requirements are given in Table 5.7. The density requirements in Table
5.7 are minimum values and shall be increased if higher densities have
been assumed in the design of improved subgrade.
Table 5.7
Scarify & compact
1)
2)
Cohesive soils are unlikely to infiltrate a

coarser material where water is not
present, thus making use of filter layers
or geo-textiles unnecessary. Such special
circumstances should be assessed
carefully, taking into account potential risks
of prolonged access of water into the
structure, e.g. by flooding, and also the
consequences of damage due to
infiltration of fine soils into the coarser
material.
5.8
Required roadbed compaction
D epth below formation

lev el [mm]
R equired field density

[ % of MD D ] 1)
0 - 150
97
97 BS-Heavy
150 - 300
95
95 BS-Heavy
300 - 600
93
93 BS-Heavy
> 600
100 BS-Li ght
2)
Reference to C ML test 1.9.

BS-Li ght compacti on effort i s used on poor i n-si tu soi ls and deep i n-si tu soi ls rather
than BS-Heavy due to i ts better correspondence wi th the actual effect from
compacti on equi pment under condi ti ons wi th poor support for compacti on
5.8 Filter Layers

5.8.0
General
Large difference between the grading of materials in adjacent layers carries

risk of undesirable infiltration of fines into the matrix of the coarser material, e.g. between earthworks and pavement layers. In such cases the
grading of the materials shall be assessed against the filter criteria given
below and construction of a filter layer shall be carried out if required.
Alternatively, geo-textiles can be used where cost calculations show this
option to be more economical.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 5
5.8.1
Filter criteria for soils/gravel
The criteria for grading of materials in adjacent layers are fulfilled when
the following two requirements are met:
d15 for the filter material
d85 for the subsoil
and

d50 for the subsoil
5.8.2
Subgrade
Comments:
<5
< 25
Draining properties of filter layers
The criteria below should be met if a filter material with better drainage
properties than the subsoil is desired, such as in locations where water
flows out of the subsoil. The designer should carefully consider whether a
filter layer with draining properties benefits the integrity of the structure.
d15 for the subsoil
Situations may arise whereby the filter

layer causes ingress of moisture instead
of draining the water out of the subsoil.
This may damage the road structure,and
should therefor be avoided.
>5
and minimum 50% should be retained on the 2 mm sieve.
5.8.3
Geo-textiles as filter
5.8.4
Cost
The requirements for geo-textile materials depend on site conditions and are
given in /Chapter7.7.1/. Geo-textiles shall not be used as filter unless cost
analysis has shown that alternative use of soils/gravel is uneconomical.
Increased bearing strength of earthworks or pavement shall not be attributed
to the presence of geo-textiles in the structure.
Cost calculations shall take into account the benefits of filter layers of
soils/gravel in respect of the structures bearing strength, by considering
the filter layer as part of the improved subgrade or subbase depending on
the material quality of the layer and its position in the structure.
Ministry of Works
5.9
Chapter 5
Subgrade
Comments:
References
5-1

5-2

5-3

5-4
COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 5 (1981):

Sampling methods for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria,
5-5

Selection and design of hot-mix asphalt surfacings for highways.
5-6

Guidelines for roads construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa.
5-7

5-8

5-9

5 - 10

5 - 11

5 - 12

5 - 13

Design of Road Pavement. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
5 - 14

ODA, London, UK.
5 - 15

structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and
subtropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL,
Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK.
5.10
5 - 16

5 - 17

Ministry of Works
Project appraisal
Ch
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement Materials
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment

Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Comments:
6.0 General
Problem Soils categorises subgrade materials with low strength, or other
unfavourable properties such as for:
n
n
n
n
expansive soils
dispersive soils
organic soils
saline soil or presence of saline water
These soils require special treatment before acceptance in the pavement

foundation. After appropriate treatment, they are re-classified to fall into one
of the subgrade categories S15, S7 or S3 for the purpose of pavement design.
6.1 Low-Strength Soils (CBR <3%)

CBR referred to is determined at 100%
MDD of BS-Light compaction. The BSLight compaction effort is used on poor
in-situ soils rather than BS-Heavy due to
its better correspondence with the actual
effect from compaction equipment under
conditions with poor support for compaction /Chapter 5 Subgrade/.
Climatic zones: /Figure 2.1/
Soils with CBRsoaked less than 3% (< 2% in dry climatic zones) occurring
within the design depth are described as Low Strength Soils. Before
acceptance as foundation of the pavement within the design depth these
soils require special treatment that may include one or more of the
following measures:
n removal and replacement of soils
n chemical stabilisation or
n modification with e.g. lime
n mechanical stabilisation
n raising of the vertical alignment to increase soil cover and thereby
redefine the design depth within the structure
Further details on the respective methods for treatment of these soils need
to be established in the design at project level and will vary depending on
soil properties, site conditions, available equipment, available materials,
experience from other sites with similar conditions and construction
economy.
The subgrade is re-classified according to the new subgrade strength
after treatment.
6.2 Expansive Soils

6.2.0
General
Expansive soils are those that exhibit particularly large volumetric changes
(swell and shrinkage) following variations in their in-service moisture
contents. Expansive soils shall be assessed also when they occur below
design depth. The chosen measures to minimise or eliminate the effect of
expansive soils shall be economically realistic and proportionate to the
risks of potential pavement damage and increased maintenance costs.
Large volumetric changes (swell and
shrinkage) are common features for
expansive soils.
6.2
This chapter describes procedures to identify and to classify expansive

soils according to their expansiveness and includes required construction
methods to minimise pavement damages where roads are crossing expansive
soils. The flow chart in Figure 6.1 shows the procedure to classify
expansive soils For further details: /Appendix A6/.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Comments:
Routine investigations
No
Expansive
Perhaps
Extended investigations
Normal
design
No
Expansive?
Yes
Severe consequences
to the construction
economy?
Yes
No
Design and construction
measures for expansive soils
In-depth study
Figure 6.1 Procedure to classify expansive soils
Differential movements over the cross

section of the road causes development
of longitudinal cracks, first occuring in
the shoulder area.
6.2.2
Seasonal
movement
Particular problems associated with road construction over expansive soils

are commonly the seasonal volumetric changes in these soils rather than
low bearing strength, since expansive soils are often relatively strong at
equilibrium moisture content. Typical distress is from seasonal wetting and
drying whereby soils at the edge of the road wet up - and dry out - at a
different rate than those under a bituminous surfacing. This mechanism
causes differential movements over the cross section of the road and
associated crack developments, first occurring in the shoulder area,
subsequently developing in the carriageway.
Seasonal
movement
6.2.1 Type of distress
Cross section
Expansive soils
Outer zones having large seasonal
variations in moisture content
Identification of expansive soils
General
Investigations shall be undertaken as described in this chapter and at
further detail in /Appendix A.6/ following test programmes employed at
an appropriate extent of details as described below. The stages of the
investigation programme are:
n Routine investigations are those carried out during surveys of all
projects.
n Extended investigations include simple additional indicator testing
in the laboratory where expansive soils are suspected.
n In-depth studies include specialised laboratory testing and is employed
where the extended investigations have shown occurrence of expansive
soils, and the required countermeasures have far reaching budgetary
consequences.
Routine Investigations
Routine Investigations include analysis of routine data from ordinary
centreline soil surveys and site observations carried out during normal
design work on projects. Routine investigations include:
n simple geological and geomorphological assessments
n field reconnaissance
n routine indicator testing of Atterberg limits and grading
[CML tests 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.7]
n analysis of routine test data
Ministry of Works
Simple geological and geomorphological

assessments are carried out during desk
studies of projects for supplementary information about the likelihood of encountering
expansive soils.
6.3
Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Comments:
The information in Table 6.1 is routinely collected as part of proper field

reconnaissance, with typical features of expansive soils given in keyword
form:
Table 6.1 Features of expansive soils soil descriptions
The purpose of analysing routine test

results is to establish whether it is
necessary to apply Extended Investigations or not.
Soil
description
Ty pical features of
expansiv e soils
Soi l type
The more clayey the soi l, the

more li kely to be expansi ve
C onsi stency
when sli ghtly moi st to dry
Sti ff to very sti ff
C onsi stency when wet
Soft to fi rm and sti cky
Structure
Typi cal cracked surface, sli ckedsi ded fi ssures
C olour
Only a reli able i ndi cator when

combi ned wi th local knowledge
Local knowledge from road projects i n the area i s i nvaluable
It is advisable to keep archive samples

from the centreline soils survey for
Extended Investigations on projects where
expansive soils are likely to be encountered.
A soil is potentially expansive and requires Extended Investigations if

exhibiting both of the following properties:
n the result of the field reconnaissance indicates expansive soils, and
n PIW is greater than 20%
PIW = Plasticity Index tested on fraction <425 mm according to CML tests 1.2 and
1.3 and weighted for the samples actual content of particles <425 mm , as follows:
PIW = PI x (% passing 425mm ) / 100
Extended Investigations
Extended Investigations are carried out where routine investigations
indicate potentially expansive soils. They include simple additional
laboratory tests to estimate expansiveness and shall be employed routinely
whenever special measures against damage from expansive soils are
proposed in the design. Extended Investigations shall include:
n testing of Shrinkage Limit [ASTM D4943-89]
n calculation of expansiveness from given formulas
n classification into Low/Medium/High expansiveness
In-depth Studies
In-depth Studies are carried out where the Extended Investigations have
shown occurrence of expansive soils, and the required countermeasures
have far reaching budgetary consequences. In-depth Studies include
specialised laboratory testing to quantify swell potential and are required
when extensive areas of expansive soils are encountered thus warranting
a relatively costly testing programme.
6.2.3
Classification of expansive soils
Expansiveness of the soil is a convenient expression to classify predicted

heave as a result of swelling in expansive soils, although heave depends
6.4
Ministry of Works
Chapter 6
Problem Soils
on a number of other factors such as the conditions under which the soil
performs in the road including initial moisture content, density and suction,
plus lateral support, vertical stress and stress history. The expansiveness
of the soil is however a practically measurable parameter that makes it
possible to classify the expected severity of the problem. Inclusion of
other parameters becomes too complex for practical assessment of
expansive soils in road design and construction. The system for relative
classification expansive soils is given in Table 6.2 based on their
expansiveness. /Appendix A6/ gives the procedure to determine e ex..
Comments:
Table 6.2 Expansive soils classification

Expansiv eness
6.2.4
e exex
C lassification
< 20
Low
20 50
Medi um
> 50
Hi gh
Design on expansive soils
General
Extended Investigations shall be carried out before specifying special design
or construction measures to minimise damage caused by expansive soils.
In-depth studies shall only be carried out on specific agreement with
Ministry of Works.
For calculations of expansiveness for

classification into Low/Medium/High:
/Appendix A6/
The prescribed methods for design on expansive soils are given in Table 6.3.
Design principles
Cost considerations may prohibit full replacement of expansive soils particularly if they occur over large areas - although this is the technically
ideal solution. The following principal methods are prescribed in the design
in order to minimise seasonal movements in expansive soils and thereby
reduce the risk of associated damage to the pavement. The methods are
compromises specified for the purpose of providing the most favourable
conditions possible under the circumstances:
n provide nearest possible constant moisture contents over the full width
of the carriageway below the embankment
n replace the upper layer of the expansive soil, i.e. the zone where the
largest proportion of the volumetric changes takes place
n provide a minimum cover
Side drains and slope protection
Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive soils. If side drains
cannot be avoided due to site conditions then they shall be kept at a minimum
distance of 6 metres from the toe of the embankment, however a distance
of 4 metres is allowed for roads other than trunk roads. Side fill made of
Ministry of Works
Widening of shoulders is always

beneficial in construction on expansive
soils and should be applied whenever
economically possible. The zone of
severe seasonal changes in moisture
content is thereby moved further away
from the roadway.
Chemical stabilisation, normally by the use
of lime, to counteract volumetric changes
in expansive soils is technically possible,
but requires careful appraisal of the
associated construction costs as well as
the potential practical problems in
admixing stabilisers into deep layers of
clayey soils. The method is generally not
recommended.
min. 6 m (4 m)
embankment
side drain
6.5
Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Comments:
expansive soils requires erosion protection by grassing, but no trees shall

be planted on the embankment slope.
Table 6.3
Expansive soils methods for treatment
Expansiveness
of the soils
Alternativ e methods for construction ov er

expansiv e soils
Pav ed trunk roads
Other pav ed roads
sealed shoulders
Low
e ex < 2 0
si de slopes 1: 6 or flatter *)
Figure 6.2
- sealed shoulders
- si de slopes 1: 6 or flatter *)
Medium
e ex 2 0 - 5 0
mi n. earthworks cover 1 m min. earthworks cover 0.6 m

Figure 6.3
- excavate and replace 0.6 m of clay according to Fig. 6.3.
- min. earthworks cover 1 m
- sealed shoulders
- si de slopes 1: 6 or flatter *)
H igh
e ex > 5 0
mi n. shoulder wi dth 2 m
Alternati ve:
N one
*)
Requirements for fill materials: /Chapter

5 Subgrade/
6.6
Figure 6.2
- sealed shoulders
- mi n. shoulder wi dth 2 m
- min. earthworks cover 1 m
- side slopes 1: 6 or flatter*)
Where the earthworks cover is larger than 2 metres the side slopes can be made
1:4 or flatter.
6.2.5
Processing and compaction of expansive
soils does not improve their swell
properties, neither is their strength
significantly increased. Attempts to adjust
their moisture content or to achieve an
optimum by mixing, is time consuming,
operationally impractical and unnecessary.
Nominal rolling of the roadbed is optional
to provide a working surface for construction of subsequent layers.
Alternati ve:
Construction on expansive soils
Moisture
The roadbed of expansive soil shall be kept moist and be covered with
earthworks fill without undue delays.
Compaction
Attempts to densify expansive soils by processing and compaction are not
required.
Fill for replacement of expansive soils
Fill materials used for replacement of expansive soils shall be soils
meeting the general requirements for fill, and be as impermeable as
possible. Plastic soils (PI min. 15%) shall be used wherever available at
economical haulage distances.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Comments:
Freely draining material

Pavement layers
Fill and improved subgrade
1:6 or flatter
Side-fill
1:2
Expansive soil
Figure 6.2 Cross section and construction on expansive soils

Embankments 2 m or higher
Pavement layers
>2m
1:4 or flatter
Temporary stockpile of
excavated expansive soil
to be used for side-fill
1:2
Side-fill
Max. the width of the surfacing
Expansive soil excavated 0.6 m

deep and replaced with fill
Embankments less than 2 m in hight

Pavement layers
<2m
1:6 or flatter
1:2
Temporary stockpile of
excavated expansive soil
to be used for side-fill
Side-fill
Expansive soil excavated 0.6 m deep and replaced with fill
Figure 6.3 Cross section and construction on expansive soils with soil
replacement
Comments:
6.3 Other Problem Soils

6.3.0
General
This chapter discusses a variety of soil types or soil properties that could
be problematic depending on site conditions and the intended function of
the soils. Such soils include:
n
n
n
n
dispersive soils
saline soils or presence of saline water
organic matter in high quantities
deleterious minerals such as micas and sulphides
The subgrade shall be re-classified according to the new subgrade

strength after appropriate treatment of the problem soils.
6.3.1
Dispersive soils
General
Dispersive soils are clays that behave as single grained, very fine particles,
rather than as a cohesive mass like a clay is expected to perform. As single
grained with very fine particles, these soils have almost no resistance to
erosion, are susceptible to pipe developments in earthworks, crack easily
and have low shear strength. Their excessively erodible nature is the
major problem associated with dispersive soils for road construction
Ministry of Works
The behaviour of dispersive soils is due

to the electro-chemical composition of
these clays that results in particle
repulsion rather than attraction.
6.7
Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Comments:
Known laboratory tests to confirm
dispersive properties require specialised
procedures and have generally poor
repeatability. Indicator test, comprehensive laboratory test methods and
observation features to identify dispersive
soils are described in /Appendix A6.2/.
Identification
A combination of simple indicator tests, observations of erosion patterns in
the field, soil colour, terrain features and vegetation, will together give
sufficient indications that dispersive soils are present, and shall prompt
precautions in design and construction of road projects. Dispersive soils
cannot be identified by gradation and Atterberg limit tests only.
The general properties of dispersive soils are usually poor and likely to
exclude them from use in the earthworks due to non-compliance with the
general material standards. The following is required if dispersive soils are
encountered:
n particular attention to erosion protection of cut slopes and in drainage
channels is required
n dispersive soils in unmodified form shall not be used for fill
n modification with 2% to 3% lime is required if their use in the
earthworks is unavoidable for whatever reason
The typical damage from soluble salts is

by blistering of the surface, often seen
already after application of the prime.
Fretting of the surface edge can be seen
after a length of time in service and
excessive pothole developments can
occur bearing no apparent relation to other
pavement defects.
cross section
See detail
A thin bituminous seal
gets pushed up by the
crystallisation forces
and blistering occurs,
having a diametre of
5 to 10 cm initially,
subsequently developing
into a pothole.
Crystallisation of
soluble salts under
the bituminous seal.
Soluble salts migrate towards the

surface within granular layers
Close-up of salt blisters.

The test of electric conductivity indicates
the content of all salts in the sample - both
harmful and not harmful - and will therefore
in general give results on the conservative
side. Exhaustive testing to assess the
presence of damaging soluble salts is
complex and will only be required under
special circumstances.
6.8
6.3.2
Saline soils or presence of saline water
Potential damage
Presence of soluble salts in pavement or earthworks can cause damage to
a bituminous surfacing due to pressures set up just under the bituminous
seal by crystallisation of salts migrating upwards as a result of evaporation.
The problem is related to the use of thin bituminous surfacings, primarily
in surface treated pavements. Soluble salt contents in excess of 0.2% in
the base course are potentially harmful in these type of pavements.
Soluble salt contents in excess of 0.5% in the subbase, or high salinity of
groundwater or earthworks layers, may cause migration of soluble salts to
the base course leading to critically high percentages in this layer.
Locations
Areas where damage due to soluble salts can occur in the dry climatic
zone and in areas along the coast with influence of sea water.
Identification
Soluble salts in soils and in construction water is identified indirectly by
laboratory tests of electric conductivity. Construction water shall be
admixed to the sample at 1.5 times the required amount to obtain OMC
before the sample is taken for testing of electric conductivity.
Construction
The following construction measures shall be specified where soluble salts
are present in the pavement materials and alternative sources are not
economically obtainable:
n allowing the layer to dry and remove crystallised salts from the surface
before construction of following layers
n priming and construction of the bituminous surfacing immediately
after processing of the base course
n the use of bitumen emulsion prime instead of cutback bitumen
Ministry of Works
Chapter 6
6.3.3
Other deleterious matter
Organic matter
Organic soils, e.g. in swamp areas, require special investigations to assess
ground stability and potential for excessive settlements. High contents of
organic matter is undesirable in pavement materials, particularly when
used in cement or lime stabilised layers. Excessive amounts of organic
matter causes increased demands for stabiliser to achieve the required
unconfined compression strength.
Deleterious minerals
High contents of muscovite mica or sulphides are not allowed in pavement layers.
The potential risks of damage due to presence of other deleterious minerals, such as nepheline or others, and chemical contaminants in mine
tailings or industrial waste products, shall be assessed as required at
project level depending on the intended use of the materials.
Ministry of Works
Problem Soils
Comments:
Recommended limits of organic matter
for cemented materials: /Chapter 7 Pavement Materials/
Limits for contents of mica and sulphide

minerals in pavement materials: /Chapter
7 - Pavement Materials/
6.9
Chapter 6
Problem Soils
Comments:
6.10
References
6 -1

6 -2

Guidelines for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of
South Africa.
6 -3
GOURLEY, C S and H D SCHREINER. TRANSPORT RESEARCH

LABORATORY (1993). Assessment of the expansiveness of soils.
Transport Research Laboratory, Project Report PR/OSC/012/93.
Crowthorne, UK.
6 -4

LABORATORY (1994). Geotechnical properties of expansive soils.
Transport Research Laboratory, Project Report PR/OSC/015/94.
Crowthorne, UK.
6-5

LABORATORY (1993). The extent and engineering significance of
expansive soils. Transport Research Laboratory, Project Report PR/
OSC/021/93. Crowthorne, UK.
6-6

LABORATORY (1993). A new approach to the determination of the
expansiveness of soils. Transport Research Laboratory, Project Report
PR/OSC/011/93. Crowthorne, UK.
6 -7
HATHOUT, A S (1983). Soil atlas of Tanzania. Geography department,

University of Dar es Salaam.
6-8
McCOOK, D K (1980). The identification and treatment of dispersive

clay soils. Oral presentation to AEG 1980 Annual meeting, Dallas, Texas,
USA.
6-9

6 - 10

Standard Flexible Pavement Design For Rural Roads with
Light to Medium Traffic. Republic of Zimbabwe.
6 - 11
OCONNELL M J and C S GOURLEY (1993). Expansive clay road

embankments in arid areas: moisture-suction conditions. Proc. First
International Symposium on Engineering Characteristics of Arid Soils,
City University. London, UK.
6 - 12
OBIKA, B and R J FREER-HEWISH (1990). Soluble salt damage to thin

Bituminous surfacings of roads and runways. Australian Road
Research, 20(4).
6 - 13

6 - 14

6 - 15
WESTON D J (1980). Expansive soil treatment for southern Africa.

Proc. 4th International Conference on Expansive Soils, Denver, USA.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
Pavement
Materials
Project appraisal
Ch
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement
Materials
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment

Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments:
7.0 General
This chapter defines the physical properties for materials to be used in the
pavement structure and forms an essential part of the method for design
of new roads as given by the design catalogue, and rehabilitation design
for existing roads. Requirements for materials in bituminous surfacings
and gravel roads are given in /Chapter 10/ and /Chapter 11/ respectively.
Within the limitations given in this chapter, materials used in the structural
layers of the pavement shall be selected according to criteria of availability,
economic factors and previous experience.
Details on the method to assess data from

the quality control of material properties
are given in Standard Specifications for
Highway Construction.
All materials are indicated by means of codes, e.g. G80, C2, CM, etc.,
which refer to materials with certain defined properties prescribed in this
chapter. For the sake of consistency and ease of reference, the same codes
are used in the pavement design catalogue and elsewhere in the manual
where reference is being made to material types with specific properties.
References to the relevant standards

are given in Standard Specifications for
Highway Construction for manufactured
materials such as lime, cement and
bitumen.
As far as possible all material types commonly used in the country are
included, e.g. natural gravel/soils, processed or crushed materials, materials stabilised with cement or lime and bituminous materials.
.
7.1 Material Types

7.1.1
Crushed, fresh rock or boulders
7.1.2
Weathered rocks and laterites
Materials made by crushing and screening of hard rock sources of a variety

of rock types can be used in layer work and in bituminous materials
provided they meet the respective material standards. Two different
qualities are used for layer work, CRR or CRS, depending on the type of
source and the refinement of the quarry product. Crushed materials of
qualities falling below the material classes CRR and CRS shall be denoted
G80 or lower as appropriate.
General
Weathered rocks and laterites are common sources for pavement materials
in the category of natural gravel and as a source for production of chemically
stabilised materials. Laterites are highly weathered materials formed in a
secondary process where the hydrated oxides of iron or aluminium have
been accumulated in sufficient concentrations to affect the physical
character of the deposits where they occur /7 - 8/.
One test method alone is often insufficient
to describe the durability of the rock and
observations of past performance is invaluable supplementary information
where the deposit has been used
previously. It is important to consider
quality variations within one rock deposit
where performance data are used in the
assessment of durability.
7.2
Basic igneous rocks

Weathered rocks of basic igneous origin, such as basalt and dolerite, may
release additional plastic fines during construction and in service, and
thereby cause loss of strength over time. Such materials may require
specialised additional laboratory testing to verify their long term durability.
Tests of durability /7 - 3/ may include.
n chemical tests such as Sodium or Magnesium Sulphate Soundness
tests (SSS or MSS)
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
n investigations of mineralogy by counts of secondary minerals

n physical tests by aggregate crushing in wet vs. dry condition or
modified ball mill tests with studies of associated changes in grading
and Atterberg limits after testing
Pavement Materials
Comments:
Reference is made to the Central Materials Laboratory of Ministry of

Works for appropriate procedures to test durability.
7.1.3
Coral rock and calcrete
General
Coral rock is a major source for pavement materials along the coast, where
alternative sources of hard rock or good gravel are generally unavailable
within short distances. Calcretes are formed under favourable conditions
in dry and moderate climatic zones in a secondary process where calcium
carbonate have been accumulated in sufficient concentrations to partly or
fully alter or replace the host material thereby affecting the physical character
of the deposits where they occur. Both calcretes and coral rocks typically
have large variations in quality within a deposit and require careful
selection and stockpiling.
Laboratory tests
The Atterberg limits of coral rocks and calcretes will appear artificially high
as a result of the typical low specific gravity and the high water absorption
of the particles often seen in these materials. Standard grading tests may
give a distorted impression of the particle distribution in the material due
to varying specific gravity of particles having different size within one
sample. The design limits of coral rocks and calcretes are therefore modified
compared to the general requirements and grading envelopes are not given
for these types of materials.
Drying of material during testing of

Atterberg limits is carried out at 60oC for
calcrete and coral rock, in accordance with
guidelines of Central Materials Laboratory
of Ministry of Works.
7.1.4
Volcanic tuff (scoria)
Volcanic tuff often fail to meet pavement material standards due to low
particle strength and can give construction problems even when meeting
required material standards for layer work. This is due to poor
compactability caused by their open grain structure and a rough particle
shape. Admixture of suitable fines can greatly improve workability, reduce
the breaking of particles during construction and give acceptable results.
7.1.5
The use of special compaction equipment

such as grid rollers can be beneficial under
circumstances where breaking of particles
is desirable.
Self-cementing materials
Certain types of natural gravel such as some pedogenic materials - e.g.

calcrete and laterite - are known to exhibit self-cementing properties in
pavement layers, possibly caused by suction. Such materials would
require specialised testing and evaluation before any favourable selfcementing properties can be taken advantage of in the pavement design.
Ministry of Works
Petrifaction test of the soil fines and tests

of CBR after wet/dry cycles or others may
be used to identify self-cementing
properties in soils /7 - 3/ and /7 - 4/.
7.3
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
7.2 Unbound Materials
Comments:
7.2.1
Natural gravel
Classification
The natural gravel category includes granular materials - without any
admixture of stabilisers - having the following composition:
n 100% natural gravel, or
n natural gravel with such small proportions of crushed particles that
the material properties are almost identical to the uncrushed portion
Pavement materials falling into this category are shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Natural gravel, material classes
Material class
C haracteristics
- C BR mi n. 80%
G 80
- the class i ncludes crushed materi als where less than 50% by
mass of particles retained on the 5 mm sieve has a crushed face
G 60
C BR mi n. 60%
G 45
C BR mi n. 45%
G 25
C BR mi n 25%
Material requirments
Natural granular pavement materials shall comply with the requirements
in Tables 7.2 and 7.3.
Table 7.2
Material class
Material
properties
CBR [%]
Material requirements - G80 and G60
G80
CML test
method
G60
Wet or moderate climatic zones: min 80 after 4 days soak
Dry climatic zones (both requirements shall be met):
at 98% MDD of
min 80 at OMC of BS-Heavy
1.7 and
BS-Heavy
min 60 after 4 days soaking
1.11
CBR - swell [%]
max 0.5
measured at BS-Heavy compaction
max 1.0
Atterberg
limits 1)
max LL [%]
max PI [%]
max LS [%]
Grading, sieve
sizes [mm]
63
37.5
20
5
2
0.425
0.075
Particle
strength
Soluble salts
Field density
General
requirements
Wet or
moderate
30
8
4
Dry
climate
40
14
7
Grading envelope, G80

[% passing]
Coral rock, calcrete or

other calcified materials
General
requirements
Wet
climate
Wet
climate
35
10
5
Dry or
moderate
45
16
8
35
10
5

Dry or
moderate
45
16
8
Wet
climate
Dry or
moderate
40
12
6
45
18
9
1.2
1.3
1.4
(no envelope for G60, coral rock, calcrete or other calcified materials)
100
80 - 100
Grading requirements:
60 - 95
- dMAX shall be maximum 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness
30 - 65
- Grading Modulus (GM *) ): min 2.0
20 - 50
*)
10 - 30
GM = [ 300 - (% passing 2mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) - (% passing 0.075mm) ] / 100
5 - 15
TFVdry : min 80 kN
TFVdry : min 50 kN
TFVsoaked : min 60% of TFVdry
1.7
2.7
Where the gravel is used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/.
Nominal value: min 98% of MDD, BS-Heavy
1) It is emphasised that the Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and
utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.
7.4
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Table 7.3 Material requirements - G45 and G25
Material class
Material
properties
CBR [%]
at 95% MDD of
BS-Heavy
Comments:
G45
CML test
method
G25
CBR - swell [%]


max 0.5
max 1.0
General
requirements
Atterberg
limits 1)
Wet or
moderate
max LL [%]
max PI [%]
max LS [%]
*)
Grading
Modulus (GM)
Particle size
Soluble salts
Field density
40
14
7
Dry
climate

General
requirements
Wet
climate
Wet or
moderate
45
18
9
45
16
8
Dry or
moderate
50
20
10
1.11

Dry
climate
45
16
8
Wet
climate
50
20
10
min 1.5
*)
1.7 and
Dry or
moderate
45
18
9
55
24
12
1.2
1.3
1.4
min 1.2
1.7
dMAX shall be maximum 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness

Where the gravel is used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/.
Nominal value: min 95% of MDD, BS-Heavy
1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow BS procuders and utilise
BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with the given material requirements.
7.2.2
Crushed materials
Comments:
Classification
The category includes crushed granular materials - without any admixture
of stabilisers - where the full range of particle sizes from fines up to the
max. nominal size are included. The pavement design catalogue uses two
basic qualities of crushed base course materials, as described in Table 7.4.
The classes of pavement materials falling into this category are shown in
Table 7.4.
Table 7.4 Crushed materials, material classes
Material class
C haracteristics
C RR
- fresh, crushed rock or large, crushed boulders,

>0.3 m di ameter
- requi rements are restri cti ve
- compacti on requi rements are restri cti ve
C RS
- the class i ncludes crushed oversi ze from gravel

sources, crushed all-i n sources of boulders and
crushed coral rocks of selected quali ti es
- mi n. 50% by mass of parti cles retai ned on the
5 mm si eve shall have at least one crushed face
It should be noted that the requirements

for compaction of CRR materials are very
high and are normally not achieved unless
special techniques such as slushing with
water are applied during construction. This
type of material is therefore never
prescribed unless a subbase stabilised
with cement or lime is used in order to
provide a firm platform for construction of
the base course enabling slushing to be
safely carried out without softening of the
subbase.
Material requirements
Crushed granular materials for pavement layers shall comply with the
requirements in Table 7.5.
Ministry of Works
7.5
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Table 7.5 Material requirements - CRR and CRS
Comments:
Material class
Material
properties
Material source
max LL [%]
max LS [%]
CRR
Crushed rock. Shall be made by crushing and
screening of fresh quarried rock or clean, un-weathered
boulders of minimum 0.3 m diameter. All particles shall
be crushed, no soil fines allowed.
1)
Grading, sieve
sizes [mm]
50
37.5
28
20
10
5
2
1,18
0,425
0,075
Aggregate
strength
Soluble salt content
Field density
requirements
Crushed stone. Made by crushing and screening of

blasted rock, stones, boulders and oversize from natural
gravel. Min 50% by mass of particles larger than 5 mm
shall have at least one crushed face. Max 30% of
material passing 5 mm can be soil fines.
35
4
30
3
1)
[% passing]
Coarse Type
[% passing]
Coarse Type
100
90 - 100
100
75 - 95
87 - 97
60 - 90
62 - 77
40 - 75
44 - 62
29 - 60
27 - 45
20 - 45
22 - 38
17 - 40
13 - 27
12 - 31
5 - 12
5 - 15
TFVdry : min 110 kN
Fine Type
100
87 - 97
75 - 90
52 - 68
38 - 55
23 - 40
18 - 33
11 - 24
4 - 12
CML test
method
CRS
1.2
1.4
Fine Type
100
90 - 100
65 - 95
40 - 70
29 - 52
20 - 40
15 - 33
10 - 24
4 - 12
1.7
2.7
For aggregate used under a surface treatment, soluble salt content is assessed in accordance with /7-11/.
Nominal value: min 88%
Nominal value: min 100%
of Aggregate Density
of MDD BS-Heavy
Comments:
7.3 Cemented materials

7.3.1
Classification
Cemented materials described in this manual include all natural or

crushed materials where a stabiliser of cement or lime has been admixed.
The classes of cemented materials are shown in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6 Cemented materials, material classes
Material class C4 will normally be used as
subbase in concrete pavements and
material standards are not given here.
Material class
C haracteristics
C4
- UC S mi n. 4 MP a - used as subbase i n concrete

pavements
- made from source materi als of quali ty nomi nally as
C RS - wi th modi fi ed requi rements
C2
- UC S mi n. 2 MP a
G45 - wi th modi fi ed requi rements
C1
- UC S mi n. 1 MP a
CM
- UC S mi n. 0.5 MP a modi fi ed materi al

7.3.2
Cemented materials shall comply with the requirements in Table 7.7.
7.6
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Table 7.7 Material requirements - C2, C1 and CM.

Material class
Material
properties
C2
min UCS [MPa]

ICL - test
max PI after stabilisation [%]
Before stabilisation:
min CBRsoaked [%]
CM
2,0
1,0
0,5
Stabiliser content [ % design ] shall be minimum the initial consumption of lime (ICL) value
1)
30
20
20
min 1.5
25
min 1.2
35
-
at 95% MDD of BS-Heavy

1)
Grading modulus
C1
CML test
method
Subbase quality soils/gravel

Earthworks quality soils/gravel
Nominal quality of source material - with requirements as given here
Source material
max PI [%]
Comments:
*)
*)
Particle size, d MAX

d MAX to be max 2/3 of compacted layer thickness
TFVdry : min 50 kN
Aggregate strength
Nominal value: min 97% of MDD BS-Heavy
Field density
The content of organic matter should not exceed 0.5% - 1% - 2% for C2 - C1 - CM materials respectively.
1.21
1.22
1.2 and 1.3
1.11
1.2 and 1.3
1.7
2.7
7.3.3
Comments:
Type of stabiliser
The stabiliser shall be Ordinary Portland Cement or lime meeting the

requirements of BS-890. Hydrated lime or quicklime may be used, but a
programme describing the safety precaution for protection of personnel
shall be established on sites where quicklime is used.
High contents of organic matter will

increase the demand for stabiliser to
achieve the required Unconfined Compression Strength (UCS) for the material.
Table 7.8 gives the best suited type of stabiliser to use depending on the
soil properties.
Table 7.8 Selection of stabiliser for cemented materials
% passing the
75 mm siev e
Less than 25%
More than 25%
PI
PI
[% ]
Lime can be successfully used for

stabilisation of some calcified materials
even when the PI is low.
B est suited
stabiliser
TRL-Road Note 31 /7 - 7/ and South Africa

TRH 13 /7 - 9/ refers for guidelines on the
use of pozzolans and for further details
about the stabilisation process in general.
PI i s less than 6% or
PI x (%pass. 75 mm)
i s less than 60
cement only 1 )
6 - 10
cement preferred
more than 10
cement or li me
less than 10
cement preferred
10 - 20
cement or li me
more than 20
li me preferred
2)
1)
Li me requi res presence of clay parti cles to react and i s therefore used for materi als
wi th hi gh PI. Admi xture of pozzolans, such as pulveri sed fuel ash from coal fi red power
plants, can make stabi li sati on wi th li me possi ble also for materi als wi th low PI.
2)
C ement i s the preferred stabi li ser for materi als wi th low PI. However, cement can be
used for stabi li sati on of materi als wi th hi gh PI provi ded the workabi li ty of the materi al i s
i mproved by pre-treatment wi th 2% li me pri or to cement stabi li sati on.
7.3.4 Content of stabiliser
The design content of stabiliser, expressed as a percentage of the dry weight

of the soil, is determined according to CML tests 1.19, 1.20,1.21 and 1.22
and shall not be less than the minimum content found in the test of Initial
Consumption of Lime (ICL). Where mixing on the road is employed the
content used in the field shall exceed the design content from laboratory
tests by 1% - point.
Ministry of Works
The ICL is the amount of stabiliser

consumed in the initial ion exchange
reaction and is a required minimum
content when using cement or lime. Below
this amount of stabiliser one will not
achieve a permanent gain in strength.
Large amounts of stabiliser causes
excessive crack developments in the
cemented layer.
7.7
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
If a stabiliser content in excess of 4-5% is required then consideration

shall be given to selecting better qualities of materials to stabilise.
Comments:
7.3.5
It is recommended practice to mix in water
to at least OMC of BS-Heavy before
adding the stabiliser, thereby minimising
the required time for watering and mixing
after the stabiliser has come in contact with
the material.
Construction
Time limits
Table 7.9 gives the maximum allowed time from the stabiliser has come
in contact with the material until compaction and finishing of the layer is
completed.
Table 7.9 Cemented materials, time for completion of the layer
Stabiliser and material class
Allowed time for completion
C ement - C 4, C 2, C 1, C M
max 4 hours
Li me - C 4, C 2, C 1
max 8 hours
Li me - C M
max 48 hours
Hi gh contents of calci um carbonate i n calcretes may cause a more rapi d reacti on wi th li me

than expected. In such cases the maxi mum allowed ti me for completi on shall be altered as
requi red after tri als on si te.
Curing by continuous watering is likely to

cause leaching out of stabilisers in the
surface, there is a risk of detrimental
wetting/drying cycles to take place and the
method is overall unlikely to be effective
in practice.
Penetration of bituminous prime into fresh

cemented materials is not desirable as this
can cause impaired conditions for curing
of the upper part of the layer.
curing membrane
cemented base course
Loose - 50 mm granular layer to

be kept wet.
cemented subbase
7.8
Curing - general
The cemented layer shall be kept moist and sealed off as soon as possible
after completed compaction. Curing is essential for proper gain in strength
by preventing drying out of the layer. Curing is also important to prevent
future loss of strength in the cemented material by carbonisation caused
by exposure to air. Curing by continuous watering shall be restricted to the
period from completed construction until the curing methods described
below are in place according to the time limits given.
Curing method - cemented base course
A bituminous curing membrane shall be applied without undue delays
and within 24 hours after completion of the layer. Drying out of the layer
must not be allowed. The curing membrane shall be applied at a spray
rate that gives minimum 0.5 l/m2 of residual bitumen.
Bitumen emulsion is the preferred type of bituminous curing membrane.
However cutback bitumen, MC30 or MC70 prime, may be used if trials
show no adverse effect such as loosening of the surface of the layer.
Traffic shall be kept off the completed layer for minimum 7 days after
completed compaction. The curing membrane shall be protected from
damage by traffic. Sanding-off after the curing period shall be employed if
required due to site conditions.
Curing method - cemented subbase
Granular base course material shall be placed on the cemented subbase in
a loose thickness of minimum 50 mm - and watered - without undue delays
and within 48 hours after completion of the cemented layer. Drying out of
the layer must not be allowed. Alternatively a temporary granular layer of
minimum 50 mm loose thickness can similarly be spread and watered,
and removed immediately before placing the base course.
The cemented subbase shall receive a bituminous curing membrane in the
cases where a bituminous base course is used. The applied method shall
be as described for curing of cemented base courses.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
7.3.6
Other chemical stabilisers
Chemical stabilisers other than bitumen, cement or lime, may only be used
on agreement with the Ministry of Works at project level. Such alternative
stabilisers include ionic soil stabilisers and other chemical products sold
under various brand names.
The following issues shall be clarified for each project before use of
alternative chemical stabilisers are allowed in structural layers:
n certification of the chemicals effect on personnel and environment
n required properties of the stabilised material to suit the requirements
of the structural layer in question
n required properties of the source materials and their availability
n mix formula
n routines for laboratory testing and quality assurance
n assessments of material properties over time
n contractual obligations of suppliers
n the possibility for competitive bidding
Pavement Materials
Comments:
Alternative chemical constituents
including ionic soil stabilisers and various
products from the chemical industry have
been used in soil stabilisation in some
countries and there are reports on
successful use under given conditions.
These stabilisers should be reserved for
trials unless the long-term stabilising effect
of the particular product is properly
documented.
7.4 Bituminous Base Course

Materials
7.4.0
General
Scope
This chapter includes bitumen penetrated macadam and bituminous mixes
used in the base course - whether mixed in plant or mixed on the road.
The appropriate use of each individual material type, such as limitations
with regards to traffic, is set out in the pavement design catalogue
/Chapter 8.3.2/.
There is a considerable amount of

innovative work being done in the field of
bituminous materials and this manual
cannot fully include specialised material
types which may be proposed for projects.
Alternative bituminous base course materials that are not included here,
shall have their properties measured against the requirements for the
material types described in this chapter prior to approval for use.
Structural function of bituminous mixes for base course
Bituminous mixes for base course function as main structural layers and
the desired properties are therefore primarily high stiffness and resistance
against deformation. The ability of the bituminous mix to withstand
plastic deformation is emphasised due to the severe consequences with
costly repair of such type of distress. The method to minimise the risk of
fatigue cracking is primarily by providing the stiffest possible support and
thereby minimising strain in the base course layer.
It is considered risky to compromise

resistance against deformation of the
bituminous base course for high resistance against fatigue cracking under the
prevailing temperature conditions.
The largest possible aggregate size corresponding to the layer thickness is

desirable for economical reasons and to provide high shear strength in the layer.
Description and structural function of penetration macadam
Construction of penetration macadam involves spraying of relatively large
amounts of bitumen on a layer of coarse aggregate without fines, and
subsequently rolling in a layer of chipping as a key stone to provide
interlocking and stability of the layer. Alternatively a bituminous mix can
be used instead of key stone. The function of the penetration macadam is
fundamentally different from the bituminous mixes - being exceptionally
Ministry of Works
Penetration macadam base course has

been used successfully in this country on
a large scale giving excellent service life.
The high flexibility allows penetration
macadam to be used successfully in
pavements with marginal stiffness in
supporting layers, such as on lightly
7.9
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments:
(contd.)
trafficked roads. Penetration macadam
can be constructed by the use of labour
intensive methods and is well suited for
construction in areas with restricted
access by heavy plant and where it is
difficult to perform good layer-work
techniques which are often critical with
alternative material types.
flexible and able to absorb deficiencies in the strength of sub-layers, and

at the same time providing high shear strength. Penetration macadam is
particularly well suited on roads with low traffic speed such as urban
roads. On roads with high traffic speed a levelling layer of a bituminous
mix will provide the required riding quality.
7.4.1 Classification
Classes of bituminous base course materials are shown in Table 7.10.

Table 7.10 Bituminous base course - material classes
Material class
C haracteristics
Name
Process Mi xi ng method
D BM
D ense bi tumen
macadam
Hot
LAMBS
Large aggregate mi x
Hot
for bases
Chapter 7.4.2
PM
Penetrati on
macadam
On the road, sprayed,
FBMIX
Foamed bi tumen mi x C old
BEMIX
Bitumen emulsion mix C old
7.4.2
Mi xi ng plant,
C old
Chapter 7.4.3
Mi xi ng plant or on the
road, Chapter 7.4.4
Hot bituminous mixes
Dense Bitumen Macadam (DBM)

Dense bitumen macadam for base course layers shall comply with the
Table 7.11 Material requirements DBM
Material
properties
Max nominal size
Grading, sieve
sizes [mm]
50
37.5
28
20
14
10
5
2
1,18
0,425
0,300
0,075
7.10
Material class
DBM 40
DBM 30

40 mm

30 mm
% passing
% passing
100
95 - 100
70 - 95
56 - 76
53 - 70
39 - 56
24 - 40
19 - 35
9 - 25
7 - 21
2-9
100
90 - 100
70 - 95
58 - 82
52 - 73
40 - 56
24 - 40
19 - 35
9 - 25
7 - 21
2-9
Bitumen content
nominally 4.0%
nominally 4.5%
Type of bitumen
Aggregate
strength
Layer thickness
60/70 or 40/50 penetration grade

TFV soaked : min 75% of TFV dry
TFV dry : min 110 kN
80 - 200 mm
60 - 150 mm
CML
test
method
1.7
3.22
2.7
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Large Aggregate Mix for Base Course (LAMBS)

LAMBS is a hot mixed bituminous material for base course on heavily
trafficked roads and areas of extreme loading, such as climbing lanes.
Large Aggregate Mixes (LAMBS) obtain their strength and resistance to
deformation primarily from aggregate interlock and exhibit the following
typical features:
Comments:
The aim in the design of LAMBS is to
optimise the properties of available
materials and plant and grading envelopes
are therefore not specified.
n large upper nominal particle size (dMAX up to 50 mm) and flexibility in

grading requirements, giving good crushing economy
n high stability and shear strength, providing good resistance against
deformation caused by heavy loading
n low required bitumen contents for good economy
LAMBS shall comply with the requirements in Table 7.12. The design method for LAMBS shall be carried out in accordance with /7 - 5/. The design
method for LAMBS requires special equipment for preparation of test
specimens due to the large aggregate size. If such equipment is not available
the material type DBM 40 shall be the alternative for the base course.
Table 7.12 Material requirements - LAMBS
LAMBS
Material
properties
Large aggregate mix for base course
CML test
method
Aggregates shall be made by crushing of fresh rock

or clean, large boulders with a diametre >0.3 m.
Aggregate type
Shape of the grading

curve, n-value
Aggregate
strength
min 37.5
max 50
*)
min 0.4
max 0.7
TFVsoaked 24hrs : min 75% of TFV dry
TFVdry : min 110 kN
Water absorption [%]
max 3
3.13
Aggregate LS [%]
Filler content, pass. 0.075 mm [%]
max 2
5-8
Traffic TLC 20 and TLC 50: 40/50 pen. grade
Traffic TLC 1 to TLC 10:
60/70 pen. grade
3.5 to 4.5 to be determined in the mix design
Shall be carried out in accordance with Ref/7- 4/
1.4
1.7
Max particle size, dMAX [mm]
Bitumen grade
Bitumen content [%]
Mix design
The target grading curve is derived from the formula given below. The shape of the
grading curve shall be such that it falls within the outer limits defined by an n value from
0.4 to 0.7 as specified in Table 7.12. The formulae for the n value is the following:
*)
where:
(100 - F) ( dn 0.075n)
(Dn - 0.075n)
P
3.5
3.22
Values of n higher than 0.7 may result in

segregation and poor workability.
+F
= percentage passing sieve size d (mm)
= max particle size ( dMAX )
= filler content
= a parameter to describe the shape of the grading curve
Ministry of Works
2.7
min 1.5 x ( dMAX ), preferably 2 x ( dMAX )

80 - 200 mm compacted thickness
Layer thickness
P=
1.7
7.11
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
7.4.3
Comments:
Penetration macadam
Penetration macadam base course materials shall comply with the

Table 7.13 Material requirements penetration macadam
Material class
Material
properties
Max nominal size [mm]
PM 80
PM 60
PM 30
80
60
30
CML
test
method
125
100
50
The layer thickness of the penetration macadam should correspond with the
aggregate fraction in order to obtain stability of the layer.
Layer thickness [mm]

2
Bitumen spray rate [l/m ]
*)
Bitumen type
Aggregate strength
3- 4
TFV soaked
3-4
2-3
: min 75% of TFV dry
% passing
% passing
% passing
100
75
63
50
37,5
100
75 - 100
0 - 50
0 - 25
100
80 - 100
0 - 50
0 - 25
100
28
20
0-5
-
0-5
-
80 - 100
0 - 50
0 - 25
0-5
Grading, sieve
sizes [mm]
50
37,5
Key stone
% passing
35
2.3
2.4
*)
% passing
% passing
100
85 - 100
100
28
20
0 - 50
0 - 25
85 - 100
0 - 50
100
14
10
0-5
-
0 - 25
0-5
85 - 100
0 - 55
35
0 - 25
0 - 10
35
6.3
5
Flakiness Index
2.7
Main fraction
Grading, sieve
sizes [mm]
14
10
Flakiness Index
3.5
2.3
2.4
*) Requirements for alternative use of a bituminous mix instead of key stone are set out in the text.
Comments:
Penetration macadam made by use of a
bituminous mix instead of key stone gives
the following advantages:
- improved riding quality
- a better surface texture for subsequent
application of a surface treatment,
whereby full waterproofing of the
surface is more easily achieved
A bituminous mix can be used instead of key stone to provide stability in

the penetration macadam. The bituminous mix shall meet the
requirements in Chapter 7.4.2 or /Chapter 10.8/ in the case of hot mixed
material and Chapter 7.4.4 for cold mixed material. The upper nominal
aggregate size of the bituminous mix shall be adjusted as required to
provide sufficient interlocking with the macadam layer. The bitumen
spray rates for penetration, as given in Table 7.13, can be reduced in the
case a bituminous mix is used instead of key stone. Site trials shall be
undertaken to prove that the proposed reduction is possible without
causing instability of the layer.
7.4.4
Cold bituminous mixes
General
Cold bituminous mixes have the advantage that they can be mixed on the
road because they need no heating, thus making it possible to reuse and
improve existing layers in place by in-situ milling. In order to enable
mixing and coating of aggregate particles in cold bituminous mixes it is
necessary to use bitumen that is either:
7.12
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
n emulsified to reduce viscosity at the time of mixing, or

n foamed in order to greatly expand its volume and thereby
facilitate coating of the particles
This chapter sets out requirements for cold mixes where foamed bitumen
or bitumen emulsion is used. Cutback bitumen shall not be used in mixes
due to potential stability problems during curing and for environmental
reasons associated with the use of large amounts of solvents.
Foamed bitumen mix FBMIX
Foaming of bitumen is temporary expansion of the bitumen to 15-20 times
its original volume by controlled introduction of small amounts of water
in hot bitumen, carried out in a special processing plant. Foamed bitumen
shall meet the requirements in Table 7.14.
Comments:
Due to the alternative use of natural

gravel aggregates in cold mixes the
density of the mix may vary considerably
thus rendering conventional expression
of bitumen content as a percentage by
weight misleading, unless accompanied
by the density of the actual mix.
Table 7.14 Requirements for foamed bitumen
Properties of the foamed bitumen
R equirements
Rati o between volume of bi tumen i n a foamed state

and i n an un-foamed state
mi n 15
At least one of the followi ng requi rements shall be

fulfi lled:
1. Ti me unti l the volume of the foam has decreased
to half of i ts maxi mum volume
mi n 15
seconds
2. Rati o between volume of bi tumen i n a foamed

state and i n an un-foamed state after 15 seconds
mi n 7.5
The test of foamed bi tumen uti li ses a 10 li tre cyli ndri cal bucket.
Cold bituminous mixes for base course, made with foamed bitumen, shall
comply with the requirements in Table 7.15. Aggregate for foamed
bitumen mixes can be natural gravel or crushed materials. The required
moisture content in the mix is determined in the mix design and shall be
within the limits given in Table 7.15 at the time of laying.
Ministry of Works
Plastic aggregates may give operational

problems during mixing and laying even
if the requirement of PI max 14% is
fulfilled.
/Appendix A1- Definitions of Terms/
includes the definition of dry density of
mixes where both bitumen and water is
present.
7.13
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Table 7.15 Material requirements FBMIX
Comments:
Material class
Material
properties
Aggregate source
1)
PI [%]
CBRsoaked [%]
Aggregate
strength
FBMIX
Foamed bitumen mix
Natural gravel or crushed material, free from lumps of clay or other deleterious matter.
max 14 before admixture of bitumen
min 30 before admixture of bitumen, tested at 95 % MDD of BS-heavy
Traffic TLC 3 and TLC 10:
Traffic TLC 1 and lower:
Grading, sieve
sizes [mm]
CML test
method
1.2 and 1.3

1.11
2.7
TFV dry : min 80 kN
% passing
100
80 - 100
60 - 95
42 - 78
30 - 65
20 - 50
10 - 30
5 - 15
37,5
28
20
10
5
2
0,425
0,075
1.7
o
E-Modulus [MPa]
3.21
min 1600, measured by indirect tensile strength, tested at 29 C
o
Marshall stability [N]
min 6000 tested at 40 C
3.18
Marshall flow [mm]
2-4
Moisture content at
min:
mix design moisture less 1.5% points
1.1
the time of laying [%]
max:
mix design moisture plus 0.5% points
3.5
Type of bitumen
Adhesion agents
Approved adhesion agents shall be admixed at min 0.5% by weight of bitumen
3
3.22
Bitumen content
Consumption, residual bitumen: 80 to 100 litres per m of compacted material
Field density
min 96% of Marshall dry density
1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow
BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with
the given material requirements.
Comments:
When bitumen emulsion is used, as
opposed to foamed bitumen, the material
is more sensitive to aggregate properties
such as grading, plasticity index and fines
content and correct moisture content, and
is also more prone to damage by rain.
In many cases the adding of a cement
slurry with 1 - 2% cement may be
beneficial.
Bitumen emulsion mix - BEMIX

Cold mixed bitumen emulsion for stabilisation of base course layers with
minimum 3.5% residual bitumen content shall comply with the
requirements in Table 7.16. Materials with smaller amounts of binder
shall be classified as bitumen modified and the design of such materials
shall be carried out in accordance with /7 - 10/.
7.4.5
Construction
Penetration macadam
Penetration macadam base course normally requires no special preparation of the underlying surface. Compaction shall be carried out with
vibrating rollers and the number of passes shall be min 3 max 5. The
number of passes after application of keystone shall be min 2 max 4.
Hot mixes
Tack coat of bitumen emulsion shall be applied at a rate giving minimum
0.3 l/m2 residual binder on all joints and surfaces where hot mixed
bituminous base course is laid. The required minimum temperature for
compaction shall be in accordance with /Chapter 10.8.4/.
7.14
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Table 7.16 Material requirements - BEMIX
Material class
Material
properties
Aggregate source
1)
PI [%]
CBRsoaked [%]
Aggregate
strength
CML test
method
BEMIX
Bitumen emulsion mix
Natural gravel or crushed material, free from lumps of clay or other deleterious matter.
max 8 before admixture of bitumen
min 30 before admixture of bitumen, tested at 95 % MDD of BS-heavy
Traffic TLC 3:
Grading, sieve
sizes [mm]
Comments:
1.2 and 1.3

1.11
2.7
TFV dry : min 80 kN
% passing
37,5
100
28
80 - 100
20
60 - 95
10
35 - 70
1.7
5
25 - 50
2
18 - 35
0,425
10 - 25
0,075
5-8
o
E-Modulus [MPa]
3.21
min 1200, measured by indirect tensile strength, tested at 29 C
o
Marshall stability [N]
3.18
Marshall flow [mm]
2-4
Moisture content at
min:
mix design moisture less 1.5% points
1.1
the time of laying [%]
max:
mix design moisture plus 0.5% points
Type of base bitumen
3.5
3
Consumption, residual bitumen: 80 to 100 litres per m of compacted material
Bitumen content
3.22
Field density
min 96% of Marshall dry density
1) It is emphasised that Atterberg limits shall be measured according to CML test methods 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4. These methods follow
BS procuders and utilise BS equipment. Other laboratory test procedures are likely to give results that are not comparable with
the given material requirements.
Comments:
Cold mixes
Tack coat of bitumen emulsion shall be applied at a rate giving minimum
0.3 l/m2 residual binder on all joints and on surfaces towards other
bituminous layers and between adjacent layers placed in succession
where the same type of material is used. Priming or application of tack
coat shall be carried out as required if problems with slippage of the
bituminous base course occur.
Subbase made of cemented materials

will have a bituminous curing membrane
and may not require any further
application of tack coat. Subbase made
of natural gravel can normally receive a
bituminous cold mix without use of prime.
Compaction trials
Detailed compaction trials shall be carried out at the beginning of
laying operations and when a new mix formula or production
procedure is introduced. The compaction trial shall show compliance
with mix formulas and demonstrate the adequacy of the proposed
compaction procedures. The compaction trial shall also confirm that
equipment and procedures are adequate for paving at the proposed
layer thickness while achieving satisfactory riding quality and sufficient
density to the bottom of the layer.
Ministry of Works
7.15
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments:
7.5 Deleterious Minerals

Sulphide minerals
The maximum allowed /7 -21/ content of sulphide minerals such as pyrite,
marcasite, and chalcopyrite, in aggregates are given in Table 7.17.
Table 7.17 Sulphide minerals in aggregates
Intended use
Bi tumi nous materi als
max 2
Granular materi als for base

course or subbase
max 1
C ement or li me stabi li sed

materi als
The effect of mica is particularly adverse

when the mica plates are larger than 0.5
mm diameter. A content higher than 10%
by volume means that the mica is easily
detectable at a glance during visual
inspection.
Testing to identify rapidly weathering

minerals: /7-3/ and /7-9/.
Max content of sulphide minerals

[% ]
Zero allowed
Mica
Muscovite mica (light colour) causes difficulties in achieving compaction
of granular layers and the initial density may decrease in service and
promote ingress of water. Biotite mica (black colour) tends to break
rather than behave like flexing plates in the soil matrix and is therefore of
less concern. Contents of muscovite mica above 10% by volume are not
allowed in granular pavement layers. No specific limit is set for biotite mica.
Soluble salts
Testing of electric conductivity is the preferred, simple, method to
indirectly determine the content of soluble salts in soils and construction
water. Special methods for design and construction of pavements with
presence of soluble salts, including the setting of appropriate design limits,
are discussed in /7-11/.
Rapidly weathering minerals
Rapidly weathering minerals, e.g. nepheline, or rock types such as some
basic igneous rocks, require special testing to identify their potential for rapid
weathering and to verify sufficient durability for use in pavement layers.
7.6 Surveys for Construction

Materials
7.6.1
Borrow pits
Potential borrow pits shall be surveyed by trial pit excavations and sampling
at the stage of detailed design. The survey shall prove sufficient quantities
for all pavement and earthworks materials. The sampling frequency shall
be minimum that given in Table 7.18.
7.16
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Table 7.18 Borrow pits - minimum test frequency prior to opening
Comments:
Max m3 to be represented by one test

Intended use
C BR
Gradi ng
and PI
Aggregate
strength
Bi tumi nous base course
5 000
3 000
10 000
C emented base course
5 000
5 000
20 000
10 000
10 000
Base course - nat. gravel
5 000
3 000
20 000
Subbase - natural gravel
10 000
5 000
Improved subgrade
10 000
10 000
Fi ll
20 000
20 000
C emented subbase
No less than four tri al pi ts shall be excavated i n each borrow pi t.
7.6.2
Quarries
All new quarry sites of massive rock shall at the design stage be investigated by core drilling to establish sufficient quantities for the project. The
extent of investigations shall be determined depending on site conditions
and the type of project.
Existing quarries may be investigated by

proof drilling, core drilling, trial blasting or
as required depending on site conditions
such as the size of current operations
compared to required future operations for
the project.
7.7 Manufactured Materials

7.7.1
Geo-textiles used as separating layers
General
Geo-textiles are used for separation of materials of different grading where
there is a risk of undesirable infiltration of fines into the matrix of a
coarser material.
Manufacture
The basic type of geo-textile shall be non-woven, manufactured by needle
punching, thermal bonding, or both. The fibres shall be continuous or staple
fibres made of either polyester or polypropylene.
Table 7.19 shows the minimum weight per m2 for geo-textiles depending
on the site conditions.
Ministry of Works
Geo-textile used for prevention of

reflective cracking in pavement
rehabilitation works is discussed in
Chapter 9.4. Other possible uses of geotextiles, such as in drainage works, are
not included in this manual.
Both cost and quality of geo-textiles are

in general proportional to their weight per
m2, and the required quality depends on
the maximum particle shape, particle size
and compression strength of the material
to be placed against the geo-textiles.
7.17
Chapter 7
Pavement Materials
Comments:
Table 7.19 Geo-textile separating layers required weight per m2

Aggregate placed adjacent
to the geo-textile
Geo-textile, weight per area [g/m2]
Aggregate type
dMAX
[mm]
Placed on fi rm,
dry subsoi l 1)
Placed on soft,
wet subsoi l 2)
Gravel, sand or
graded crushed
materi al
max 50
mi n 140
mi n 200
Sorted crushed
rock
max 200
mi n 200
mi n 320
mi n 320
Speci al
rei nforcement shall
be consi dered
D ump rock
(D R)
1) D ry subsoi l refers to moi sture contents below OMC of BS-Li ght.

2) Soft, wet subsoi l i s normally si lty or clayey materi als i n water logged areas.
Geo-textiles made of polypropylene are

particularly sensitive to the effect of direct
sunlight.
Storage
Geo-textiles shall be kept away from direct sunlight during storage.
7.7.2
Geo-grids within the embankment itself
have doubtful effect and should only be
considered when used in specially
designed systems of earth reinforcement
for construction of steep slopes.
Geo-grids for reinforcement
General
Geo-grids are intended for use as reinforcement of earthworks and pavement layers. Geo-grids shall only be considered in special cases due to
their high cost. The technical and economical effectiveness of their use
shall be carefully assessed and documented before application in the works.
Earthworks
Geo-grids may be considered in special cases such as to prevent tensile
failure at the bottom of embankments when crossing soft areas.
Use of geo-grids to prevent reflective

cracking in pavement rehabilitation works
is discussed in /Chapter 9.4/.
Pavements
Geo-grids do not add strength to the pavement structure to an extent that
make them economically justified in new pavements. No reductions in
pavement layer thickness shall be made due to the use of geo-grids. Geogrids may be considered under special circumstances for use in an
interlayer system to prevent reflective cracking through overlays.
References
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
7.18

AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997). Cold
Mix Granular Materials Guide.
HOSKING, J R and TUBEY, L W (1969). Research on low-grade and
unsound aggregates. RRL Report LR 293. Transport research
laboratory, Crowthorne, London, UK.
NETTERBERG, F (1985). Pedocretes. From Engineering Geology of
Southers Africa. NITRR report 430 Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 7
7-5
7-6
7-7
7-8
7-9
7 - 10
7 - 11
7 - 12
7 - 13
7 - 14
7 - 15
7 - 16
7 - 17
7 - 18
7 - 19
7 - 20
7 - 21
NETTERBERG, F and M I PINARD (1991). Derivation of interim

performance-related specifications for coarsely-graded plastic calcrete
basecourse gravels. Proc. 10th Regional Conference for Africa on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Maseru, Leshoto.
SOUTHERN AFRICAN BITUMEN ASSOCIATION - SABITA (1993).
LAMBS The design and use of large aggregate mixes for bases.
ODA, London, UK.
(1986): Cementitious stabilisers in road construction. CSRA, Pretoria,
SOUTHERN AFRICAN BITUMEN ASSOCIATION - SABITA (1993).
Draft guidelines on the use of bitumen emulsion treated materials.
OBIKA, B and R J FREER-HEWISH (1990). Soluble salt damage to
thin Bituminous surfacings of roads and runways. Australian Road
Research, 20 (4.)
Guidelines for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa.
LIONJANGA, A V and T TOOLE and P A K GREENING (1987). The
use of calcrete in paved roads in Botswana. Ninth regional conference
for Africa, Lagos, Nigeria.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIAN STATE ROAD
AUTHORITIES (1986). Guide to stabilisation in roadworks.
NAASRA, Sydney, Australia.
OCONNELL M J and C S GOURLEY (1993). Expansive clay road
embankments in arid areas: moisture-suction conditions. Proc. First
International Symposium on Engineering Characteristics of Arid Soils,
City University. London, UK.
TOOLE, T and D NEWILL (1987). A Strategy for assessing marginal
quality materials for use in bituminous roads in the tropics. Proc.
seminar H, PTRC Transport and Planning Summer Annual Meeting,
University of Bath, London, UK.
Ministry of Works
Pavement Materials
Comments:
7.19
Project appraisal
Ch
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement Materials
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment
Pavement Design
- New Roads
Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 8
Pavement
Design - New
Roads
Chapter 8
8.1 Objectives
Comments:
Pavement design procedures for gravel
roads are set out in /Chapter 11 Gravel
Roads/.
The objective of structural pavement design is to provide a road surface

which can withstand the expected traffic loading over a specified time
without deteriorating below a predetermined level of service. This is
achieved by providing a pavement structure whereby stresses on the
subgrade - induced by traffic - are reduced to acceptable levels. Stresses
within pavement layers must in addition be kept within acceptable limits
depending on the properties of the materials being used.
8.2 Pavement Types

8.2.1
Flexible pavements
General
A commonly used pavement structure in the country is the flexible pavement type whereby a surface treatment or a bituminous mix is placed over
a base course made of granular materials. Other flexible pavement types
being used consist of base courses made of bituminous mixes or penetration macadam.
Granular base course and subbase
The typical mode of distress in fully granular pavements is deformation
arising from shear or densification within the granular pavement materials
themselves - commonly the base course. The pavement type is highly
sensitive to timely periodic maintenance by resealing.
granular
granular
riding quality
rut depth
cracking
time and traffic
granular
cemented
pre-cracked
phase
post-cracked phase
influence
of water
curvature
deflection
deformation
traffic
Cemented subbase and granular base course

The use of a cemented subbase improves the load bearing capacity of the
pavement by reducing surface deflections, hence strain in the bituminous
surfacing. The typical mode of distress is by fatigue cracking of the
cemented subbase until its structural behaviour eventually approaches
that of a granular layer. It is however unlikely that the cracking will reflect
to the surface and there is likely to be little rutting or longitudinal
deformation after the subbase layer has fully cracked. The post-cracked
phase of the cemented subbase can be expected to add considerable
useful life to the pavement because the subbase will then function as a
granular layer of good subbase quality. The use of a cemented subbase
under granular base courses has a number of additional technical benefits
that include:
n increased in-service strength of the granular base course is realised
n high compacted density of the granular base course can be achieved
by having a firm platform underneath and safe use of slush
techniques is enabled by the low sensitivity to moisture in the subbase
material
n the strength of the subbase is maintained should the drainage of the
pavement be impaired in service for any reason
The use of cemented subbase shall be the preferred method in areas with
scarcity of natural gravel for subbase, provided this is economically equal
to alternative use of crushed materials or importation of subbase from
outside the project area.
8.2
Ministry of Works
Chapter 8
Bituminous mixes for base course

The modes of distress in bituminous base courses can be deformation or
fatigue cracking depending on site conditions and material properties. The
subbase used in this pavement is either granular or lightly cemented. The
preferred method to minimise the risk of fatigue cracking is primarily by
providing the stiffest possible support for the base course and thereby
minimising strain in the layer. Strongly cemented subbase, i.e. stronger
than material class C2, however may lead to crack reflection from the
subbase through the bituminous base course and is not a desirable option.
It is considered risky to compromise resistance against deformation of the
bituminous base course for high resistance against fatigue cracking under
the prevailing temperature conditions in the country.
Penetration macadam base course
Penetration macadam is made by spraying relatively large amounts of
bitumen ( 2,0 - 4,0 l/m2) on a layer of coarse aggregate without fines, and
subsequently rolling in a layer of chipping as a key stone to provide
interlocking and stability of the layer. Alternatively a bituminous mix can
be used instead of key stone. The penetration macadam base courses are
exceptionally flexible, and at the same time providing high shear strength.
Penetration macadam effectively arrests crack reflection from underlying
layers when used in overlays. The penetration macadam can be considered a freely draining layer and it is important that the internal drainage of
the pavement is in accordance with /Chapter 3 Cross Section,
Shoulders and Drainage/.
The mode of distress in penetration macadam pavements is normally
deformation in the subbase or subgrade. Disintegration of the base course
takes place if periodic maintenance by resealing has been insufficient for
any reason.
Comments:
The consequences of deformation
occurring are more severe than cracking,
since the useful life of the pavement can
be considerably prolonged if cracks are
attended to in time and kept sealed.
bituminous mix
granular or cemented
riding quality
rut depth
cracking
time and traffic
Roads with high traffic speed require a

levelling layer made of a bituminous mix
in order to achieve good riding quality.
penetration macadam
granular or cemented
riding quality
deformation
cracking
time and traffic
8.2.2
Semi-rigid pavements
General
Semi-rigid pavements are those utilising cemented materials in the base
course layer or both the base course and subbase layer. Where both base
course and subbase are cemented this pavement type is a viable option for
high traffic conditions. Pavements with only the base course cemented with granular subbase have limitations in the upper ranges of traffic
loading.
Mode of distress
In semi-rigid pavements most of the traffic stresses are absorbed by the
cemented layers - little by the subgrade - and fatigue of the cemented
layers is the dominant mode of distress. Initial block cracking from
shrinkage or thermal forces is likely to develop soon after construction of
cemented base courses. These cracks are normally of little concern if
sealed by normal recurrent and periodic maintenance. Later development
of traffic induced cracks may lead to ingress of water and pumping of
fines. While this pavement type normally gives good user service up to
this point, deformation tends to accelerate after water gets free access into
the structure. Loss of the bituminous surfacing takes place if periodic
maintenance by resealing has been insufficient for any reason.
Ministry of Works
Pavements where only the base course

is cemented with granular subbase are sensitive to high axle loading and loss
of strength by ingress of water through
surface cracks.
It is particularly important that the first
scheduled reseal is not missed or deferred
due to the early development of block
cracks in this pavement type.
cemented
cemented (preferred)
riding quality
cracking
rut depth
time and traffic
8.3
Chapter 8
Comments:
The concrete may be either conventional
jointed slabs, a continuously reinforced type
or roller compacted concrete.
8.2.3
Rigid pavements
Rigid pavements are made of concrete, where most of the traffic loading
is carried by the concrete slab and less by the foundation. Good resistance
against the effect of traffic loading and high tyre pressures, are typical
features of concrete pavements. However due to the large investment cost,
their use is normally limited to heavily trafficked interurban and urban
roads. The design method for concrete pavements is not included in this
manual, however references is made to /8-10/ for further details on the
principles of rigid pavement design.
8.3 Structural Design

8.3.0
General
Pavement design catalogues are provided for the following pavement

types and site conditions:
n
n
n
n
n
granular base course, dry or moderate climatic zones

granular base course, wet climatic zones
cemented base course
bituminous mix base course
penetration macadam base course
The design catalogue aims to provide sufficient support for the layer in
the design of the subbase and subgrade and thereby reducing strain, hence
minimising the risk of fatigue cracking in bituminous layers.
8.3.1
Input data
Climate
A separate design catalogue is provided in respect of wet climatic zones
for pavements with granular base course.
Climatic zones for the purpose of
pavement design: /Chapter 2
Environment/.
Traffic
The Traffic Load Class (TLC) determined according to /Chapter 4
Traffic/ is input to the catalogue and the classes are shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Traffic Load Classes - TLC
D esign traffic loading
[million E80]
8.4
Traffic Load C lass (TLC )
< 0.2
TLC 02
0.2 to 0.5
TLC 05
0.5 to 1
TLC 1
1 to 3
TLC 3
3 to 10
TLC 10
10 to 20
TLC 20
20 to 50
TLC 50
Ministry of Works
Chapter 8
Heavy load conditions

Where more than 50% of E80 is a result of axles heavier than 13 tonnes,
the Traffic Load Class is given an index, i.e.:
TLC 05-H
TLC 1-H
TLC 3-H
TLC 10-H
TLC 20-H
TLC 50-H
Subgrade
The design catalogue requires that all subgrade is brought to a design
strength of CBR minimum 15% by constructing one or more improved
subgrade layers - where necessary - before the pavement is placed.
Climate is part of the input data to design improved subgrade layers.
Comments:
Insufficient data normally makes it
unrealistic to determine the proportion of
E80 that is a result of axles loaded above
13 tonnes where the design traffic loading
is less than 0.2 million E80. A traffic load
class TLC02-H is therefore not established.
Procedures to evaluate subgrade
strength and to design improved
subgrade layers:
/Chapter 5 Subgrade/.
Pavement materials
Pavement materials used in the design catalogue are those shown in Table
8.2. where references are given to the respective chapters where material
quality requirements are set out.
Table 8.2 Pavement materials
Material
class
Material
ty pe
Material requirements,
references
ST
Surface treatments
C hapter 10.2 to 10.4
AC
Asphalt concrete
C hapter 10.8
D BM - LAMBS
Bi tumi nous hot mi x
C hapter 7.4.2
PM
Penetrati on macadam
C hapter 7.4.3
FBMIX - BEMIX
Bi tumi nous cold mi x
C hapter 7.4.4
C RR - C RS
Granular, crushed
C hapter 7.2.2
C2 - C1 - CM
C emented, li me or cement
C hapter 7.3
G80 - G60
Granular, natural
C hapter 7.2.1
C1 - CM
C emented, li me or cement
C hapter 7.3
G45 - G25
Granular, natural
C hapter 7.2.1
Surfacing:
B ase course:
S u b b ase:
Substitutes of subbase material

Substitutes of subbase materials can be made as listed below. The layer
thickness shall not be changed when doing the substitutes. No other
substitutes of subbase material shall be made in the pavement design.
n
n
n
n
C1 can be replaced by C2
CM can be replaced by C1 or C2
G45 can be replaced by CM, C1, G60, G80 or CRS
G25 can be replaced by CM, C1, G45, G60, G80 or CRS
Ministry of Works
8.5
Chapter 8
Comments:
8.3.2
Pavement design catalogues
The pavement design catalogues are presented in the respective tables

listed in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 List of pavement design catalogues
Table reference Pav ement ty pe in design catalogue
Urban areas have a large number of

junctions and other areas where
construction of surface treatments is
difficult to carry out with good workmanship.
8.6
Table 8.4
Granular base course Dry or Moderate climatic zones
Table 8.5
Granular base course Wet cli mati c zones
Table 8.6
C emented base course
Table 8.7
Bi tumi nous mi x base course
Table 8.8
Penetrati on macadam base course
The design catalogues specify surfacing types for rural- and interurban
roads. On all major urban roads, where the base course is not of a
bituminous type, consideration should be given to the use of asphalt
concrete surfacing irrespective of traffic loading due to the common
excess of slow moving and turning traffic. This traffic pattern is
unfavourable for the use of surface treatments and may lead to premature
damage of thin surfacings.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 8
Table 8.4 Pavements with granular base course dry or moderate climatic zones
Traffic:
- Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy ( -H )
classes: /Chapter 4/
Base course type:
Subgrade design:
- Design for CBR less than 15%: /Chapter 5/
- Material standards of improved subgrade
layers: /Chapter 5/
Granular
Surfacing design:
- Surface treatments, carriageway:
/Chapter 10.2 to 10.4/
- Shoulders: /Chapter 10.7/
- Asphalt concrete: /Chapter 10.8/
Material requirements:
- Granular or cemented materials for subbase
layers or base course: /Chapter 7/
- Bituminous surfacings: /Chapter 10/
Surfacing
For the heavy Traffic Load

Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 20-H )
Base course
Heavy Traffic Load Classes (-H) apply for

E80 >0.2 million under conditions where
more than 50% of E80 comes from axles
loaded to above13 tonnes.

Subbase 1)
Dry / Moderate
/Figure 2.1/
Traffic Load Classes

< 0.2
0.2 - 0.5
0.5 - 1.0
TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1

(not
applicable)
as
below
as
below
(million E80)
1-3
3 - 10
10 - 20
20 - 50
TLC 3 TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50

AC
as
below
AC
100mm
50mm
AC
ST
ST
ST
150mm
150mm
CRS
CRS
CRR
150mm
150mm
150mm
G60
G80
G80
(not
applicable)
ST
125mm
ST
50mm
as
below
as
below
150mm
150mm
150mm
CRS
CRR
CRR
as
below
as
below
2)

200mm
(not
applicable)
as
below
as
below
CM
150mm
+
150mm
Subgrade
1)
2)
Climatic zones:
150mm
150mm
G25
G45
200mm
200mm
200mm
G45
G45
C1
C2
C1
CBR > 15%
If other types of subbase materials are preferred, the substitute shall meet the requirements set out in Chapter 8.3.1
G80 can be used up to 2 million E80 in dry climatic zone /Figure 2.1/
Ministry of Works
8.7
Chapter 8
Table 8.5 Pavements with granular base course wet climatic zones
Traffic:
- Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy (-H )
lasses: /Chapter 4/
Base course type:
Subgrade design:
layers: /Chapter 5/
Granular
Surfacing design:
Surfacing

Base course


Climatic zones:

< 0.2
0.2 - 0.5
0.5 - 1.0
TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1

(not
applicable)
ST
as
below
as
below
(million E80)
1-3
3 - 10
10 - 20
AC
AC
100mm
AC
100mm
50mm
AC
AC
50mm
50mm
as
below
as
below
ST
ST
150mm
150mm
CRS
CRR
CRR
150mm
150mm
150mm
150mm
150mm
150mm
G80
G80
CRS
CRS
CRR
CRR
as
below
as
below
as
below
(not
applicable)
ST
125mm
20 - 50
Subbase 1)

200mm
(not
applicable)
as
below
CM
150mm
+
150mm
Subgrade
1)
Wet
/Figure 2.1/
150mm
150mm
G25
G45
200mm
200mm
200mm
G45
CM
C1
C2
C1
CBR > 15%
8.8
Ministry of Works
Chapter 8
Table 8.6 Pavements with cemented base course
Traffic:
- Traffic Load Classes, including the heavy ( -H )
classes: /Chapter 4/
Base course type:
Subgrade design:
layers: /Chapter 5/
Cemented
Surfacing design:
Base course
Surfacing



Subbase 1)
All

< 0.2
0.2 - 0.5
0.5 - 1.0
TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1
1-3
3 - 10
10 - 20
20 - 50
as
below
as
below
as
below
ST
ST
as
below
150mm
CM
(not
applicable)
(million E80)
AC
AC
100mm
ST
ST
50mm
as
below
as
below
as
below
as
below
150mm
150mm
150mm
150mm
150mm
C1
C1
C2
C2
C2
150mm
150mm
as
below
as
below
125mm
150mm
50mm
AC
ST
(not
applicable)

200mm
(not
applicable)
CM
C1
CM
Subgrade
1)
Climatic zones:
/Figure 2.1/
125mm
150mm
200mm
150mm
150mm
150mm
G25
G45
G45
C1
G45
CM
C1
C1
CBR > 15%
Ministry of Works
8.9
Chapter 8
Table 8.7 Pavements with a bituminous mix in the base course

Traffic:
- Traffic Load Classes: /Chapter 4/
Base course type:
Subgrade design:
layers: /Chapter 5/
Surfacing design:
layers: /Chapter 7/
- Bituminous base course: /Chapter 7/
All
Traffic Load Classes (million E80)

< 0.2
0.2 - 0.5
0.5 - 1.0
TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1
ST
Alternative material types:
Climatic zones:
/Figure 2.1/
DBM 30
FBMIX
BEMIX
60mm
1-3
3 - 10
ST
ST
ST
DBM 30
FBMIX
BEMIX
LAMBS
DBM 40
DBM 30
FBMIX
BEMIX
LAMBS
DBM 40
DBM 30
FBMIX
BEMIX
LAMBS
DBM 40
DBM 30
FBMIX
100mm
20 - 50
ST
80mm
10 - 20
125mm
150mm
AC
AC
50mm
50mm
LAMBS
DBM 40
LAMBS
DBM 40
175mm
200mm
Subbase
1)
Base course
Surfacing
No special pavement design alternatives

are required for the heavy Traffic Load
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 50-H for)
this pavement type.
Bituminous
mix
125mm
+
125mm
200mm
Subgrade
1)
150mm
150mm
150mm
G45
G45
G45
200mm
200mm
CM
G45
G45
CM
CM
CBR > 15%
8.10
Ministry of Works
Chapter 8
Table 8.8 Pavements with penetration macadam base course

Traffic:
- Traffic Load Classes: /Chapter 4/
Base course type:
Subgrade design:
layers: /Chapter 5/
Surfacing design:
layers: /Chapter 7/
- Penetration Macadam: /Chapter 7/
Climatic zones:
All
/Figure 2.1/
Traffic Load Classes (million E80)

< 0.2
0.2 - 0.5
0.5 - 1.0
TLC 02 TLC 05 TLC 1
ST
ST
50mm
50mm
PM30
PM30
ST
1-3
3 - 10
10 - 20
20 - 50
AC
AC
100mm
100mm
125mm
125mm
125mm
PM80
PM80
PM80
AC
AC
50mm
50mm
100mm
100mm
PM60
PM60
Subbase
1)
Base course
Surfacing
No special pavement design alternatives

are required for the heavy Traffic Load
Classes (TLC 05-H to TLC 50-H) for
this pavement type.
Penetration
Macadam
Subgrade
1)
150mm
125mm
150mm
125mm
200mm
150mm
150mm
150mm
150mm
G45
G45
CM
CM
C1
CM
CM
C1
CM
CBR > 15%
Ministry of Works
8.11
Chapter 8
Comments:
8.12
References
8-1

8-2

8-3

8-4

8-5

8-6

8-7
ROLT, J (1994). The performance of a full scale road pavement design

experiment in Jamaica. In: Proc. of Institution of Civil Engineers.
Transport. August 1994.
8-8

Design of Road Pavements. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
8-9

ODA, London, UK.
8 - 10

Ministry of Works
Project appraisal
Ch
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement Materials
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment
Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
Pavement
Rehabilitation
Chapter 9
Pavement Rehabilitation
Comments:
Strategies for rehabilitation, i.e. whether

short term or long term measures are
desired, may differ between projects due
to funding conditions or overall strategies
for the part of the network where the
project is located.
9.0 General
9.0.1
Rehabilitation needs
9.0.2
Pavement evaluation
9.0.3
Rehabilitation design
The purpose of pavement rehabilitation is commonly related to

inadequate service levels for the road users in combination with excessive
costs in maintaining the existing pavement structure. Rehabilitation may
however be required for reasons not directly related to the present surface
condition, i.e. due to expected dramatic increase of traffic or as a
strengthening combined with upgrading the geometry of the road.
The purpose of pavement evaluation is primarily to determine the present

pavement condition so that appropriate rehabilitation measures can be
identified. Cost effective pavement evaluation involves collection of only
the necessary types of data, or amounts of data to establish the cause of
distress and for carrying out rehabilitation design with sufficient
confidence.
Three rehabilitation design methods are prescribed in this chapter:
n maximum deflection method
n structural number method
n mechanistic method
9.0.4
Rehabilitation design only forms part of the process to establish

appropriate rehabilitation measures. Other factors such as agency policy,
practical construction aspects, availability of skills, materials and other
resources, environmental mitigation and maintenance aspects shall be
taken into consideration in selection of the appropriate rehabilitation
option. Rehabilitation options are classified into:
n overlays
n partial reconstruction
n full reconstruction
9.1 Pavement Evaluation

The initial survey will rule out obvious
rehabilitation options, such as where full
reconstruction or realignment is required,
and thereby exclude collection of
unnecessary information.
9.2
9.1.0
General
The purpose of pavement evaluation is primarily to determine why the

present pavement condition prevails so that appropriate rehabilitation
measures can be identified. Pavement evaluation involves detailing
appropriate methods for pavement investigations, relating the symptoms
of distress to their causes and explaining the reason for distress. The
outcome of the study forms the basis to carry out a rehabilitation design
using appropriate design methods.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 illustrates the procedure for pavement evaluation up to

completion of the rehabilitation design.
Start
Carry out initial assessment of

pavement condition
Carry out desk study
Carry out structural surveys as

required based on the detailed
condition survey
Re-assess demarcation into

homogenous sections based on all
available data
Comments:
Establish homogenous sections

based on initial assessment of
pavement condition
Carry out detailed condition survey

if required in accordance with
/Fig. 9.2/
Assess each homogenous section

according to /Fig 9.2/
Carry out pavement rehabilitation

design for each homogenous
section
Combine sections with similar

rehabilitation measures into
practical lengths for construction
Figure 9.1 Pavement evaluation and rehabilitation procedure
9.1.1
Confidence level
9.1.2
Design traffic loading
The confidence level for pavement data processing shall be 90%, i.e. that
10% of the length of the road is allowed to perform unsatisfactorily at the
end of the design period when the design is based on current pavement data.
General
Collection of traffic loading data shall be carried out in accordance with
/Chapter 4 Traffic/.
Past traffic loading
Past traffic received by the pavement shall be calculated for the purpose
of estimating residual pavement life.
Design traffic loading
Design traffic loading for the design period shall be projected in
accordance with /Chapter 4 Traffic/.
9.1.3
Pavement investigation procedure
General
The extent of the pavement investigation depends on prevailing conditions
on site as detailed in this chapter and in Chapter 9.1.4 Extent of
investigation, and shall be carried out in the following sequence:
n
n
n
n
desk study
initial assessment
detailed condition surveys
structural surveys
(shall always be carried out)

(shall always be carried out)
(if required)
(if required)
Figure 9.2 illustrates the procedure for pavement investigations of each

section deemed to be homogenous based on initial assessment. The
procedure is shown up to the completion of detailed condition surveys
and identification of sections that require structural surveys.
Ministry of Works
9.3
Chapter 9
Comments:
Traffic
projection
/Chapter 9.1.2/
Start
YES
Section with
only localised
distress ?
Establish the cause of the

localised distress, if necessary
carry out additional field
testing.
NO
NO
Section with
no distress ?
Traffic
projection
/Chapter
9.1.2/
YES
NO
YES
Recommend corrective
measures. Further
investigation of the section is
normally not necessary.
Any possibilities
of salvaging the
pavement ?
NO
YES
Carry out detailed condition
surveys:
- rutting
- roughness
- surface defects
/Chapter 9.1.4/
Determine
subgrade CBR
/Chapter 5/
Determine the need for

structural surveys:
- DCP
- deflection
- sampling (lab. testing)
/Chapter 9.1.4/
Design full pavement

reconstruction without any
further investigation of the
section.
/Chapter 9.3.3/
Section with
only surface
defects ?
NO
Figure 9.2 Assessment of one homogenous section
Desk study
A desk study shall always be carried out to gather available information
about the road section, which may include:
n as-built data including construction records and information about
geometry and drainage
n maintenance records
n data from previous traffic counts and axle load surveys
n data from previous investigations such as measurements of deflection,
DCP, rutting, roughness, surface defects, sampling, rutting,
roughness, cracks, and others
n data on climate, geology and topography
Initial assessment
Initial assessment of the road shall be carried out before the schedules for
condition surveys or structural surveys are being established. Initial assessment includes visual inspection and examination of data obtained in the
desk study. The objectives of the initial assessment are those given below.
A. Initial assessment shall establish the length of sections with :
n no significant problems
n localised distress clearly related to specific problems such as poor
drainage, expansive subgrade soils, or others
n distress obviously related to the surfacing only
n possibilities of inadequate structural strength
n obviously no possible salvage of the existing pavement hence full
reconstruction is the only possible rehabilitation measure
B. Initial assessment shall provide:
9.4
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
n a record of observation data and any initial measurements carried

out during the visual inspection
n quantified data on serviceability of sections with obviously no
possible salvage of the existing pavement. These include
measurements of driving speed, PSI or estimated International
Roughness Index
Comments:
C. Initial assessment shall give recommendations on:

n remedial action for the localised distress
n remedial action for the surface distress
n a further field test programme for sections with possibilities of
inadequate structural strength or with distress where the existing
pavement may be salvaged
Homogenous sections
Homogenous sections shall initially be established on the basis of pavement condition after the initial assessment. The demarcation of
homogenous sections shall be revised and changed if required after the
detailed condition survey and structural surveys are carried out.
Detailed condition surveys
Detailed condition surveys shall be carried out where the existing pavement may be salvaged and where distress is not obviously related to the
either surfacing only or localised problems. Detailed condition surveys
include measurements of the following parameters:

homogenous sections for each type of
measured data. /Appendix A8.3/.
Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 3/
The required test frequencies: Chapter

9.1.4 Extent of investigations.
n rutting
n surface defects
n potholes
n cracks, all cracks and wide cracks >3 mm
n loss of stones (ravelling)
n patches
n roughness
n shoulder conditions
n drainage conditions
Structural surveys
Structural surveys shall be scheduled according to Chapter 9.1.4 Extent
of investigations and include collection of one or more of the following data:
n Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
n maximum surface deflection with Benkelman beam (8175 kg axle) or
equivalent equipment approved by the Ministry of Works, correlated
back to Benkelman beam measurements
n pit logs and laboratory tests of samples such as moisture content,
grading, Atterberg limits, CBR, or others as required
Ministry of Works
9.5
Chapter 9
Comments:
9.1.4
Extent of investigations
The conditions that require the investigation frequency of scheme A

or B respectively are given in Table 9.1. The extent of investigations
for the purpose of pavement evaluation are given in Table 9.2.
Table 9.1 Conditions that require scheme A or B respectively for frequency of
investigations
- All trunk roads
Scheme A
- Other i mportant mai n roads, e.g. strategi c routes

or major li nks i n towns, deemed to be of parti cular
i mportance
Scheme B
- Other roads
Table 9.2
Required extent of pavement investigations
Test
Rut depth, measured both si des i n

outer wheel path only
D etailed
condition
surv ey s
Surface defects such as patches,

cracks, loss of stones, or others
Roughness, Internati onal Roughness
Index (IRI)
Min test
frequency [m]
Scheme
A
Scheme
B
50
100
C onti nuously
measured
500
D C P, the si de wi th hi ghest rutti ng
values
Structural
Maxi mum surface deflecti on,
surv ey s
measured on the si de wi th hi ghest
rutti ng values, i n outer wheel path only
Test pi ts excavated to desi gn depth as
defi ned i n /Chapter 5.1/.Pi t log, testi ng
of C BR, i ndi cators, moi sture content
1000
mi n 3 per
homogenous
secti on
100
200
1000
2000
The test frequenci es are the mi ni mum acceptable. Addi ti onal tests may be requi red
dependi ng on si te condi ti ons and i n the case of anomali es i n the tested values. The
demarcati on of homogenous secti ons may be revi sed after analysi s of the test results.
Roughness shall be measured with the MERLIN apparatus or alternative high-capacity equipment of a type approved by the Ministry of
Works. Alternative equipment shall be calibrated against the MERLIN.
9.6
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
9.1.5
Distress criteria
Comments:
Distress criteria for use in pavement evaluation are given in Table 9.3.
The following is the meaning of the terms sound, warning and severe
in the condition rating:
n sound: adequate condition
n warning:uncertainty exists about the adequacy of the condition
n severe: inadequate condition
Table 9.3 Pavement distress criteria
C ondition rating
Parameter
Traffic class TLC 1 or lower
Rutti ng, 90%-i le over a

secti on [mm]
Surface defects
[% of
carri ageway
area]
Traffic class TLC 3 or higher
Sound
Warni ng
Severe
Sound
Warni ng
Severe
< 10
10 - 20
> 20
<5
5 - 15
> 15
Rutti ng caused by shovi ng wi thi n bi tumi nous layers shall be assessed separately. Rutti ng i s a more severe
defect than what i s reflected above when combi ned wi th a cracked surface. Figure 9.3 gi ves the
procedure to i nterpret these data
Potholes
< 0.01%
0.01%
- 0.2%
> 0.2%
< 0.01%
0.01%
- 0.1%
> 0.1%
All cracks
< 20
20 - 50
> 50
< 10
10 - 30
> 30
Wi de cracks
>3mm [i n %
of all cracks]
< 20
20 - 50
> 50
< 10
10 - 30
> 30
<5
5 - 15
> 15
<5
5 - 10
> 10
L o ss o f
stones
(ravelli ng)
Patches
[% of carri ageway area]
Roughness, IRI [m/km]
Loss of stones on pavements wi th a surface treatment over a base course made of unbound materi als
shall be rated severe wherever the affected area exceeds 5%
< 0.3%
0.3%
- 1.0%
> 1.0%
< 0.2%
0.2%
- 0.6%
> 0.6%
<3
3-6
>6
<3
3-6
>6
< 0.7
< 0.55
0.7 - 1.3
0.55 - 1.15
> 1.3
> 1.15
< 0.5
< 0.35
0.5 - 1.0
0.35 - 0.85
> 1.0
> 0.85
Max deflecti on [mm]

90% -ile over a section [mm]
- granular base course
- li gthtly cemented base
Ministry of Works
9.7
Chapter 9
9.1.6
Comments:
Data interpretation
The procedure for interpretation of data is illustrated in Figure 9.3.
Major mode of distress

RUTTING:
CRACKING:
SOUND
WARNING or SEVERE
WARNING or SEVERE
SEVERE
WARNING or SEVERE
SOUND or WARNING
If rutting is due to shoving in the asphalt:

carry out special investigations.
Consider whether full reconstruction
applies /Chapter 9.3.3/
NO
Consider whether full reconstruction

applies /Chapter 9.3.3/
Good correlation rutting / deflection, or

roughness / deflection?
YES
Design traffic loading is less than
10 million E80?
NO
YES
Structural number method /Chapter 9.2.2/, or
Mechanistic method /Chapter 9.2.3/
(for confirmation)
Maximum deflection method /Chapter 9.2.1/
Rehabilitation design method

Select appropriate rehabilitation option /Chapter 9.3/ and
consider options to prevent reflective cracking if applicable /Chapter 9.4/
Comments:
Figure 9.3 Interpretation of pavement data
9.2 Rehabilitation Design Methods

Various forms of distress may be
related, and its primary cause may be
obscured on roads where a stage has
been reached whereby numerous forms
of distress are evident. The parts of a
road which has not yet reached a
completely failed stage are likely to give
valuable information on the primary
cause of distress and thereby clues to
determine the most appropriate
rehabilitation option.
9.2.0
General
This chapter gives an overview of available pavement rehabilitation

design methods and indicates their limitations and requirements for input
data. The designer has the following methods at hand for carrying out
pavement rehabilitation design:
n maximum deflection method
n structural number method
n mechanistic method
empirically derived
empirically derived
theoretically/empirically derived
The appropriate method shall be applied depending on pavement type,

condition and other parameters as described in Table 9.4.
Output from pavement rehabilitation design methods only forms part
of the final decision on appropriate rehabilitation remedies for a
section or an entire project. Other factors such as agency policy,
practical construction aspects, availability of skills, materials and
9.8
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
other resources, environmental mitigation and maintenance aspects

shall be taken into consideration.
Comments:
Table 9.4 Selection of appropriate design method
B ase course Main mode

material ty pe of distress
Granular or
li ghtly cement
C emented or
bi tumi nous
C racki ng
R ehabilitation design method

Maxi mum
deflecti on
Structural
number
(not
appli cable)
D eformati on
a*)
C racki ng or
deformati on,
or both
(not
appli cable)
Mechani sti c
*) The maxi mum deflecti on method only appli es for traffi c load class TLC 10 or lower and
where deformati on ori gi nates from the subgrade.
9.2.1
Maximum deflection method
Description of the method

The maximum deflection method is based on empirically derived relationships between pavement performance and surface deflection under loading.
The method requires different performance criteria for different pavement
types and is inapplicable for certain pavements. Deflection measurements
will only give information about the pavements structural response at the
time the measurement were carried out. This means that moisture conditions,
and temperature in the case of thick bituminous layers, affect the results
significantly and can be misleading to the designer.
Applicability and limitations of the method
The deflection method shall not be used as the only rehabilitation design
method, but to supplement other methods in a multi-analysis approach
and shall not be used unless all the following conditions prevail:
n distress originates from the subgrade, and
n the base course in existing pavement is a granular or lightly
cemented type, i.e. not cement stabilised, and
n there is remaining structural life in the existing pavement, and
n future design traffic is less than 10 million. E80
Extensively cracked cemented layers may be classified as granular layers.
Deflection measurements give useful

information to explain the mode of distress
in existing pavements and are often
justified even though the rehabilitation
design is not based on the deflection
method.
An extensively cracked cemented layer

may be classified as a granular layer.
The relationship between maximum deflection and rut depth measurements

taken along the length of a road gives an indication of the cause and mechanism of the distress. A good correlation will usually indicate that distress
may be associated with an over-stressed subgrade. A poor correlation is
indicative of distress originating in one or more of the upper layers of the
pavement. In this case the maximum deflection method may not apply.
Similarly, a poor correlation between maximum deflection and road roughness measurements will usually indicate distress in the upper layers of the
pavement, while a good correlation is indicate of problems in the subgrade.
Ministry of Works
Rut depth in relation to poor base or

subbase.
9.9
Chapter 9
Comments:
Design procedure
Figure 9.4 (describes the procedure for pavement rehabilitation design
using the maximum deflection method.)
Determine traffic loading:
- past E80
- future E80 (design traffic
loading)
Determine expected pavement

life (total E80)
/Fig. 9.5/
Establish homogenous
sections. (The CUSUM
method in /Appendix A8.3/
may be used).
Past E80 larger

than expected
pavement life?
Measure and calculate design

deflection for each
homogenous section.
YES Maximum deflection method

does not apply.
NO
Calculate residual capacity:

= expected capacity - past E80
Residual life
larger than
design traffic
loading?
No strengthening is required
YES based on the maximum

deflection method.
NO
Determine target deflection.

/Fig. 9.5 or /Fig. 9.6/
Determine required
strengthening, SN diff
/Fig. 9.7/
Select overlay alternative as

appropriate.
/Table 9.9/
Figure 9.4 Design procedure, maximum deflection method
The deflection recovery (rebound) method

offers an easier measuring procedure with
less risk of damage to equipment. However, on newly constructed pavements
(less than 3 years in service) this method
does not give results that correspond
sufficiently well with the design method.
Correction of deflection data for
temperature is not necessary for
investigation of pavements with granular
base course and such corrections do not
improve the accuracy of the maximum
deflection method /9-6/. Design methods
using radius of curvature are not provided,
however collection of curvature data can
give useful information to explain the
cause of distress.
homogenous sections for deflection data.
/Appendix A8.3/.
9.10
Deflection input data

Input data is maximum deflections measured with Benkelman beam (dual
wheels, 8175 kg axle load) or data collected with other types of
equipment, correlated back to equivalent Benkelman beam deflections.
The transient method shall be used where the existing pavement or
overlay was constructed less than 3 years before the measurements, the
deflection recovery (rebound) method can otherwise be used.
The maximum deflection method requires that the measured deflection is
the maximum deflection over a year. The time of measurements in
relation to rainy seasons shall therefore be carefully assessed and the need
for repeated measurements at a different time shall be considered.
Design deflection
The design deflection is the 90%-ile deflection value for a homogenous
section with a minimum of 20 measurements.
Design deflection = (mean deflection) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
Traffic
Required traffic parameters for input in the design method are the
following:
n estimated past cumulative traffic loading carried by the pavement
since construction or its last structural rehabilitation (in millions E80)
n design traffic loading (future) determined according to /Chapter 4
Traffic/.
Comments:
Expected pavement life

The pavements expected life is the cumulative number of E80s the pavement is expected to be able to carry, i.e. past cumulative traffic loading plus
the estimated residual pavement life until critical condition is reached.
Residual life
The residual life of the pavement is the difference between expected pavement life and past cumulative traffic loading.
Residual life (E80) = expected life (E80) past cumulative traffic loading (E80).
If the past cumulative traffic loading is larger than the expected pavement
life, i.e. negative residual life, then the maximum deflection method shall
not be applied.
In specialised investigations of
pavements without remaining structural
life it is possible to study the relationship
between rutting and deflection and
respectively roughness and deflection
in order to establish distress criteria for
that particular pavement structure. Such
investigations and rehabilitation designs
are only supplementary to the design
method using structural number.
If the residual life is larger than the future design traffic loading, then
strengthening of the pavement is not required.
Desired pavement life
The desired pavement life is the total traffic loading the pavement would
need to carry in order to endure the design period without overlay. I.e. the
cumulative past traffic loading plus the design traffic loading.
Target deflection
The target deflection is the maximum deflection value that would give a
pavement life sufficient to carry the cumulative past traffic loading plus
the design traffic loading (desired pavement life) without overlay.
Design charts
Design charts giving the relationship between deflection and pavement
life (traffic loading) are presented in Figure 9.5 and Figure 9.6 where the
design line for a 90% confidence in achieving life is marked. The two
figures are valid for pavements with a granular base course and lightly
cemented base course respectively.
In Figure 9.5 the use of the design chart is shown by aid of an example.
The key parameters are as given in Table 9.5 with letter symbols referring
to positions in the chart.
Ministry of Works
9.11
Chapter 9
Table 9.5 Design parameters used in the deflection design charts
Comments:
R eference
to Fig. 9.5
Parameters
Value in
example
N otes
A (i nput)
D esi gn deflecti on, deri ved from fi eld

measurements
B (i nput)
Past cumulati ve traffi c loadi ng
2 x 106
E 80
T (i nput)
D esi gn traffi c loadi ng (future)
8 x 106
E 80
/Chapter 4 - Traffic/
0.77 mm Input parameter for Figure 9.7
C urrent pavement state, the crossi ng

poi nt between the li nes drawn strai ght
from A and B, as shown i n
Expected pavement li fe, determi ned by

conti nui ng the trend-li ne from C , as
shown i n Figure 9.5
4 x 106
E 80
2 x 106
E 80
Resi dual li fe (D -B) larger than the desi gn traffi c

loadi ng (T), means that strengtheni ng of the
pavement i s not necessary.
10 x 106
E 80
(D - B)
E = (B+T)
F
Resi dual li fe
D esi red pavement li fe

Target deflecti on, determi ned by followi ng the trend-li nes usi ng E as i nput
parameter, as shown i n Figure 9.5
If the poi nt C falls above the desi gn li ne, then

there i s no resi dual li fe i n the pavement, and
the desi gn method i s i nappli cable.
0.53 mm Input parameter for Figure 9.7
Maximum deflection is determined under an axle load of 8175 kg using dual wheels.
Figure 9.5 Deflection design chart, granular base course

Maximum deflection is determined under an axle load of 8175 kg using dual wheels.
9.12
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
TLC 05
TLC 1
TLC 3
167
TLC 10
TLC 20
Comments:
Critical condition. 90%

confidence in achieving life
154
Deflection [ mm x 102 ]
142
129
116
103
90
77
64
51
39
26
13
0.2
0.3
0.5
1.0
1.5 2.0 3.0
5.0
10
15 20
30
Equivalent standard axles, E80 [ x 106 ]
Figure 9.6 Deflection design chart, lightly cemented base course
Required strengthening
The required strengthening is determined by using Figure 9.7 with the
target deflection and the measured design deflection as input data. SNdiff
shall be determined by interpolation in the chart.
St
ru
Target deflection [ mm ]
0.8
50
0.
.80
0.6
ct
ur
al
An example of a target deflection of 0.53

mm and a measured design deflection of
0.77 mm is shown in Figure 9.7. This gives
a required strengthening of SNdiff = 1.00,
corresponding to a required asphalt
concrete overlay of 60 mm determined
from Table 9.9.
nu
m
be
r,
S
1.2
.60
di
ff
2.20
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Design deflection, measured [ mm ]
Figure 9.7 Determination of required strengthening, SNdiff
9.2.2
Structural number method
General
The structural number method is based on empirical correlation between
tested material properties and expected pavement performance.
The structural number method is directly

linked to the design catalogue for
construction of new roads.
Laboratory tests and in-situ measurements are required to determine

material strength, expressed as the material coefficient. The following
methods are applicable for these measurements:
Ministry of Works
9.13
Chapter 9
Comments:
Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 5/
The structural number calculations

include a conversion between inches
and millimetres in dividing by 25.4 when
layer thicknesses are given in millimetres,
because the material coefficients (a) are
universally expressed as inch-1.
n CBR and indicator testing of samples taken from the road

n in-situ strength measured with DCP
n measurement of layer thicknesses in the existing pavement with DCP
combined with excavation of test pits
Structural number of the existing pavement, SNexist
The materials in the existing pavement structure shall be given a material
coefficient (a) after assessments in accordance with Table 9.4. The structural
number (SNexist) is defined as the product between the thickness (t) of
each pavement layer (n) and its corresponding material coefficient (a),
added for the entire pavement structure or part of the pavement structure.
SN = ( a1 x t1 + a2 x t2 + a3 x t3 +.+ an x tn ) / 25.4
where layer thickness (t) is measured in mm

Table 9.6 Material coefficients (a) for existing pavement layers
Ty pe of material and condition of the lay er
Material coefficient (a)
Surfacing:
Asphalt C oncrete (AC ), generally un-cracked and wi th li ttle deformati on i n the wheel
paths
0.40
Portland cement concrete layers, generally un-cracked

Asphalt C oncrete (AC ) that exhi bi t some cracki ng but wi th li ttle deformati on i n the
wheel paths
Portland cement concrete layers, generally stable but has some cracks, however
contai ni ng no pi eces smaller than 1 m2.
Asphalt C oncrete (AC ) that exhi bi t appreci able cracki ng, wi th some deformati on i n
the wheel paths, but i s essenti ally stable
0.30
0.18
Appreci ably cracked and faulted Portland cement concrete layer

Surface treatments wi th total thi ckness mi n 30 mm
0.20
Portland cement concrete layer, deli berately broken i nto pi eces less than 0.5 m
across
0.16
B ase course:
Bi tumi nous layers other than AC , generally un-cracked and wi th li ttle deformati on
0.30
Penetrati on macadam wi thout i nfi ltrati on of fi nes i nto the layer
0.20
C ement stabi li sed base course, generally wi thout reflected cracki ng to the surface
0.18
Cement stabilised base course, with extensive pattern cracking reflected to the surface
0.16
Bi tumi nous layers other than AC , appreci ably cracked and wi th some deformati on
Granular layer of crushed or natural materi al, PI max 8, C BR mi n 80
0.14
Low grade base course, subbase or earthworks lay ers:

Fully cracked cemented subbase or granular layers of natural gravel or wi th small
proporti ons of crushed parti cles, C BR mi n 60
0.12
Natural gravel of nomi nally subbase quali ty, C BR mi n 25
0.10
Natural gravel i n i mproved subgrade layers, C BR mi n 10
0.08
9.14
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
Required strength and strength deficiency

The calculation of strength deficiency (SNdiff) shall minimum be carried
out for the top of subbase level and for the top of subgrade level in the
existing pavement. Calculations are only required within the design depth,
reference is made to /Chapter 5.1/ for determination of design depth. The
calculation giving the highest SNdiff becomes the value for which the
rehabilitation design is carried out.
Comments:
Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 5/
The required structural number (SNrequired) shall be determined using Table

9.7 with input CBR expressing support conditions at the calculated level
in the existing pavement structure. The existing pavements strength
deficiency (SNdiff) at the calculated level in the structure is the difference
between the required structural number (SNrequired) and the structural
number of the existing pavement (SNexist) above the calculated level.
SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist
Table 9.7 Determination of required structural number, SNrequired
R equired structural number, SN re q u ire d
S ubgrade
CBR
Traffic load classes

TLC 02 TLC 05
TLC 1
TLC 3
TLC 10 TLC 20 TLC 50
> 30
1.10
1.25
1.60
1.90
2.35
3.00
3.50
15 - 29
1.35
1.50
1.80
2.20
2.75
3.80
4.20
10 - 14
1.60
1.80
2.10
2.50
3.00
4.10
4.50
7- 9
1.90
2.00
2.30
2.75
3.30
4.30
4.70
5-6
2.10
2.20
2.50
2.90
3.50
4.50
5.00
3-4
2.40
2.80
3.10
3.40
4.00
5.00
5.50
9.2.3
Mechanistic method
Mechanistic methods are theoretically derived through linear elastic

theory and are based on a set of built-in distress criteria. The South
African mechanistic design shall be used where a mechanistic method is
applied /9-3/.
The South African mechanistic method is

presently the nearest available to local
verification of criteria.
The South African mechanistic method requires that the following information about the existing pavement is gathered:
n
n
n
n
n
pavement type
(test pit log and laboratory tests)
pavement state
(surface deflections: stiff/flexible)
layer state
(test pits: wet/dry/cracked)
layer thickness
(test pit log)
layer moduli
(laboratory tests: values are given in table)
Correlation is made to a catalogue of pavement behaviour states on the
basis of the above information about the existing pavement.
Ministry of Works
9.15
Chapter 9
Comments:
9.3 Rehabilitation Options

9.3.0
Resealing with a surface treatment or

slurry seal normally falls under periodic
maintenance and is not included in this
chapter. Such treatments may however be
used on rehabilitation projects on road
sections that are found to be structurally
sound. Resealing does not add significant
structural strength to the pavement.
However, resealing may arrest or slow
down deterioration by waterproofing and
prevention of surface disintegration. No
significant improvement of the riding
quality is directly achieved by resealing.
General
The following options are available for pavement rehabilitation:
n overlays with a new surfacing

n overlays with a new surfacing and base course
n partial reconstruction by reworking the existing pavement and adding
new pavement layers as required
n full reconstruction by downgrading of the existing pavement to

subgrade for the new pavement
Which method is the appropriate for a road section depends on the following:
n
n
n
n
n
n
condition of the existing pavement

strength requirements for the new pavement
types of material in the existing pavement
available materials for construction of the new pavement
required surface levels of the new road
construction practicalities
9.3.1
Wherever possible the drainage of the
existing pavement shall be improved a
year before overlay is scheduled to take
place.
Pavements that exhibit shoving in

existing bituminous layers must be
repaired or replaced prior to placing an
overlay.
Overlays
Applicability
Overlays are used for the following purposes:
n to add sufficient structural strength so the pavement can carry the
future traffic in the design period
n to restore the riding quality of the pavement
Overlays shall not be used under the following conditions:
n on severely cracked pavements where there is a risk of early crack
reflection through the new layers. Methods to minimise the risk of
crack reflection are given in Chapter 9.4
n on pavements with deformation (shoving) in bituminous layers unless
repair or removal of the deformed material is carried out Chapter 9.3.2
n where there is uncertainty about the performance of the overlay due to
defects in the existing base course or in patches in the existing pavement
Materials
Material types selected for overlays shall meet the requirements given in
the design catalogue Chapter 8 Pavement design - New Roads and in
Chapter 7 Pavement Materials. Material coefficients (a) for pavement
and subgrade materials are given in Table 9.6.
Overlay design
When an overlay is placed, restoring of the drainage system shall always
be included.
The general requirement for layer thicknesses is that dMAX shall not exceed
2
/3 of the compacted layer thickness. Table 9.9 gives alternative overlay
designs for varying degrees of required strengthening.
9.16
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
Table 9.8 Material coefficients (a) for new pavement layers
Ty pe of material
Comments:
Material
coefficient (a)
Surfacing:
Asphalt C oncrete surfaci ng (AC )
0.40
B ase course:
Bituminous base course, BEMIX, FBMIX, DBM, LAMBS
0.30
Penetrati on macadam, PM
0.25
C ement or li me stabi li sed materi als, C 2
0.20
0.15
C ement or li me modi fi ed materi als, C M
0.11
Granular, crushed base course materi als, C RR
0.15
Granular, crushed base course materi als, C RS
0.14
Natural gravel base course, G80
0.13
Natural gravel base course, G60
0.12
S u b b ase:
0.20
0.15
C ement or li me modi fi ed materi als, C M
0.11
Granular, crushed materials used for subbase, CBR>45
0.11
Natural gravel subbase, G45
0.11
Natural gravel subbase, G25
0.10
Subgrade:
Natural gravel for i mproved subgrade, G15
0.09
All selection of surfacing type and base course material type shall meet
the requirements for the respective traffic load class given in /Tables 8.4/
to 8.8 in /Chapter 8 Pavement Design - New roads/.
Overlays with granular base course
Table 9.9 provides an option to use graded crushed rock as base course
(CRR) in overlays. This option shall be used with discretion and
particular attention to the following:
Use of granular base course in overlays

carries risk of failure unless the existing
surface is reprocessed, i.e. by undertaking
partial reconstruction Chapter 9.3.2.
n the underlying surface must be freely drained, particularly where
depressions or ruts are present, in order to avoid water being trapped

in the new base course layer
n the layer thickness given in Table 9.9 shall not be compromised by
unevenness in the existing surface, consideration shall be given to

reprocessing of the existing pavement (partial reconstruction) if the
existing surface is deformed
Ministry of Works
9.17
Chapter 9
Table 9.9 Overlay design
Comments:
Overlay alternatives
SN diff
*)
< 0.50
*)
Select the nearest of the given values for SN diff
Asphalt concrete
overlay
Bituminous mix
for base course
1)
Penetration
macadam 2)
Granular base
course 3)
Apply a surface treatment or do nothing depending on site conditions.

ST
0,50
AC
40 mm
0,75
AC
50 mm
PM 30
50 mm
ST
PM 30
50 mm
ST
ST
ST
1,00
AC
60 mm
Bit.
80 mm
PM 60
100 mm
CRR
150 mm
Only TLC 10 or lower
AC
PM 30
1,25
alternatively:
ST
ST
AC
80 mm
50 mm
50 mm
Bit.
100 mm
PM 80
ST
125 mm
CRR
150 mm
AC
Bit.
AC
50 mm
60 mm
alternatively:
ST
1,50
PM 60
50 mm
100 mm
ST
alternatively:
ST
CRR
AC
100 mm
Bit.
120 mm
PM 80
200 mm
125 mm
AC
Bit.
50 mm
80 mm
PM 60
PM 30
AC
120 mm
Bit.
50 mm
100 mm
alternatively:
ST
alternatively:
ST
1,75
AC
140 mm
PM 60
AC
50 mm
CRR
50 mm
200 mm
100 mm
AC
PM 80
50 mm
125 mm
alternatively:
ST
2,00
AC
Bit.
50 mm
100 mm
PM 60
AC
CRR
PM 60
AC
PM 80
50 mm
100 mm
200 mm
100 mm
50 mm
125 mm
alternatively:
ST
2,25
AC
Bit.
50 mm
130 mm
PM 60
PM 60
100 mm
100 mm
1)
The appropriate type of bituminous base course shall be selected depending on

traffic load class according to /Table 8.7/ in /Chapter 8 Pavement Design - New
Roads/.
2)
Best suited for roads with low traffic speed such as urban roads. For roads with
high traffic speed a levelling course made of a bituminous mix may be necessary to
provide satisfactory riding quality.
3)
Limited to the conditions given in /Tables 8.4/ and /8.5/ in /Chapter 8 Pavement
Design - New Roads/ with regards to traffic loading and climate.
Consideration shall be given to reprocessing of the existing pavement.
9.18
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
9.3.2
Partial reconstruction
Comments:
General
Partial reconstruction is reprocessing or removal of material from the
existing pavement to let the existing pavement form either base course or
subbase in the new pavement. Whether the existing pavement forms a
new base course or a new subbase depends on:
n the material properties of the existing pavement layers
n the condition of the existing pavement
n the strength requirements for the new pavement
n any required adjustments of road levels
The pavement design catalogue, /Tables 8.4/ to /8.8/ in /Chapter 8 Pavement design - New Roads/ shall be used for selection of pavement layers.
Reprocessing the old pavement to base course in the new pavement
The base course, consisting of the reprocessed old pavement, shall fulfil
the requirements for base course in accordance with the design catalogue.
Reprocessing the old pavement to subbase in the new pavement.
The subbase, consisting of the reprocessed old pavement, shall fulfil the
requirements for subbase in accordance with the design catalogue.
9.3.3
Full reconstruction
Full reconstruction is when the existing pavement is reprocessed to improved

subgrade in the new pavement, whether or not reworking is carried out.
The pavement design catalogue, /Tables 8.4/ to /8.8/. in /Chapter 8
Pavement design - New Roads/ shall be used for selection of surfacing,
base course and subbase. The subgrade, consisting of the old pavement,
shall meet the requirement for subgrade /Chapter 5 Subgrade/.
9.4 Methods to Prevent Reflective

Cracking
9.4.0
General
Special materials and methods may be used for the purpose of minimising
reflection of cracks from the underlying surface below asphalt concrete
overlays. Special binders are also available for use in surface treatments
for maintenance reseals. Special methods or materials shall only be
considered in the cases when alternative conventional rehabilitation
options incur considerable additional cost or are unlikely to be successful.
9.4.1
Specialised methods are generally

expensive, often require specialised
materials, equipment and skills, and the
success of the installation is not
guaranteed.
Conventional methods for overlays
Conventional options to minimise crack reflection through overlays shall

always be considered and include the following:
n partly or full removal (milling) of the cracked layer is often a preferred

option where the cracks do not extend deep into the pavement
n overlays using penetration macadam prevents crack reflection
n removal of the cracked layer in individual locations - and patching before overlay is cost effective where the total cracked area is small
Ministry of Works
9.19
Chapter 9
Comments:
n increasing the thickness of the asphalt overlay will delay the crack
reflection through new layers, but carries risks of not being cost
effective if the time until crack reflection proves to be shorter than
expected
n individual sealing of cracks may be effective in cases where traffic is

low, cracks are few and considered not very active
n provision of a thick granular overlay (new base course) before placing

the asphalt surfacing
9.4.2
Special methods and materials for overlays
General
There is no standard measure to arrest crack reflection that is suited for
every situation and successful solutions require good knowledge of each
case in order to ensure that the most appropriate method is selected. The
cost effectiveness - and likelihood of success - when applying specialised
materials or methods shall be carefully assessed and documented before
application in the works. No added structural strength shall be attributed
to the presence of such layers in the pavement.
The success of grids for reinforcement
in pavement rehabilitation depends on
whether the grid, and surrounding
materials, can mobilise sufficient stress
before strain at existing cracks causes
reflection through the overlay. The
possibility of crack reflection at the edge
of the grid should also be considered, and
whether or not the grid will obstruct
recycling of the pavement at a later time.
Interlayer systems
There is a considerable number of specialised systems available for
prevention of crack reflection in overlays. These include the use of:
n
n
n
n
n
geo-textiles impregnated with binder

reinforcement by the use of grids
combinations of geo-textiles and grids
interlayer systems with thin sand asphalt
surface treatment with modified or conventional binder before placing
the overlay
n a membrane made of polyester threads or glass fibre in combination

with a bituminous binder
n specialised binders or mix designs, or special materials such as fibres,

in the overlay mix
n reprocessing of the existing asphalt surface by the aid of heating

Any specialised method under consideration shall be assessed together
with conventional alternatives to select the most cost effective and
technically appropriate option. Any modification of the overlay mix itself
shall not compromise the ability of the layer to withstand plastic
deformation under traffic.
9.4.3
Multi-layer reseals by the use of high
bitumen spray rates can effectively seal
cracks provided the cracks are not active
and their widths are not excessive.
However, some bleeding of the surface
may have to be tolerated in such cases.
9.20
Surface treatments
Specialised surface treatments utilising special binders such as bitumen

with rubber or polymer modified binders may be used for the purpose of
enhancing the ability of a maintenance reseal to arrest crack reflection.
The designer shall consider whether alternative multi-layer reseals by the
use of conventional binders, or increased resealing frequency, are likely to
give similar results as specialised binders, and make estimations of which
is the more cost effective solution.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 9
References
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
9-6
9-7
9-8
9-9
9 - 10
9 - 11
9 - 12
9 - 13
9 - 14
9 - 15
9 - 16
9 - 17
9 - 18
Comments:

COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH
12 (1997): Bituminous pavement rehabilitation design. CSRA,
Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
EMBY, J, C R JONES, and M S MUSTAFA (1992). The use of hot
surface treatment to rehabilitate cracked asphalt concrete surfacings in
Malaysia. Proc. the seventh REAAA Conference, Singapore, June 1992.
COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of practice for
pavement rehabilitation. CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.
HIZAM HARUN, M and C R JONES (1992). The performance of
polymer modified asphaltic concrete on climbing lanes in Malaysia.
Proc. the sixteenth ARRB Conference, November 1992, Melbourne,
Australia.
HIZAM HARUN, M and G MOROSIUK (1995). A study of the
performance of various bituminous surfacings for use on climbing
lanes. Proc. eighth REAAA conference, Taipei, April 1995.
QUEENSLAND TRANSPORT (June 1992). Pavement rehabilitation
manual. Pavements and Asset Strategy Branch, Queensland Transport,
Australia.
RILEM REPORT 18 (1997). Prevention of Reflective Cracking in
Pavements, Edited by A.Vanelstraete and L.Francken.
ROLT, J, H R SMITH and C R JONES, (1986). The design and performance of bituminous overlays in tropical environments. Proc.
Second International Conference on Bearing Capacity of Roads and
Airfields, Plymouth, Bristol, UK.
ROLT, J, M S HASIM, M HAMEED and Z SUFFIAN (1996). The
prediction and treatment of reflection cracking in thin bituminous
overlays. Second Malaysian Road Conference96, Innovations in Road
Building, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
THE ASPHALT INSTITUTE (1969). Asphalt overlays and pavement
rehabilitation. Asphalt Institute manual (MS-17), USA.
KENNEDY CK, LISTER NW (1978). Prediction of pavement
performance and the design of overlays. TRRL Laboratory report 833.
Crowthorne, UK.
structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical
countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne, for ODA,
London, UK.
WESTON D J (1980). Expansive soil treatment for southern Africa.
Proc. 4th International Conference on Expansive Soils, Denver, USA.
Ministry of Works
9.21
Project appraisal
Ch
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement Materials
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment

Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads

selection of design
Ministry of Works
Chapter 10
Bituminous
Surfacings
Chapter 10
Bituminous Surfacings
Comments:
10.0 General
This chapter establishes procedures for design and construction of
surfacing layers made of bituminous materials whether these are to be
used in the construction of new roads, or rehabilitation or maintenance of
existing roads. Figure 10.1 indicates the expected resurfacing frequency
when using various types of surfacing, i.e. the expected period from the
time a surfacing is applied until resurfacing is required.
Years
Type of surfacing
*) It is beneficial to apply an early reseal

with surface treatment on asphalt concrete
in order to prevent cracks developing from
the surface as a result of hardening of the
binder.
Asphalt Concrete
9 10 11 12 13 14
*)
Double Surface Dressing

Double Otta Seal
Single Otta Seal with a Sand Cover Seal
Single Surface Dressing with a Sand Cover Seal
Double Sand Seal
Figure 10.1 Expected resurfacing frequency
The indicated resurfacing frequencies in Figure 10.1 are shown as ranges

because the actual surfacing life will vary and depends on a number of
factors such as:
n
workmanship
n
aggregate size, i.e. thickness of the seal
n
binder quality
n
type of base course
n
climate
n
traffic
10.1 Priming
10.1.0 General
Priming must not be confused with
applying a membrane of bitumen
emulsion for curing of cemented base
courses, where the purpose is to seal off
the layer, but with no penetration of the
bituminous material into the surface.
/Chapter 7.3 Cemented Materials/.
The purpose of priming is to prepare a completed surface of unbound

base course materials to receive a bituminous surfacing and to protect the
base course from any damage until the surfacing is in place. This is done
by spraying a light cutback bitumen to bind the surface of the base course
and to penetrate into the surface.
10.1.1
Materials and construction
Materials
Standard cutback bitumen for priming are MC30 and MC70, of which
MC30 penetrates more easily than the latter. MC30 shall be used unless
excessive absorption into the surface or base course particles is observed,
thus requiring the heavier MC70 prime. MC70 shall be used if a delay of
more than one month is expected before the bituminous surfacing is placed.
Required prime spray rates will normally

be between 0.7 l/m2 and 1.0 l/m2, in special
cases of an absorbent base course, up to
1.2 l/m2.
10.2
Construction
Spray rates of prime shall be determined on site as required. The surface
shall be cleaned of loose material by the use of sweeping or blowing with
compressed air as required. Light dampening with water prior to priming
may be beneficial, but no excessive or repeated watering shall be allowed.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 10
Crusher dust or a suitable sand shall be spread at a rate of 0.005 m3/m2

where temporary passage of traffic is necessary or if there is a risk of the
prime being picked up on tyres when applying subsequent layers.
Comments:
10.2 Surface Dressing

10.2.0 General
Surface dressing is a sprayed bituminous seal characterised by the use of

single sized aggregate (chipping) of a relatively refined quality. Double
surface dressings are used in construction of new roads and for reseals of
roads where deterioration of the existing surface has made use of a single
seal insufficient. The design procedure for surface dressing is based on
Hansons principles, i.e required bitumen spray rate is a function of the
Average Least Dimension (ALD) of the aggregate. Corrections for prevailing
site conditions are subsequently carried out as described in this chapter.
10.2.1 Application rates for planning purposes
Application rates of chipping and binder for surface dressing shall be

determined as described in this chapter based on information about site
conditions and aggregate properties. The material consumption given in
Table 10.1 can be assumed for planning purposes until such project
details are available.
Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 6/
Special designs such as application of

three layers may be used under special
circumstances, i.e. when resealing
surfaces that are cracked or extremely
hungry. This method can salvage a
pavement having a surface in poor
condition, thus give considerable benefits
provided the pavement is otherwise
structurally sound. However, some
bleeding of the surface may have to be
tolerated in such cases.
Table 10.1 Surface dressing - application rates for planning purposes

D ouble seals
2 nd :
1st :
10 mm
20 mm
Single seals - reseals

2 nd
1st
: 7 mm
: 14 mm
14mm
10 mm
0.012
0.010
/m2 ]:
]:
Aggregate spread rates [m3 /m
2nd layer
0.009
0.007
1s t layer
0.015
0.011
]:
H ot spray rates of 80/100 penetration grade bitumen [l/m2 ]:
Li ght traffi c
A A D T < 200
3.0 (total)
2.3 (total)
1.6
1.3
Medi um traffi c
AAD T 200-1000
2.5 (total)
1.9 (total)
1.3
1.0
Heavy traffi c
A A D T > 1000
2.1 (total)
1.7 (total)
1.1
0.8
Conversions from hot spray rate in volume (litres) to tonnes for payment
purposes shall be made for the bitumen density at a spraying temperature
of 180oC. For planning purposes a hot density of 0.90 kg/l shall be
assumed until reliable data for the particular bitumen are available.
10.2.2 Aggregate requirements
The aggregate for surface dressing shall be durable and free from organic
matter or any other contamination. Table 10.2 gives the material
Ministry of Works
10.3
Chapter 10
Comments:
The following ranges of ALD can be
expected for aggregates meeting the
requirements for grading and Flakiness
Index:
- Nominal size 20 mm:
ALD range 10.5 mm to
14 mm
ALD range 7.5 mm
to
10 mm

ALD range 5.5 mm
to
7 mm
requirements for the aggregate. The Average Least Dimension (ALD) of

the aggregate shall be determine as described in /Appendix A8.6/ and
expressed in mm.
Table 10.2 Aggregate requirements for surface dressing
Material
property
Sieve siz e
[ mm ]
ALD of 7 mm chipping, and smaller, need

not to be determined for surfacing design
purposes.
N ominal aggregate siz e

20 mm
14 mm
10 mm
7 mm
Grading, [ % passing ]
25
20
100
85 - 100
100
14
10
0 - 30
0-5
85 - 100
0 - 30
85 - 100
100
6.3
5
0-5
-
0 - 30
0-5
80 - 100
0 - 40
2.36
0.425
< 0.5
< 1.0
< 1.0
0-5
< 1.5
0.075
< 0.3
< 0.5
< 0.5
< 1.0
Flaki ness Index
max 20
TFV d ry
TFV
s o a k e d 2 4 hr s
max 25
max 30
AAD T > 1000: mi n 160 kN

AAD T < 1000: mi n 120 kN
mi n 75% of the correspondi ng TFVd ry
C ML tests 2.4 and 2.7 are referred to.
10.2.3 Binder
Successful use of cutback bitumen
requires special measures during
construction, such as introducing
considerable delays between application
of successive layers in order to prevent
prolonged bleeding of the surfacing.
Closure to traffic to prevent early loss of
chipping may be necessary if the softer
cutback bitumen is unable to hold the
chipping in place initially.
The design procedure in this manual
does not allow for the use of bitumen
emulsion as binder. This type of binder
requires special design procedures /10
-3/ due to the very low viscosity of the
binder at the time of spraying.
Bitumen from different sources will have

different density and this information is
available from delivery certificates.
10.4
Type of binder
Penetration grade bitumen of types 80/100 or 150/200 shall be used for
surface dressing unless specific site conditions require use of other grades
of bitumen. Bitumen types that contain solvents, such as MC3000 cutback bitumen, are only required for surface dressing laid under cold
conditions at temperatures below 15 0C. Such conditions are only
expected to occur in regions at high altitude.
Correction of spray rates for the type of binder
Bitumen spray rates shall be increased by 10% in the applications where
MC3000 cutback bitumen is used in surface dressing. The 10% increase
of spray rates when using MC3000 is made to compensate for loss of
solvents in cutback bitumen. Such correction of the bitumen spray rates
shall not be carried out for penetration grade bitumen such as 80/100 or
150/200.
Construction and spray rate measurements
The spraying temperature of 80/100 penetration grade bitumen shall be
170oC to 185oC. All storage and handling of bitumen shall be in
accordance with /Appendix A5/.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 10
Bitumen has a considerably different density when cold compared to

spraying temperature and it is important to use the hot density in all
conversions between tonnage and hot spray rate. Conversions from hot
spray rate in litres - to tonnes - shall be made at the bitumens density at a
spraying temperature of 180oC for the purpose payment and for control of
spray rates where control is carried out by weighing of sample trays. If
control of spray rates are carried out by the use of a calibrated dipstick in
the distributor tank then the hot spray rate shall be applied directly in the
control. If the temperature/density relationship for the bitumen is unavailable then a reduction in density by of 0.0006 kg/l shall be applied for
each oC increase in temperature from that of the known density.
Comments:
10.2.4 Traffic
The base bitumen spray rates are given as a function of the AADT, which
shall be the traffic volume immediately after the surface dressing is
opened to traffic. The following is assumed in the surfacing design:
n surfaced width is minimum 6 m
n the road has one lane in each direction
n AADT is made up of traffic figures approximately equal in each
direction, i.e. not a larger difference than a 60/40% distribution
n there is minimum15% heavy vehicles in the traffic flow
For roads with a surfaced width of less than 6 m, the traffic figure AADT
+ 50% shall be used as input in the surfacing design. For roads with more
than one lane in each direction (dual carriageway) and for roads where
traffic volumes in each direction are more unequal than a 60/40%
distribution, the traffic data shall be assessed separately and consideration
given to the use of different spray rates for the respective lanes.
Correction of the bitumen spray rates shall be carried out as prescribed in
Chapter 10.2.5 and Chapter 10.2.6 for roads with less heavy traffic than
15% and for special load conditions such as climbing lanes.
Areas that will receive excessive construction traffic shall be assessed
specially and may require reduced bitumen spray rates. Special
conditions, such as sections of new road which will remain un-trafficked
for a long time after the seal is placed constructed, shall be assessed
separately and may require increased bitumen spray rates or preferably
application of an emulsion fogspray Chapter 10.2.9.
Heavy vehicles are defined as having

an un-laden weight of more than 3
tonnes, or buses with a seating capacity
of 40 or more /Chapter 4 Traffic/.
10.2.5 Single surface dressing - reseals

General
Single surface dressing is suitable for maintenance resealing and shall not
be used in construction of new roads with unbound base course materials
unless on specific agreement with the Ministry of Works at project level.
Bitumen spray rates single surface dressing and reseals
The hot bitumen spray rates for single surface dressings are given in Table
10.3 with corresponding corrections for site conditions. The corrections of
spray rates in Table 10.3 are cumulative and shall be arithmetically added
where more than one correction apply.
Ministry of Works
Use of single surface dressings on

unbound base course materials carry a
considerable risk of early maintenance,
and places excessive demands for
workmanship in order to give satisfactory
performance. The designer should rather
consider combination seals that utilise
sand seal in the final layer. Alternatively
Otta seals can be used where budget
constraints do not allow for double surface
dressing.
10.5
Chapter 10
Comments:
Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 6/
Table 10.3
Bitumen spray rates, single surface dressing and reseals
1)
AAD T 1)
B asic hot bitumen spray rate [l/m2 ]
< 50
0.19 x ALD
2)
50 - 100
0.17 x ALD
2)
100 - 250
0.16 x ALD
2)
250 - 500
0.14 x ALD
2)
500 - 1500
0.13 x ALD
2)
> 1500
0.12 x ALD
2)
1) Assumed a two lane road, mi n 6 metres wi de. Chapter 10.2.4 refers for correcti on of
traffi c fi gures for di fferent cross secti ons.
2) ALD is measured in mm. Assume ALD=5 mm if chipping with nominal size of 7 mm is used.
Site conditions
C orrection of bitumen
spray rates [l/m2]
14 mm
aggregate
10 mm
aggregate
- 0.3
- 0.2
+ 0.3
+ 0.2
Less than 15% heavy vehi cles
+ 0.2
+ 0.1
Climbing lanes with a gradient steeper than 5%
- 0.2
- 0.1
D usty aggregate ( > 0.5% pass. 0.425 mm )
+ 0.2
+ 0.1
Absorbent aggregate ( > 2% water absorption )
+ 0.2
+ 0.2
Pre-coated aggregate *)
- 0.1
- 0.1
Underlyi ng surface:
- Soft or fatty bi tumi nous surface
- lean, bi tumi nous surface
- C oarse, absorbent (hungry) surface
*) In cases where the aggregate i s pre-coated, no correcti on shall be made for dusty or
absorbent aggregate. C orrecti ons when usi ng emulsi on fogspray are descri bed i n
Chapter 10.2.9.
10.2.6 Double surface dressing
Worked Example
General
Design of double surface dressing is carried out by determining the
bitumen spray rates separately for the two layers.
/Appendix A8. 6/
The aggregate sizes may not mesh in

and provide interlocking of the seal if
unsuitable combinations of nominal
aggregate sizes are used. This can in turn
cause construction problems and need for
excessive bitumen spray rates if loss of
chipping is to be avoided.
10.6
Aggregate sizes in double surface dressing

Appropriate combinations of aggregate sizes are given in Table 10.4 and
shall be used in double surface dressing. Bitumen spray rates 1st layer in
double surface dressings.
The hot bitumen spray rate for the 1st layer in a double surface dressing is
given in Table 10.5. with corresponding corrections for site conditions.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 10
Table 10.4 Aggregate sizes for double surface dressing
Comments:
N ominal aggregate siz es [mm]
L ay er
Coarse surfacing type1)
Fi ne surfaci ng type
2nd layer
10
1s t layer
20
14
2)
1) The coarse surfaci ng type i s preferred on roads wi th hi gh traffi c, or i f the base course
materi al has a soft surface causi ng consi derable embedment of the aggregate i nto the
base course. The use of the coarse type wi ll i n such cases carry less ri sk of achi evi ng
i ncorrect bi tumen spray rates causi ng ei ther heavy bleedi ng or loss of stones.
2) The fi ne surfaci ng type forms a thi nner seal, best sui ted where traffi c volumes are low. It
i s cheaper to construct than the coarse type due to lower consumpti on of materi als. On
roads wi th very low traffi c the coarse type wi ll requi re consi derable quanti ti es of
bi tumen to perform sati sfactori ly, renderi ng the fi ne type more economi cal.
The corrections in Table 10.5 are cumulative and shall be arithmetically

added where more than one correction apply.
Table 10.5
Bitumen spray rates 1st layer
1)
AAD T 1)
B asic hot bitumen spray rate [l/m2 ]
< 50
0.17 x ALD
2)
50 - 100
0.15 x ALD
2)
100 - 250
0.13 x ALD
2)
250 - 500
0.12 x ALD
2)
500 - 1500
0.11 x ALD
2)
> 1500
0.10 x ALD
2)
1) Assumed a two lane road, min 6 metres wide. Chapter 10.2.4 Refer to correction of
2) ALD is measured in mm.
Site conditions
spray rates [l/m2 ]
20 mm
aggregate
14 mm
aggregate
- 0.4
- 0.3
- Lean, bi tumi nous surface, dry pri me
- C oarse, absorbent (hungry) surface
+ 0.3
+ 0.2
Less than 15% heavy vehi cles
+ 0.3
+ 0.2
Climbing lanes with a gradient steeper than 5%
- 0.3
- 0.2
+ 0.2
+ 0.2
Absorbent aggregate ( > 2% water absorption )
+ 0.2
+ 0.2
Underlyi ng surface:
- Soft or fatty bi tumi nous surface, wet pri me
Ministry of Works
10.7
Chapter 10
Comments:
Bitumen spray rates 2nd layer in double surface dressings

The hot bitumen spray rate for the 2nd layer in a double surface dressing is
given in Table 10.6. The corrections in Table 10.6 are cumulative and
shall be arithmetically added where more than one correction apply.
Table 10.6
Bitumen spray rates 2nd layer
AAD T
B asic hot bitumen spray rate [l/m2]
1)
1)
10 mm aggregate
7 mm aggregate
< 50
0.16 x ALD (i n mm)
1.0
50 - 100
0.15 x ALD (i n mm)
0.9
100 - 500
1.0
0.8
500 1500
0.9
0.7
> 1500
0.8
0.6
1) Assumed a two lane road, mi n 6 metres wi de. Chapter 10.2.4 refers for correcti on of
spray rates [l/m2]
Site conditions
10 mm
aggregate
7 mm
aggregate
C arri ageway wi th less than 15% heavy

vehi cles
+ 0.2
+ 0.1
+ 0.1
Absorbent aggregate ( > 2% water

absorpti on )
+ 0.1
+ 0.1
Pre-coated aggregate
- 0.1
- 0.1
*)
*) In cases where the aggregate i s pre-coated, no correcti on shall be made for dusty or
absorbent aggregate. C orrecti ons when usi ng emulsi on fogspray are descri bed i n
Chapter 10.2.9.
It is easier to correct under-application

of chipping by hand during and after the
operation than to correct over-application.
Site staff has generally a tendency to overapply chipping rather than the reverse.
Where dusty or soft qualities of aggregate
are used it is particularly important not to
over-apply chipping as this will cause
increased accumulation of dust in the fresh
seal thus increasing the risk of aggregate
loss.
Bitumen emulsion diluted with water to
give a bitumen content of 20% is a suitable
pre-coating agent, however alternative
agents may be used provided their
effectiveness is proven.
10.8
10.2.7 Aggregate spread rates
The required aggregate spread rate shall be visually determined on site.

Table 10.1 gives a guidance to the spread rates for planning purposes. It is
important not to over-apply aggregate, particularly in the first layer of a
double surface dressing where a correct spread rate gives an aggregate
cover of about 90% of the surface.
10.2.8 Pre-coating of aggregate

General
A considerable assurance of a good result is attained by pre-coating the
aggregate in single reseals, or the final layer of double seals. Pre-coating
eliminates problems with stone retention due to dusty aggregates and
usually makes control of the aggregate spread rate easier, thereby economising on the materials. The agent used for pre-coating shall have a hard
binder base, i.e. diesel or paraffin alone shall not be used. Pre-coating
agents shall have no adverse effect on environment or personnel.
Ministry of Works
Chapter 10

The pre-coating rate shall be 10 to 15 litres per m3 of aggregate and the
aggregate shall be slightly wet before mixing in the cases where emulsion
is used. The aggregate shall be left in stockpile until the pre-coating agent
has set sufficiently for the aggregate to be spread without difficulties and
provide initial bond to the bitumen film.
Comments:
The pre-coating agent can be admixed
by use of a mixing plant or by simple
mixing at the stockpiling site using
ordinary loading equipment.
10.2.9 Emulsion fogspray
In construction of new surface dressings application of emulsion fogspray

as a final coat gives enhanced stone retention and an opportunity to
correct the bitumen content in the seal. The procedures described in
Chapter 10.6 Surface Enrichment shall apply. 50% of the bitumen
applied in the fogspray shall be considered effective in the design of the
surface dressing and the bitumen spray rates of the final layer of chipping
shall be reduced accordingly.
Emulsion fogspray in new construction

is not used where the aggregate is precoated.
10.2.10 Adhesion agents
An active adhesion agent of a renowned manufacture shall be admixed to

the bitumen or aggregate according to the manufacturers specifications if
the chipping is wet. In such cases the road shall be closed to traffic until
the fresh seal has dried completely and the bond between aggregate and
bitumen is established. Adhesion agents shall not be used if the chipping
is pre-coated. The manufacturers specifications for use of each particular
product shall be adhered to.
Some adhesion agents start to lose their

effect when coming into contact with hot
bitumen. For further details on handling
of adhesion agents: /Appendix A5/.
The use of an adhesion agent in
combination with deliberate wetting of the
chipping can be an effective method to
reduce any problems with dusty chipping.
10.3 Otta Seals

10.3.0 General
Description
The Otta Seal is a sprayed bituminous surfacing using graded aggregates
ranging from natural gravel to graded crushed rock instead of the single
sized crushed chipping used in conventional surface dressings. The
acceptance of a broad variety of aggregate qualities, but still giving good
results in a bituminous seal, is the typical feature of Otta Seals. This is
achieved by using soft binders and high application rates of both binder
and aggregate. Priming of the base course is unnecessary when using Otta
Seals, but may be desired for operational reasons.
New construction
The Otta Seal can be constructed in a single or double layer and may be
followed by a sand cover seal. Single Otta Seals without a sand cover seal
shall not be used as permanent seals in new construction unless limited
service life is desired such as for temporary seals e.g. on diversions.
Maintenance
Otta Seals of any type, including single Otta Seals, can be used for
maintenance resealing.
Ministry of Works
The Otta Seal method has no different

limitation with regards to traffic volume
than the conventional surface dressing
with single sized chipping.
The combination of a single Otta Seal

with a sand cover seal is particularly
economical for roads with low and medium
traffic volumes. Double Otta Seals are
warranted for roads with higher traffic.
Single Otta Seals are normally used for

maintenance resealing or as temporary
seals.
10.9
Chapter 10
10.3.1 Aggregate and binder
Comments:
The Otta seal is particularly flexible in
accepting aggregates of a large variety of
material types and gradings. Natural
gravel however often requires
screening to remove oversize particles
and sometimes to reduce the fines
content in the material.
Aggregates for Otta Seals can be natural gravel, crushed gravel or crushed
rock or stones. The material shall be free from lumps of clay or other deleterious matter. The required aggregate properties are included in Table 10.8.
Binder for Otta Seals shall be in the viscosity range from MC800 cutback
bitumen to 150/200 penetration grade bitumen, i.e. 80/100 shall never be
used. Selection of correct binder type for the prevailing conditions shall
be made in accordance with Table 10.8. Adhesion agents shall be
admixed to the binder at minimum 0.5% when the aggregate is natural
gravel, or as required depending on adhesion properties when crushed
aggregate is used.
10.3.2 Types of Otta Seals

Overview of a Double Otta Seal using
natural graded gravel as aggregate
(material > 19 mm was screened by hand).
The recommended types of Otta Seals for various types of work and
traffic volumes are given in Table 10.7.
Table 10.7 Recommended Otta Seal concept
Traffic v olume and ty pe of work
Otta Seal ty pes
Temporary seal (di versi ons, haul roads, etc.)

Mai ntenance reseali ng (all traffi c classes to
whi ch sprayed surfaci ngs are appli cable)
Close-up the graded aggregate used in

Otta Seal. Note the dense surface matrix.
Si ngle Otta Seal
Shoulders, all types of roads
Si ngle Otta Seal + sand

cover seal
C arri ageway, AAD T max 500 at the ti me of

constructi on
Si ngle Otta Seal + sand

cover seal
C arri ageway, AAD T more than 500 at the

ti me of constructi on *)
D ouble Otta Seal
*) The li mi tati ons i n traffi c volume are si mi lar to that appli ed to any alternati ve sprayed
type of surfaci ng.
10.3.3 Material requirements and design of Otta Seals

Aggregate for Otta Seals shall meet the requirements in Table 10.8
Table 10.8 Material requirements for Otta Seals
Material
properties
Aggregate strength
Plasticity Index
Flakiness Index
Requirements
AADT>100: TFVsoaked : min. 75% of TFV dry
AADT>100: TFVdry: min. 110 kN
CML test
method
For AADT<100: 60%
For AADT<100: 90kN
max 12
max 30 (Only valid for crushed material)
Grading requirements [% passing]

100
20
60 - 100
14
36 - 98
10
10 - 70
5
0 - 44
2
0 - 38
1,18
0 - 25
0,425
0 - 10
0,075
The grading shall be continuous and have a smooth curve following the shape of the grading envelope.
2.7
1.2 and 1.3
2.4
Sieve sizes [mm]
10.10
1.7
Ministry of Works
Chapter 10
Table 10.9 gives the criteria for selection of bitumen type and spray rates
for Otta Seals. No special design procedure is required for Otta Seals used
on shoulders. No correction of bitumen spray rate shall be made to
compensate for solvents in cutback bitumen in the design of Otta Seals.
Comments:
Table 10.9 Design of Otta Seals

Procedure for design and after-treatment
Coarse grading
Sieve sizes
[mm]
1)
1)
Medium grading
[% passing]
1)
Fine grading
1)
[% passing]
[% passing]
100
20
100
100
84 - 100
14
60 - 82
68 - 94
70 - 98
10
36 - 58
44 - 73
44 - 70
5
10 - 30
19 - 42
20 - 44
2
0-8
3 - 18
15 - 38
1,18
0-5
1 - 14
7 - 25
0,425
0-2
0-6
3 - 10
0,075
0-1
0-2
These grading envelopes are given for the the purpose of proper design of the seal and are not material requirements for aggregate.
CML test
method
1.7
Type of bitumen
AADT at the time

of construction
More than 1000
The grading should be

altered for this application
150/200 penetration grade
100 - 1000
150/200 normally
MC3000 in cold weather
MC3000 normally
MC3000 normally
Less than 100
MC3000
MC800
80/100 penetration grade bitumen shall not be used in Otta Seal unless softened or cut back to meet the above requirements.
Softening to make 150/200:
3% - 5% softener is mixed with 95% - 97% 80/100 pen. grade bitumen. Softener can be a
purpose-made petroleum destillate, alternatively engine oil, old or new.
The cutback bitumen grades can be made by blending 150/200 pen. grade bitumen on site using the following proportions:
MC3000:
5% - 8% kerosine mixed with 92% - 95% 150/200 pen. grade bitumen
MC800:
15% - 18% kerosine mixed with 82% - 85% 150/200 pen. grade bitumen
If the cutback grades are made directly from 80/100 pen. grade bitumen, then an additional 3% - points kerosine shall be used.
Diesel shall not be used for cutting back to MC grades. Circulation in the tank shall be carried out at least 1 hour after mixing.
Proper safety procedures shall be adhered to in the case cutting back on site is being done.
2nd layer
1st layer 2)
Alt. fine sand
Alt. Crusher
dust or coarse
river sand
1st layer 2)
Double
Single, with a
sand cover seal
Hot bitumen spray rates for un-primed base course
Type of Otta Seal
1,5
1,6
0,7
1,6
1,7
0,7
0,9
0,8
1,7
1,9
[l/m ]
AADT<100: 1.8
AADT<100: 2.0
0,6
0,7
1,6
1,7
1,9
AADT<100: 2.0
Single 2)
1,7
1,8
1,9
AADT<100: 2.0
Maintenance reseal (single)
1,5
1,6
1,7
AADT<100: 1.8
2
2) On a primed base course the spray rate shall be reduced by 0.2 l/m in the first layer.
2
Notes:
- Where the aggregate has a water absorbency more than 2%, the spray rates shall be increased by 0.3 l/m .
- Binder for the sand cover seal shall be: MC3000 for crusher dust or coarse river sand, MC800 for fine sand.
Aggregate spread rates
Type of seal
Otta Seals
Sand cover seals
0.013 - 0.016
0.013 - 0.016
0.010 - 0.012
[m /m ]
0.016 - 0.020
Rolling and after-treatment:

- On the day of construction:
- For the next two days after construction:
- Two weeks after contruction:
10.3.4 Construction
1 pass with static steel roller + 15 passes with pneumatic roller.

1 pass with static steel roller + 15 passes with pneumatic roller.
Sweep off any excess stones.
The construction procedure for Otta Seals is similar to conventional surface

dressings. If prime is omitted then the preparation of the base course shall be
done in accordance with Chapter 10.1 Priming prior to construction of
the Otta Seal. Rolling of the seal shall be extensive in accordance with
Table 10.9 and the seal shall be opened to traffic immediately after
construction. Construction of following layers shall be delayed as follows
depending on the type of bitumen used in the previous layer:
n 150/200 pen. grade bitumen:
min 3 to 6 weeks
n MC800 or MC3000 cutback bitumen: min 2 to 3 months
Ministry of Works
Comments:
Some fatting up of Otta Seals is normal
and should cause no alarm; more
aggregate is applied, and preferably rolled,
if bleeding becomes heavy. Aggregate
may be applied by hand or by the use of
mechanical chip-spreaders. When
spreading by hand the aggregate layer
should prefeferably be levelled by
brooming prior to rolling.
10.11
Chapter 10
Comments:
10.4 Other Surface Treatments

10.4.1 Sand seals
General
Sand seals are sprayed bituminous surfacings made with natural river
sand or crusher dust as aggregate. Constructed in two layers a sand seal is
used as a permanent bituminous surfacing on low traffic roads while a
single layer is not sufficiently durable unless combined with an
underlying Otta seal or surface dressing. Sand seals are also used as a
maintenance remedy on existing surface treated roads.
Aggregate requirements
The aggregate for sand seals shall be clean, non-plastic river sand or crusher
dust made from fresh crushed rock or boulders, free from organic matter
or lumps of clay. The grading requirements are given in Table 10.10.
Table 10.10 Aggregate requirements for sand seals
Siev e siz e
[mm]
Grading, [% passing]
Natural ri ver sand
10
5
1.18
C rusher dust
100
100
85 - 100
85 - 100
20 - 60
20 - 80
0.425
0 - 30
0.300
0 - 15
0.150
0-5
0 - 30
Binder and aggregate application rates

The binder for sand seals shall be cutback bitumen of type MC3000. The
bitumen spray rates for sand seals are given in Table 10.11.
Table 10.11 Bitumen and aggregate application rates for sand seals
Application
Hot spray rates of Aggregate

application rate,
MC3000 cutback
/m2 ]
bitumen [l/m2 ] 1 ) [m3 /m
D ouble sand seal used as a

permanent seal
1.2 per layer
Si ngle sand seal used as a

cover seal i n combi nati on wi th
Otta seal or surface dressi ng
0.8 1.0
Si ngle sand seal used as a

mai ntenance remedy on
exi sti ng surface treated roads
0.6 1.0
0.010 0.012
per layer
2)
0.010 0.012
2)
1) No correcti on of bi tumen spray rate shall be made to compensate for loss of solvents
i n cutback bi tumen i n the desi gn of sand seals.
2) Bi nder spray rates depend on the texture of the underlyi ng seal.
10.12
Ministry of Works
Chapter 10
Construction
Priming is not essential when using sand seals in new construction. If
prime is omitted then the preparation of the base course shall be done in
accordance with Chapter 10.1 Priming prior to construction of the sand
seal.
The sand seal shall receive the maximum possible rolling with pneumatic
tyred rollers within the first 2 days after spraying. A minimum period of 2
months shall elapse between application of successive layers, during
which time the road shall be open to traffic.
Comments:
Sand may be applied by hand or by the

use of mechanical chip spreaders. When
spreading by hand the sand layer should
be levelled by brooming prior to rolling.
Sand seals should be opened to traffic
immediately after construction.
10.4.2 Combined seals using a sand cover-seal

General
Use of single surface dressing followed by a sand seal, or a single Otta
seal followed by a sand seal, are economical methods to provide a durable
seal with good stone retention.
Materials, design and construction
The 1st seal shall be designed as a single surface dressing according to
Chapter 10.2.5 or a single Otta seal according to Chapter 10.3 respectively.
Pre-coating of the aggregate, or emulsion fogspray, shall not be used when
a sand seal will follow a single surface dressing.
Worked Example
/Appendix A8. 6/
The 2nd seal shall be designed according to Chapter 10.4.1 Sand seals.
10.5 Slurry Seals

10.5.0 General
Slurry is a cold premixed material made of crusher-dust, a stable grade of

bitumen emulsion, cement or lime filler and water for adjustment of
consistency. The consistency is creamy and the mix is poured onto the
road surface. The economy of the slurry seal depends entirely on the
availability of crusher dust. Long transport of bitumen emulsion may
further increase cost and render the method uneconomical. Slurry seals
however, provide an economical utilisation of resources where crusher
dust is in abundant supplies from quarries.
The slurry seal is primarily a maintenance remedy used for resealing to
arrest loss of chipping in existing surface dressings and to restore texture.
Slurry seals however, may be used in new construction as a grout seal
following a single surface dressing or in multiple layers directly on the
base course on low traffic roads.
10.5.1 Materials, design and construction

Aggregate
Aggregate for slurry seals shall be crusher dust free of organic matter or
other contamination, meeting the requirements given in Table 10.12.
Ministry of Works
The use of slurry seals in new

construction as a grout seal following a
single surface dressing is a concept
called Cape seal /10-3/.
Surface cracks reflect relatively quickly
through slurry seals and they generally
give a shorter service life than surface
dressings and Otta seals. The slurry seal
does however make good aesthetics and
a uniform texture across the width of the
road that makes resealing with a surface
dressing easy to construct at a later time.
10.13
Chapter 10
Comments:
Table 10.12 Aggregate requirements for slurry seals

Siev e siz e
[mm]
Grading [% passing]
Fi ne type
10
C oarse type
100
100
85 - 100
2
1.18
85 - 100
60 - 90
50 - 90
32 - 70
0.425
0.150
32 - 60
10 - 27
20 - 44
7 - 20
0.075
4 - 12
2-8
Laboratory test C ML 1.7 i s referred to.
Binder
The binder for slurry shall be a bitumen emulsion suitable for the purpose
in accordance with manufacturers specifications and the relevant
AASHTO Specifications.
Slurry seals can be mixed and placed
using labour based methods, but selfpropelled combined mixing and laying
machines are preferred for large scale
operations. The layer can be trafficked
soon after the emulsion has broken and
the seal has dried.
Construction
Slurry sealing work shall not be carried out if rain is threatening. The
treated areas shall be closed to traffic until the emulsion has broken and
traffic does not pick up the seal or form tracks in the layer.
On roads with of less than 100 vehicles per day per lane the slurry seal
shall be rolled with pneumatic tyre rollers as soon as the equipment can
enter the sealed area without picking up the slurry on the tyres.
10.6 Surface Enrichment

10.6.0 General
The treatment is normally employed as a

maintenance remedy for surface
dressings between scheduled reseals,
in intervals of 2 to 4 years. The basic
procedure is also used as a final coat in
construction of surface dressings,
Chapter 10.2.
Surface enrichment (fogspray) is a light application of a bitumen

emulsion, normally without covering aggregate, sprayed on an existing
surface dressing. The following are the purposes of surface enrichment:
n correction of insufficient amounts of binder in the existing surfacing
n arresting aggregate loss caused by a hardened (aged) binder
n sealing of minor cracks - waterproofing
n a holding measure awaiting full resealing
Surface enrichment shall not be used on surfaces with a smooth texture
where the flow of binder into the surfacing is prevented, thus causing
slippery driving conditions.
10.6.1 Materials and construction

Materials
Bitumen emulsion meeting the relevant AASHTO Specifications shall be
used for surface enrichment. The emulsion shall be sufficiently stable to
10.14
Ministry of Works
Chapter 10
allow dilution down to a bitumen content of 30% and have properties

suitable for the purpose of surface enrichment in respect of stability and
rate of break.
Construction
The emulsion shall be diluted to a bitumen content of max. 40% before
spraying. If site conditions require a heavier rate of bitumen, then this
shall be achieved by repeated spraying and not the use of a higher bitumen content in the emulsion. If break of the emulsion takes place on the
top of the aggregates without flowing down to the bottom of the
surfacing, then watering shall be done prior to spraying, alternatively
further dilution of the emulsion as required. The spray rate shall be
determined on site depending on weather conditions, rate of dilution,
surface texture, crossfall, gradient and traffic conditions. A hot, dry
surface and a high bitumen content in the emulsion can cause break of the
emulsion on top of the aggregate without flowing into the surfacing as
necessary to perform its function causing picking up of aggregate and a
slippery surface.
Comments:
Spray rates for surface enrichment will

normally fall between 0.7 l/m2 and 1.3 l/m2
per application. Use of high spray rates
carries risk of run-off to the shoulders.
Surface enrichment work shall not be carried out if rain is threatening. The
treated areas shall be closed to traffic until the emulsion has fully broken.
Any collection of emulsion in depressions shall be sanded off as required.
10.7
Surfacing for Shoulders
10.7.0 General
Bituminous surfacing for shoulders shall be designed and constructed to

meet the following requirements:
n provide water proofing of the shoulder
n be strong enough to withstand occasional traffic expected to use the
shoulder
n be durable enough to give a service life at least as long as the adjacent
carriageway
n preferably provide a contrast in colour or texture to the adjacent carriageway wherever this is practically and economically possible
The selection of surfacing for shoulders depends on a number of factors
such as type of pavement, likelihood of traffic using the shoulder and
construction economy. This chapter gives the preferred alternatives to suit
the various conditions and discusses alternatives that may have to be used
due to project economy.
10.7.1 Selection and design of shoulder seals

General
Shoulder seals dry out more quickly than seals in the carriageway and
therefore generally require higher bitumen spray rates. Types of seals with
a closed surface texture shall be the preferred type on shoulders due to
less likelihood of losing stones when the binder starts to harden.
Ministry of Works
10.15
Chapter 10
Comments:
Asphalt concrete
Asphalt concrete (AC) may be justified on shoulders where the adjacent
pavement utilises AC and a considerable amount of traffic is expected to
use the shoulders, e.g. in towns and built up areas.
Double surface dressing
Double surface dressing shall be used where the adjacent carriageway
utilises the same type of seal and a considerable traffic is expected to use
the shoulders, e.g. in towns and built up areas and adjacent to climbing
lanes. The bitumen spray rate shall not be lower than in the adjacent
carriageway.
Single surface dressing is not a

preferred option on shoulders with little
traffic as it dries out quickly. Covered by
a sand seal or slurry seal the service
life is however greatly improved. If a
single surface dressing is used for any
reason, the small sizes of chipping (7 or
10 mm) are preferred as they do not
require excessive bitumen spray rates
that would be needed for larger chipping.
Single surface dressing covered with a
sand seal is in most instances expected
to be the best compromise between
economy and performance for shoulders
in areas where little traffic is expected to
use the shoulder. In areas where large
amounts of traffic uses the shoulder, such
as adjacent to climbing lanes, this type of
seal may exhibit some initial bleeding, but
with little inconvenience to traffic by loss
of skid resistance due to the position
outside the carriageway.
Single surface dressing covered with a sand seal or slurry seal

Single surface dressing covered with a sand seal or slurry seal shall be the
preferred shoulder seal suitable for most pavements on roads outside
built-up areas.
The hot bitumen spray rate shall be as follows in areas where minimal
amounts of traffic is expected to use the shoulders:
+
0.7 l/m2 for the sand seal
n 14 mm chipping:
1.1 l/m2
+
n 10 mm chipping:
0.9 l/m2
+
n 7 mm chipping:
0.7 l/m2
Where a slurry seal is used instead of sand seals the following application
rates shall be used:
n on 14 mm chipping: 0.006 m3/m2 of slurry
Double sand seal
Where double sand seal is used on shoulders, the seal shall be designed
according to Chapter 10.4.1.
Use of a sand seal is in most cases less

expensive than a slurry seal.
Single sand seal

Single sand seals will have limited service due to their small layer thickness and low resistance against e.g. damage from punctured vehicles.
Where construction economy necessitates use of a single sand seal on
shoulders, the seal shall be designed according to Chapter 10.4.1.
Otta seals
Where an Otta seals is used on shoulders, the seal shall be designed
according to Chapter 10.3.
10.8 Asphalt Concrete

10.8.0 General
This chapter sets out requirements for continuously graded hot premixed
asphalt concrete (AC) surfacing. Mix types other than those described in
this chapter can however be used provided their performance meets the
requirements set out and their merits are proven under similar conditions.
10.16
Ministry of Works
Chapter 10
The ability of the AC mix to withstand plastic deformation is emphasised

due to the severe consequences with costly repair of such type of distress.
10.8.1 Required properties
The asphalt concrete shall provide a water proof surface with good
resistance against deformation and ageing, and have acceptable fatigue
properties and skid resistance. The following properties are required for
AC mixes in surfacings:
n provide sufficient resistance to plastic deformation and cracking to
withstand the expected traffic loading
n have sufficient workability to enable efficient laying and compaction
of the mix without segregation
n have sufficient air voids of the mix to avoid bleeding or loss of
resistance to deformation in cases of post-compaction under traffic
n have sufficient binder of the correct type and a suitable aggregate
grading to ensure a durable and near impermeable layer
Comments:
Plastic deformation, particularly in
climbing areas, is a common defect in AC
layers, that requires particular attention to
the provision of a mix with sufficient
stability for these load conditions.
Good resistance is ensured by applying a
surface dressing on the newly laid AC
layer.
Some of the above requirements are conflicting and may require compromises
in the design of the mix. If there is doubt whether a mix has sufficient
durability e.g. due to high air voids, then a surface dressing shall be considered in order to protect the layer against premature ageing. Sufficient stability
of the mix for the load conditions shall never be compromised in the mix
design.
10.8.2 Severely loaded areas

General
Severely loaded areas include:
n all climbing lanes with gradient 6% or steeper
n climbing lanes with gradient 4% or steeper, sustained for 1 km or longer
n approaches to major junctions
n all major town roads
n areas where traffic is channelled or slow moving for other reasons
Mix requirements in severely loaded areas
An AC mix of high stability shall be used in areas that are severely loaded.
The air voids of the mix shall be minimum 3% and remain minimum 3%
after traffic loading throughout the design period. Mixes for severely
loaded areas shall receive laboratory compaction to refusal density to
control that the mix will not post-compact to the critical air voids of 3%.
The largest aggregate size corresponding to compacted layer thickness
and other mix criteria - including required workability, shall be used in the
design of high stability mixes. The mix type AC 20 shall be considered for
wearing course under these conditions.
40/50 penetration grade bitumen shall be used in severely loaded areas,
alternatively modified binders which have documented good performance
under similar conditions. are being marketed under a large variety brands.
The effect of using a particular type of modified binder shall be properly
documented to ensure confidence in a satisfactory result.
Ministry of Works
Testing of dynamic creep is expected to

become a more common procedure for
control of deformation in AC mixes in the
future. Until standard test procedures and
performance criteria for dynamic creep are
established, compaction to refusal density
for control of potential loss of air voids shall
be used. Compaction to refusal density
involves continued Marshall compaction,
up to 2x500 blows, alternatively vibrating
hammer. Test procedures are given in the
laboratory test manuals issued by the
Central Materials Laboratory, Ministry of
Works.
There is evidence that good results can
be obtained using conventional binders
with carefully controlled aggregate grading
and mix proportions.
10.17
Chapter 10
Use of surface dressing on AC

High stability AC mixes are often high in air voids, and in order to improve
the durability of the layer the designer shall consider construction of a
surface dressing on the AC, in particular where the mix type AC 20 is used
as wearing course.
Comments:
A surface dressing on top of an A/C
reduces the rate of binder ageing taking
place at the surface, causing surface
cracks that progress into the AC layer over
time.
Severely loaded areas are prone to spillage of fuel and lubricants due to
low traffic speeds - with associated softening of the AC layer. The designer
shall consider construction of a surface dressing on the AC for the purpose
of minimising seepage of harmful fluids into the layer.
The skid resistance in wet weather is improved by applying surface
dressing on the AC.
10.8.3 Mix requirements
The required properties for AC are given in Table 10.13.

Table 10.13 Mix requirements for asphalt concrete
Material
properties
Mix type
AC 20
AC 14
Primarily binder course.
Wearing course in areas with

normal traffic loading.
mix types
Wearing course in severely

loaded areas Chapter 10.8.2.
Layer thickness [mm]
Preferably to be surface dressed

when used as wearing course.
Compacted 50 - 80
Notes - use of the different
CML test
method
AC 10
Wearing course, but only under
conditions with moderate
traffic loading.
Compacted 40 - 60
Compacted 30 - 40
Aggregate properties
Types of aggregate
Coarse aggregates shall be made of crushed fresh rock or stones. Fine aggregate, passing the
5 mm sieve, can be a material such as sand, gravel or crushed stone. All aggregate shall be durable
and free from soft or unsound particles, clay or other deleterious matter. Coral rock can be used
provided materials are carefully selected. Addition of a separate type of fines is normally needed.
Water absorption [%]
max 2
3.13
Aggregate strength
TFVsoaked : min 75% of TFV dry

TFVdry : min 110 kN
2.7
Requirements for the filler
The filler shall be hydrated lime, Portland cement, limestone dust or other suitable types proven to
give acceptable results in AC mixes under the prevailing conditions.
% passing 0.075 mm: 70 - 100 %, all material shall pass the 0.600 mm sieve size
Grading, sieve sizes

[mm]
28
20
14
10
5
2,36
1,18
0,600
0,300
0,150
0,075
Bitumen type
Normal loading conditions:
Severely loaded areas:
1.7
[ % passing ]
100
80 - 100
60 - 80
50 - 70
36 - 56
28 - 44
20 - 34
15 - 27
10 - 20
5 - 13
2-6
100
85 - 100
72 - 94
52 - 72
37 - 55
26 - 41
16 - 28
12 - 20
8 - 15
4 - 10
100
85 - 100
55 - 72
38 - 57
27 - 42
18 - 32
13 - 23
9 - 16
4 - 10

40/50 penetration grade, or modified binders
Chapter 10.8.2
1.7
3.5
Marshall (2x75 blow)

mix requirements
Stability [N]
Flow [mm]
Air voids [%]
Voids in Mineral Aggregate [%]
Refusal lab. compaction
Indirect tensile strength [kPa]
Imersion index [%]
Chapter 10.8.2
min 9000
min 8000
max 18000
min 7000
max 15000
min 4000
max 10000
min 2
max 4
min 3
max 6
min 14 for AC 20
min 15 for AC 14
min 16 for AC 10
Air voids shall be min. 3% after refusal lab. compaction for severely loaded areas Chapter 10.8.2 .
o
min 75
3.18
3.20
3.21
Typical mix proportions for asphalt concrete are presented in Table 10.14.
The given nominal mix proportions are for tendering purposes, exact
proportions shall be determined after Marshall design procedures.
10.18
Ministry of Works
Chapter 10
Table 10.14 Mix proportions for asphalt concrete
Nominal mix
proportions
Aggregate [%]
Bitumen [%]
Type of bitumen
Comments:
Asphalt Concrete
AC 20
AC 14
95
5
Normal loading conditions:
AC 10
94,5
94
5,5
6
40/50 penetration grade or modified binders
Admixture of separate filler made of hydrated lime can improve antistripping properties, and is desirable especially when granitic aggregates are
used. The amount of hydrated lime in the filler shall not exceed 1.5 % points. The total percentage of filler shall fall within the grading envelopes
given in Table 10.13.
10.8.4 Construction
CML test
method
3.18
3.5
Comments:
Excessive amounts of hydrated lime in
the filler is undesirable as it gives a brittle
mix with poor durability.
Coral rock can be used as aggregate for
AC. However, careful selection of
materials and normally addition of fines
from a separate source, is required for
utilisation of this aggregate type.
General
Asphalt concrete shall be laid by the use of pavers and accepted good
procedures for this type of work.
Tack coat
Tack coat of bitumen emulsion shall be applied at a rate of min. 0.3 l/m2
residual binder on all joints and surfaces where AC is laid.
Compaction trials
Detailed compaction trials shall be carried out at the beginning of paving
operations and when a new mix formula or production procedure is
introduced. The compaction trial shall show compliance with mix
formulas and demonstrate the adequacy of the proposed compaction
procedures.
Temperature for compaction
Table 10.15 gives the minimum temperature for compaction of asphalt
concrete layers depending on the grade of bitumen used in the mix.
Grade of bitumen
[penetration 1/10 mm]
Minimum temperature for

C]
compaction [o C]
60 - 70
90
40 - 50
100
Table 10.15 Temperature for field compaction of AC layers
Ministry of Works
10.19
Chapter 10
Comments:
References
10 - 1
10 - 2
10 - 3
10 - 4
10 - 5
10 - 6
10 - 7
10 - 8
10 - 9
10 - 10
10 - 11
10 - 12
10 - 13
10 - 14
10 - 15
10 - 16
10 - 17
10 - 18
10 - 19
10.20

AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997).
Asphalt Recycling Guide.
AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997). Cold
Mix Granular Materials Guide.
AUSTRALIAN ASPHALT PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION (1997). Open
Graded Asphalt Design Guide.
(1998): Surfacing seals for rural roads and urban roads. CSRA,
Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHOR ITIES. TRH 14 (1985):
Guidelines for road construction materials. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa.
National standard for the spraying performance of binder distributors.
EMBY, J, C R JONES, and M S MUSTAFA (1992). The use of hot
surface treatment to rehabilitate cracked asphalt concrete surfacings
in Malaysia. Proc. the seventh REAAA Conference, Singapore, June
1992.
HIZAM HARUN, M and C R JONES (1992). The performance of
polymer modified asphaltic concrete on climbing lanes in Malaysia.
Proc. the sixteenth ARRB Conference, November 1992, Melbourne,
Australia.
OVERBY, C, et al (1999). A Guide to the Design, Construction and
Maintenance of the Otta Seal. Technical Guideline No. 1, Roads
Department, Botswana (in print).
MAIN ROADS DEPARTMENT WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
The safe way to handle bitumen.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIAN STATE ROAD
AUTHORITIES (1989). Bituminous Surfacing Sprayed Work,
NAASRA Technical Report.
OVERBY, C, (1998). Otta Seal - a durable and cost effective global
solution for low volume sealed roads. Proc. Ninth REAAA Conference,
An International Focus on Roads: Strategie for the Future.
Wellington, New Zealand.
SMITH, H R, J ROLT and J WAMBURA, (1990). The durability of
bituminous overlays and wearing courses in tropical environments.
Proc. Third International Conference on Bearing Capacity of Roads
and Airfields, Trondheim, Norway.
SMITH, H R, A C EDWARDS and J MREEMA, (1996). Condition of
the TanZam Highway at Kitonga gorge. Central Materials Laboratory,
Dar es Salaam.
ODA, London, UK.
Ministry of Works
Project appraisal
Ch
Cross Section,
Traffic
Subgrade
Ch
Problem Soils
Pavement Materials

selection of design
Ministry of Works
STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ELEMENTS
Environment

Pavement
Rehabilitation
Bituminous
Surfacings
Gravel Roads
Chapter 11
Gravel
Roads
Chapter 11
Gravel Roads
Comments:
11.0 General
A flexible approach is required in the

design of gravel roads as construction
economy is usually of vital importance for
these projects.
Gravel road pavements are designed for roads where AADT is less than
300 at the time of construction, unless otherwise directed by the Ministry
of Works.
This chapter sets out standards for pavement design and selection of
materials for fully engineered gravel roads. In addition, guidelines are
given for design of gravel roads where budgetary or other constraints do
not allow construction of a fully engineered gravel road.
.
11.1 Design Principles

11.1.0 General
All-weather access
The most essential consideration in the design of gravel roads is to ensure
all-weather access. This requirement places particular emphasis on the
need for sufficient bearing capacity of the pavement structure and provision of drainage and sufficient earthworks in flood areas.
Surface performance
The performance of the gravel surface depends on material quality, the
location of the road and the traffic volume using the road. Gravel roads
passing through populated areas in particular require materials that do not
generate excessive dust in dry weather. Steep gradients places particular
demands for gravel wearing course materials that do not become slippery
in wet weather, or erode easily.
The gravel wearing course needs to be
regularly shaped and also replaced
periodically throughout the service life of
the road at a rate depending on the
gravel loss. An annual loss of 10 to 30
mm of gravel wearing course material at
an AADT of 100 is common.
Maintenance
The material requirements for the gravel wearing course include provision
of a gravel surface that is effectively maintainable. Adherence to the limits
on oversize particles in the material is of particular importance in this regard.
11.1.1 Pavement and materials
Depending on the CBRdesign of the subgrade, improved subgrade layers shall

be constructed as required, on which the gravel wearing course is placed.
11.1.2 Crossfall and drainage
The crossfall of carriageway and shoulders for gravel roads shall be 46%, depending on local conditions, to prevent potholes developing by
ensuring rapid removal of water from the surface and to ensure that
excessive crossfall does not cause erosion of the surface. Provision of
drainage is equally important for the performance of gravel roads as for
bitumen surfaced roads.
11.2
Ministry of Works
Chapter11
Gravel Roads
11.2 Material Requirements
Comments:
11.2.0 General
Experience with local materials
Knowledge about past performance of locally occurring materials for
gravel roads is essential. One may divert from the material standards to
take advantage of available gravel sources provided they have proved to
give satisfactory performance under similar conditions.
Marginal materials
Figure 11.1 illustrates the performance characteristics to be expected of
materials that do not meet the requirements for gravel wearing course.
11.2.1 Earthworks
Materials for improved subgrade layers and fill shall meet the
requirements in /Chapter 5.5/ for class G15 and G7 and /Chapter 5.6/
for class G3 and dump rock (DR).
11.2.2 Gravel wearing course (GW)

Major gravel roads
Materials for gravel wearing course shall comply with the requirements
given in Table 11.1. The given material requirements are valid for fully
engineered gravel roads.
Table 11.1 Material requirements gravel wearing course (GW)
Material properties
R equirements
C limatic z ones
We t
C ML
test
method
Moderate or dry
mi n 25 after
C B R [%] at 95% of MD D (B S 4 days
mi n 25 at OMC
Heavy compacti on)
soaked
1.11
% passi ng 37.5 mm
1.2
mi n 95
S hri nkage product, S P

S P = LS x (%pass. 0.425mm)
Gradi ng C oeffi ci ent GC
2)
Fi eld dry densi ty, [% of MD D ]

(B S -Heavy compacti on)
1)
2)
120 - 400
1)
1.4 and
1.7
16 - 34
mi n 95
1.9
In bui lt up areas a maxi mum S hri nkage P roduct of 270 i s desi rable to
reduce dust problems.
GC = [ (% passing 28mm) - (% passing 0.425mm) ] x (% passing 5mm) / 100
Minor gravel roads

The CBR requirements in Table 11.1 can be reduced to 15% for minor
gravel roads, however the given material standards shall be aimed for
wherever it is economically possible.
Ministry of Works
11.3
Chapter 11
Gravel Roads
Comments:
Methods to prevent excessive oversize
particles in the gravel wearing course may
include removal at source by screening.
Use of special compaction equipment,
such as grid rollers, is often cost effective
in combination with conventional removal
of large stones during processing on the
road.
Performance characteristics of gravel wearing courses

Figure 11.1 shows the effect of the Shrinkage Product and Grading
Coefficient on the expected performance of gravel wearing course materials. Excessive oversize material in the gravel wearing course affects the
riding quality in service and makes effective shaping of the surface
difficult at the time of maintenance.
500
Shrinkage Product, SP
Slippery
400
400
Good, but may be dusty
300
270
Ravels
Erodible materials
200
Good
120
100
34
16
Ravels and corrugates
0
0
10
20
30
Grading Coefficient, GC
40
SP = (Linear Shrinkage) x (% passing 0.425 mm)

GC = [(% passing 28 mm) - (% passing 0.425 mm)] x (% passing 5 mm) / 100
Figure 11.1 Expected performance of gravel wearing course materials
11.3 Improved Subgrade and

Pavement Design
11.3.1 Subgrade CBR
Treatment of unfavourable subgrade
conditions such as expansive soils, saline
soils or dispersive soils are normally
outside scope in the construction of gravel
roads. However, is it considered to upgrade the road within a reasonable time
to a bituminous standard, measures
should be taken as discussed in /Chapter
6 -Problem Soils/.
The CBRdesign for the subgrade shall be determined according to /Chapter 5

Subgrade/ and classified into subgrade classes S15, S7 and S3.
Treatment of unfavourable subgrade conditions shall be carried out
according to /Chapter 6 Problem Soils/ in respect of issues directly
related to bearing capacity of the subgrade.
11.3.2 Major gravel roads
Pavement and improved subgrade for major gravel roads shall be

constructed in accordance with Figure 11.2.
11.4
Ministry of Works
Chapter11
Gravel Roads
< 20
S15
S7
1)
150 mm
GW
150 mm
GW
S3
1)
mm
150
150
1)
2)
20 - 100
1)
Dry / Moderate
climatic zones
Wet
climatic zones
G7
G7
1)
150 mm
GW
150 mm
GW
G15 1)
100 mm
GW
GW
Comments:
2)
AADT
1)
Dry / Moderate
climatic zones
mm
150
300
mm
150
100
150
100 - 300
150 mm
GW
150 mm
150 mm
Wet
climatic zones
GW
G15 1)
G7 1)
GW
G15
Dry / Moderate
climatic zones
GW
mm
150
G15 1)
200
G7 1)
200
mm
150
150
150
GW
G15
1)
Wet
climatic zones
mm
150
GW
G151)
200
G7 1)
300
1)
G7 1)
Classificationsubgrade classes S3, S7 and G15 and requirements for G7 and G15 materials are given: /Chapter 5 Subgrade/.
Maximum 50% heavy vehicles is assumed. Heavy vehicles are those having an un-laden weight of more than
3 tonnes, or buses with a seating capacity of 40 or more: /Chapter 4 Traffic/.
Figure 11.2 Pavement and improved subgrade major gravel roads
11.3.3 Minor gravel roads

General
This chapter provides guidelines for design of pavement and improved
subgrade for minor gravel roads where budgetary constraints or other
reasons do not allow construction of a fully engineered gravel road. This
design shall be limited to roads with AADT maximum 50.
Improved subgrade and pavement design minor gravel roads
Pavement and improved subgrade for minor gravel roads shall be
constructed in accordance with Figure 11.3.
Subgrade classes
S15
Gravel
wearing
course
or
S7
1)
S3
Moderate or dry
climatic zones
Wet
climatic zones
100mm
100mm
100mm
GW
GW
GW
Improved
subgrade
layer
150mm
G7
( none )
1)
200mm
G7
Classification S15, S7 and S3 and requirements for G7 materials are given: /Chapter 5 Subgrade/.
Figure 11.3 Pavement and improved subgrade minor gravel roads
The desired properties of the gravel wearing course, GW, are given in
Table 11.1, however the CBR can be reduced to 15% for minor roads.
Ministry of Works
11.5
Chapter 11
Gravel Roads
Comments:
11.6
References
11 - 1
AUSTRALIAN ROAD RESEARCH BOARD LIMITED (May 1993).

Unsealed roads manual.
11 - 2

11 - 3

(1986): Cementitious stabilisers in road construction.CSRA, Pretoria,
11 - 4

(1990): Structural design, construction and maintenance of gravel
roads. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.
11 - 5

11 - 6
JONES T E, R ROBINSON and M S SNAITH (1984). A field study

on the deterioration of unpaved roads and the effect of different maintenance strategies. Proc. 8th Regional Conference for Africa on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Harare, Zimbabwe.
11 - 7

11 - 8

Ministry of Works
Definitions of Terms
A2 -
Units of Measurements
A3 -
Abbreviations
A4 -
Cross Section and Pavement Performance
A5 -
Handling of Bitumen Products
A6 -
Problem Soils-Investigation Procedures
A7 -
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
A8 -
Worked Examples
A9 -
Maps
Ministry of Works
Appendices
A1 -
Appendix
Asphalt Concrete (AC)
A group of hot bituminous mixtures used for surfacing. They normally

consist of a well graded mixture of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and
filler, bound together with penetration grade bitumen.
Base course
The layer(s) occurring immediately below the surfacing and above the
subbase or, if there is no subbase, above the improved subgrade layers.
Behaviour
The function of the condition of the pavement with time (see also
performance).
Binder course, bituminous
The surfacing layer immediately below the bituminous wearing course

above the base course.
Bitumen emulsion
A binder in which bitumen has been dispersed in finely divided droplets in

water by the aid of mechanical means and an emulsifying agent. Bitumen
emulsion is made in an anionic and a cationic type depending on the particle
charge of the bitumen droplets in solution. Bitumen emulsions are classified
according to percentage of bitumen in the material and the physical
properties related to their behaviour during construction, (See also break).
Bitumen stabilised material
A material made of natural- or crushed aggregate with a bituminous binder

admixed. Used in pavement layers - primarily for base course.
Bitumen-rubber
A binder in which bitumen is modified with more than 15% ground rubber.
(See also modified binder).
Bituminous binders
Petroleum derived adhesives used for sealing of surfaces and binding of

aggregates in pavement layers. Classified according to their composition
and physical properties. (See also penetration grade bitumen, cutback
bitumen, bitumen emulsion, bitumen rubber, and modified binders).
Bituminous seals
A general term for thin bituminous wearing courses made of surface

treatments or slurry seals, or a combination of these.
Borrow pit
A borrow pit is a site from which natural material, other than solid stone, is
removed for use in construction of the works. The term borrow area is also used.
Break of emulsions
Break of a bitumen emulsion is when the water and bitumen separates so that
the water will evaporate, leaving behind the bitumen to perform its function.
Buses
All buses with a seating capacity of 40 or more.
Cement- or lime modified

material (CM)
Naturally occurring gravel and soils which are modified by the addition of
either lime or Portland cement so that their engineering properties such as
strength and plasticity are improved, but the materials still remain flexible.
Used in pavement- and improved subgrade layers. (See also Cement- or lime
stabilised material).
Cement- or lime stabilised

material (C4, C2, C1)
A material that consists of snatural- or crushed gravel stabilised with ordinary

Portland cement or lime such that a semi-rigid material is produced. Classified
A.2
Ministry of Works
Appendix
according to their minimum unconfined compressive strength. Used in

pavement layers. (See also Cement- or lime modified material).
Crushed rock (CRR)
Crushed material made from fresh quarried rock or clean, un-weathered

boulders of min 0.3 m diameter. All particles shall be crushed. The material
is compacted to a specified percentage of the aggregates apparent density.
Crushed stone (CRS)
Crushed stones. Min 50% by mass of particles larger than 5 mm shall have at
least one crushed face. Made from crushing of stones, boulders or oversize
from natural gravel. Max 30% of the fraction passing the 4.75 mm sieve can
be soil fines. The material is compacted to a specified relative density of BSHeavy.
Curing membrane
A bituminous binder, usually made of bitumen emulsion, applied immediately after construction of a completed surface of modified or stabilised
materials with lime or cement. Its purpose is to prevent early drying out of
the cemented layer and to minimise adverse effects of the stabilisers contact
with CO2 in the air.
Cutback bitumen
A penetration bitumen which viscosity has been temporarily reduced by

blending with solvents. The solvents are expected to evaporate during the e
arly part of the pavements service life. Classified according to their
viscosity.
Cutting
A cutting is a section of the road where the formation level is below the
original ground level.
Deflection (surface)
The recoverable vertical movements of the pavement surface caused by the

application of a wheel load.
Deformation
A mode of distress, unevenness of the surface profiles.
Degree of distress
A measure of severity of the distress.
Distress
The visible manifestation of deterioration of the pavement with respect to

either the serviceability of the structural capacity.
Dry Density and Moisture Content of bituminous materials
The moisture content, in %, to use for calculation of dry density of materials

that contain both bitumen and water, e.g. FBMIX and BEMIX, is defined as
follows:
MC =
(weight of water)
(weight of aggregate + weight of bitumen)
x 100
Dump rock (DR)
Un-graded rock or boulder material with a sufficiently low fines content so

that the large particles are in contact with each other when placed in
earthworks layers. Used in fill and improved subgrade layers.
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

(DCP)
An instrument for assessing the in-situ CBR strength of granular materials/

soils.
Ministry of Works
A.3
Appendix
Earthworks
A general term describing all processed materials below formation level

including improved subgrade layers, fill and prepared roadbed.
Embankment
An embankment is a section of the road where the formation level is above

the original ground level.
Embankment, shallow
A shallow embankment is defined as a section of the road where the formation level is between 0 and 0.3 m above the original ground level.
Equivalent standard axle (E80)
Defined as an axle loaded to a weight of 8160 kg, in the design concept

meaning a unit of measuring the damaging effect to road pavements caused
by axles of any load.
Fill
Material placed below the improved subgrade, but above the roadbed.
Fogspray
A light application of bitumen emulsion, sprayed on top of surface dressings.

Its purpose is to improve retention of the aggregate in new seals. On old
roads its purpose is to arrest any loss of chipping and to water-proof and
rejuvenate the bituminous surfacing.
Formation level
The final level upon which the pavement layers are placed.
Granular materials
Pavement materials made from crushed or natural sources, where no addition

of any stabiliser has been made. (Term NOT to be used: Unbound materials).
The uppermost layer of a gravel road, which provides the riding surface for
vehicles.
Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGV)
All goods vehicles having 3 axles.
Heavy vehicles
A general term describing vehicles with un-laden weight of 3 tonnes or more.

Heavy vehicles are further sub-grouped into Medium Goods-, Heavy GoodsVery Heavy Goods Vehicles and Buses for the purpose of determining design
load in pavement design.
Improved subgrade
The uppermost layer(s) of the subgrade, consisting of material of controlled

quality. (e.g. terms not to be used: selected borrow - selected subgrade capping layer - topping).
Light vehicles
A general term describing vehicles with un-laden weight of less than 3

tonnes and includes buses with a seating capacity of less than 40.
Medium Goods Vehicles (MGV)
All goods vehicles having 2 axles and an un-laden weight of 3 tonnes or more.
MERLIN
Simple apparatus to measure road roughness.
Modified binder
A binder in which bitumen is modified with a prescribed percentage of

polymers or other approved chemical constituents, alternatively with less
than 15% ground rubber. (See also bitumen-rubber).
A.4
Ministry of Works
Appendix
Modified material
A material where the physical properties have been improved by the

addition of a stabilising agent but in which strong cementation has not
occurred.
Natural gravel
(G80, G60, G45, G25)
Material from natural gravel sources. The term also includes crushed material where less than 40% of the mass of particles larger than 5 mm have a
crushed face. Classified according to their minimum CBR strength. Used in
pavement layers.
Natural gravel/soil
(G15, G7, G3)
Material from natural sources. Classified according to their minimum CBR

strength. Used in improved subgrade layers and fill.
Pavement behaviour
The function of pavement condition with time.
Pavement evaluation
The assessment of the degree to which the pavement fulfils its functional
requirements.
Pavement layers
The combination of material layers constructed above the formation level in

order to provide an acceptable facility on which to operate vehicles.
Penetration grade bitumen
A bitumen which viscosity or composition has not been adjusted by blending

with solvents or any other substance. Classified according to penetration
value obtained in laboratory tests.
Performance
The measure of satisfaction given by the pavement to the road user over a
period of time, quantified by a serviceability/age function (see also behaviour).
Prime
An application of low viscosity bituminous binder to an absorbent surface,

usually the top of the base course. Its main purpose is to protect the surface
of a granular material during construction and to improve the bond between
granular materials and bituminous mixes or seals.
Quarry
A quarry is an open surface working from which stone is removed for use in
construction of the works.
Reflection cracks
Cracks in asphalt overlays or surface treatments that reflect the crack pattern
of the pavement structure underneath.
Rehabilitation design period
The chosen minimum period for which a pavement rehabilitation is designed

to carry the traffic in the prevailing environment, with a reasonable degree of
confidence, without necessitating further pavement rehabilitation.
Roadbed
All in-situ ground after bush clearing, removal of topsoil and excavation of
any cuttings, and before placing any layers, whether these layers are fill,
improved subgrade or pavement layers.
Sand seal
A surface treatment made of sand aggregates of crushed or natural material.

Can be constructed in single- or multiple layers.
Serviceability
The measure of satisfaction given by the pavement to the road user at a

certain time, quantified by factors such as riding quality and rut depth.
Ministry of Works
A.5
Appendix
Shrinkage Limit
The saturated moisture content corresponding to the void ratio of a dried

sample. In practise this is the moisture content below which little or no
further volume change occurs in a soil being dried.
Skid resistance
The general ability of a particular road surface to prevent skidding of vehicles.
Slurry seal
A cold premixed material of creamy consistency in a fresh state, made of

crusher-dust, bitumen emulsion and cement filler. Water is added for
adjustments of the consistency. If constructed in combination with a new
surface dressing, it is named a Cape seal.
Structural capacity
The ability of the pavement to withstand the effects of climate and traffic
loading.
Structural design
The design of the pavement layers for adequate structural strength under the
design conditions of traffic loading, environment and subgrade support.
Structural distress
Distress pertaining to the load bearing capacity of the pavement.
Structural evaluation
The assessment of the structural capacity of a pavement.
Subbase
The layer(s) occurring below the base course and above the improved
subgrade layer.
Subgrade
The completed earthworks within the road prism before the construction of
the pavement layers.
Surface dressing
A surface treatment made of single sized aggregates of crushed material. Can

be constructed in single- or multiple layers.
Surface treatment
A general term for thin bituminous wearing courses made by lightly rolling
aggregate into a sprayed thin film of bitumen. Aggregates can alternatively be
made of crushed or natural material with a grading depending on the desired
type of surface treatment to be produced. Can be constructed in single- or
multiple layers.
Surfacing integrity
A measure of the condition of the surfacing as an intact and durable matrix

(it includes values of porosity and texture).
Surfacing, bituminous
The uppermost pavement layer(s), which provides the riding surface for
vehicles. Includes bituminous wearing course and bituminous binder course
where used.
Tack coat
An application of bituminous binder to a bituminous surface subsequent to

placing a bituminous layer. Usually made of bitumen emulsion with the
purpose to improve the bond between bituminous layers.
Terminal level
A minimum acceptable level of some feature of the road in terms of its

serviceability.
Types of distress
The sub-classification of the various manifestations of a particular mode of

distress.
Vehicle Equivalency Factor (VEF)
The total number of equivalent standard axles calculated for one vehicle.
The average of all these values within one vehicle category is subsequently
calculated for ease of reference to traffic count data.
Very Heavy Goods Vehicles

(VHGV)
All goods vehicles having 4 axles or more.
A.6
Ministry of Works
Appendix
Wearing course, bituminous
The uppermost surfacing layer. Can consist of a bituminous mix or a

bituminous seal, or both in combination.
Table A1.1 CML Test Methods - with References

CML test method,
reference number
Name of test
Reference to test methods
Tests on Soils and Gravels

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
Moisture Content
Liquid Limit (Cone Penetrometer)
Plastic Limit & Plasticity Index
Linear Shrinkage
Particle Density Determination - Pyknometer
Bulk Density for undisturbed samples
Particle Size Distribution - Wet sieving
Particle Size Distribution - Hydrometer Method
Compaction Test - BS Light and BS Heavy
CBR Test - One point method
1.11
CBR Test - Three point method
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
Consolidation Test - Oedometer

Triaxial Test
Shear Box Test
Permeability Test - Constant Head
1.16
Organic Content - Ignition Loss Method
1.17
1.18
Crumb Test
pH Value (pH meter)
1.19
Preparation of Stabilised Samples for UCS
1.20
Compaction Test - Stabilised Materials
1.21
1.22
UCS of Stabilised Materials

Initial Consumption of Lime - ICL
BS1377:Part 2:1990
BS1377:Part 2:1990
BS1377:Part 2:1990
BS1377:Part 2:1990
BS1377:Part 2:1990
BS1377:Part 2:1990
BS1377:Part 2:1990
BS1377:Part 2:1990
BS1377:Part 4:1990
BS1377:Part 4:1990
BS1377:Part 4:1990 and
TMH1:method A8:1986
BS1377:Part 5:1990
BS1377:Part 7:1990
BS1377:Part 7:1990
BS1377:Part 5:1990
BS1377:Part 3:1990 and
NPRA 014 test 14.445
BS1377:Part 5:1990
BS1377:Part 3:1990
TMH1:method A14:1986 and
BS1924:Part 2:1990
TMH1:method A14:1986 and
BS1924:Part 2:1990
TMH1:method A14:1986
BS1924:Part 2:1990
Tests on Aggregates and Concrete

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
Moisture Content of Aggregates

Relative Density and Water Absorption
Sieve Tests on Aggregates
Flakiness Index (FI) and Average Least Dimension (ALD)
Elongation Index
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
Ten Percent Fines Value (TFV)
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)
Los Angeles Abrasion Test (LAA)
Sodium Soundness Test (SSS)
Slump Test
Making of Concrete Test Cubes
Concrete Cube Strength
BS812:Part 109:1990
BS812:Part 2:1975
BS812:Part 103.1:1985
BS812:Section 105.1:1989
BS812:Section 105.2:1990
BS812:Part 110:1990
BS812:Part 111:1990
BS812:Part 112:1990
ASTM C535-89
ASTM C88-90
BS1881:Part 102:1983
BS1881:Part 108:1983
BS1881:Part 116:1983
Tests on Asphalt and Bituminous Materials

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23
Ministry of Works
Pre-conditioning of Bitumen Samples Prior to Mixing or Testing

Density of Bituminous Binders
Flash and Fire Point by Cleveland Open Cup
Thin-Film Oven Test (TFOT)
Penetration of Bituminous Materials
Softening Point Test
Ductility
Viscosity Determination using the Brookfield Thermosel Apparatus
Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates Retrieved on a 4.75 mm Sieve
Density and Water Absorption of Aggregates Passing the 4.75 mm Sieve
Calibration of Glass Pycnometers (0.5-1 litre)
Mixing of Test Specimens; Hot Bituminous Mixes
Determination of Maximum Theoretical Density of Asphalt Mixes
and Absorption of Binder into Aggregates
Bulk Density of Saturated Surface Dry Asphalt Mix Samples
Bulk Density of Paraffin-Coated Asphalt Mix Samples
Bulk Density of Asphalt Mix Samples, Calliper Measurements
Calculation of Void Content in Bituminous Mixes
Marshall Test
Marshall Mix Design
Refusal Density Mix Design
Indirect Tensile Strength Test
Determination of Binder Content and Aggregate Grading by Extraction
Effect of Water on Bituminous Coated Aggregates, Boiling Test
NPRA 014 test 14.511

ASTM D70-97
ASTM D92-90
ASTM D1754-87
ASTM D5-86
ASTM D36-70
ASTM D113-86
ASTM D4402-91
ASTM C127-88
ASTM C128-88
NPRA 014 test 14.5922
NPRA 014 test 14.5532
ASTM D2041-95 and D4469-85
ASTM D2726-96
ASTM D1188-89
NPRA 014 test 14.5622
ASTM D3203 and AASHTO pp19-93
ASTM D1559-89
ASTM D1559-89
TRL Overseas Road Note 31, app. D:1990
ASTM D3967 and NPRA 014 test 14.554
ASTM D2172-88, method B
ASTM D3625-96
A.7
Appendix
Units of Measurements
Prefixes
The standard units of measurement to be used are based on the International System (SI) units. However, the units
applicable to road design also include some units which are not strictly part of SI. Multiples and sub-multiples of SI
units are formed either by the use of the indices or prefixes. Definitions of applicable prefixes are given in Table A2.1.
Table A2.1 Definition of prefixes
Prefix
Sy mbol
Multiply ing factor
mega
106
ki lo
103
hecto
102
d e ca
da
10
d e ci
1 0 -1
centi
10 -2
mi lli
10 -3
mi cro
1 0 -6
Basic Units
Table A2.2 Basic units, multiples and sub-multiples
Quantity
U nit
Sy mbols
R ecommended Multiples
and Sub-Multiples
Length
metre
km, mm
Mass
ki logram
kg
Mg, g, mg, t (1t = 103kg)
Ti me
second
day(d), hour (h), mi nute(m)
Area
square metre
m2
km2, mm2, hectare

(1ha = 10,000 m2)
Volume(soli ds)
cubi c metre
m3
cm3, mm3
Volume (li qui d)
li tre
ml, (1 ml = 1 cm3)
D ensi ty
ki logram per C ubi c metre
kg/ m3
Mg/ m3 (1 mg/ m3 = 1 kg/l)
Force
Newton
MN, kN (1N = 1 kgm/s2)
Pressure and Stress
Pascal (N/m2)
Pa
MPa, kPa
Electri c conducti vi ty
Si emens per metre
S/m
mS/cm
Angle
degree or
grade
mi nute ( ), second ( )
(3600 ci rcle), (400g ci rcle)
Temperature
degree C elsi us
Vi scosi ty (dynami c)
Pascal.second
Pa.s
mPa.s
m2/s
mm2/s, St (stokes)
1 cSt = 1 mm2/s
Ki nemati c vi scosi ty
A.8
g
C
Ministry of Works
Appendix
10%FACT
kN
Abbreviations
See TFV
AADT
Average Annual Daily Traffic
AASHO
Former name of AASHTO
AASHO-Road Test
Pavement research project conducted by AASHO to test the performance of

various pavements on a full scale
AASHTO
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AC
Asphalt Concrete
ALD
mm
Average Least Dimension
ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials
BEMIX
Classification of a material stabilised with bitumen emulsion (Bitumen

Emulsion MIX)
BS
British Standard
BS-Heavy
Compaction effort for soils, standardised by the CML test method 1.9
BS-Light
Compaction effort for soils, standardised by the CML test method 1.9
Cx
Classification of cement- or lime stabilised material, x denoting the minimum

UCS value (7 days, at 97% MDD of BS-Heavy)
CBR
[%]
California Bearing Ratio, described by the CML test method 1.11
CBRdesign
[%]
CBR value for a homogenous section of subgrade, calculated

statistically or by subjective judgement, to use in pavement design
CBRsoaked
[%]
California Bearing Ratio measured after standardised 4 days soaking of

specimens in water, described by the CML test method 1.11
CI
Coarseness Index, used for classification of materials for gravel wearing

courses. /Chapter 11 - Gravel Roads/
CM
Classification of cement- or lime modified material (low UCS strength)
CML
Central Materials Laboratory, Dar es Salaam
CRR
Material denotation for blasted, crushed, rock
CRS
Material denotation for crushed stones
CUSUM
Cumulative sum, statistical calculation method /Appendix A8.3/
DCP
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DBM x
Classification of a hot mixed bituminous base course material (Dense Bitumen

Macadam) x denoting the upper nominal particle size in the material
dMAX
[mm]
Maximum particle size of soils and aggregates
dMIN
[mm]
Minimum particle size of soils and aggregates
dX
[mm]
The sieve size through which x% of all particle pass
E80
Equivalent Standard Axle (8160 kg)
EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment
EIS
Environmental Impact Statement
Ministry of Works
A.9
Appendix
Abbreviations
E-Modulus
[MPa]
Elasticity Modulus, describing stress/strain properties of structural pavement layers
ESA
Equivalent Standard Axle (=E80)
FBMIX
Classification of a material stabilised with foamed bitumen (Foamed Bitumen MIX)
FDD
[%]
Field Dry Density
FI
[%]
Flakiness Index, described by the CML test method 2.4
FMC
[%]
Field Moisture Content
Gx
Classification of gravel and soil materials, x denoting the minimum CBR
GC
Grading Coefficient = [ (%pass28mm) (%pass0.425mm) ] x (%pass5mm) /100

/Chapter 11 Gravel Roads/
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GM
Grading Modulus = (300 - %pass2mm - %pass0.425mm - %pass0.075mm) / 100
GW
Gravel Wearing course materials /Chapter 11 Gravel roads/
ICL
[%]
Initial Consumption of Lime, derived from laboratory test CML 1.22
IRI
m/km
International Roughness Index
ISO
International Standard Organisation
lab
Laboratory
LAMBS
Classification of a hot mixed bituminous base course material (Large Aggregate

Mixes for Base)
LL
[%]
Liquid Limit, described by the CML test method 1.2
LS
[%]
Linear Shrinkage, described by the CML test method 1.4
max
MC
Maximum
[%]
MC x
MDD
Moisture Content
Medium Curing (type of cutback bitumen), x denotes the upper nominal
viscosity limit
[kg/m3] Maximum Dry Density (compaction effort shall be stated)
MoW
Ministry of Work
min
Minimum
MSS
Magnesium Sulphate Soundness test
NEMC
National Environment Management Council
NPRA
Norwegian Public Roads Administration
OMC
[%]
pen
Optimum Moisture Content (at MDD of BS-Heavy unless stated)

Penetration, used to identify a type of bitumen (penetration grade)
PI
[%]
Plasticity Index, described by the CML test method 1.3
PIw
[%]
Plasticity Index, weighted for the samples amount of material passing 0.425 mm,
based on the CML test method 1.3
PMx
Penetration Macadam, x denoting the upper nominal particle size in mm
PSI
Pavement Serviceability Index
A.10
Ministry of Works
Appendix
Abbreviations
RAP
Resettlement Action Plan
RC x
Rapid Curing (type of cutback bitumen), x denotes the upper nominal

viscosity limit
Sx
Subgrade classification, x denoting minimum CBR value
SC x
Slow Curing (type of cutback bitumen), x denotes the upper nominal viscosity limit
SI
International standardisation by International Organization for Standardization
SIA
Social Impact Assessment
SL
Shrinkage Limit
SP
Shrinkage Product = [ LS x (%pass 0.425mm) ] /Chapter 11 Gravel Roads/
ST
Surface Treatment, a general term for all types of sprayed bituminous seals
SSS
Sodium Sulphate Soundness test
TFV
kN
Ten percent Fines Value, described by the CML test method 2.7
TFVdry
kN
As TFV. Used when dry test conditions need to be emphasised in the text
TFVsoaked
kN
As TFV. Ten percent Fines Value measured after 24 hours soak in water
TLCX
[million E80]
Traffic load class, x denoting maximum number (in million) of E80 in the class
TLCX -H
class, -H
[million E80]
Traffic Load Class, x denoting maximum number (in million) of E80 in the
denoting that there is a large proportion of very heavy loads in the traffic stream
TMH
UCS
VEF
Ministry of Works
Technical Methods for Highways (South African series of standards)

[MPa]
Unconfined Compressive Strength, described by the CML tests 1.9 and 1.21
method for cement- or lime stabilised materials
Vehicle Equivalency Factor /Chapter 4 Traffic/
A.11
Appendix 4
Cross Section and

Pavement Performance
Table A4.1 should be observed to enhance pavement performance where diversions from the standard cross section
are made for budgetary reasons in agreement with the Ministry of Works. The alternative cross section design
should strive for the maximum technical benefits described in Table A4.1 without making unacceptable
compromises to other aspects of the road design, project economy or traffic safety. Traffic safety aspects are not
discussed in this manual and should be assessed in each individual case where diversions are made from standard
cross sections.
Table A4.1 Cross section design for enhanced pavement performance
D esign feature
Technical benefits
Wi de lanes
Good lateral di stri buti on of wheel loads
Steep crossfall
Good water run-off, hence less li keli hood of moi sture i ngress i nto the pavement
Wi de shoulders
a) Reduced ri sk of moi sture i ngress i nto the carri ageway

b) Reduced vari ati ons i n moi sture contents across the cross secti on, hence reduced
ri sk of longi tudi nal cracks developi ng i n the shoulders
c) Good lateral support for the pavement
d) Good basi s for future rehabi li tati on, i .e. less li keli hood of road wi deni ng at the
ti me of rehabi li tati on
Pavement layers extended

to the full wi dth of the
shoulders
Flat embankment si deslopes
A.12
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Si mpli fi ed constructi on
Strength benefi ts where shoulders are bei ng traffi cked
Mi ni mi sed ri sk of trapped water
Good basi s for future rehabi li tati on
Where shoulders are sealed: reduced vari ati ons i n moi sture contents across the
cross section, hence reduced risk of longitudinal cracks developing in the shoulders
a) Reduced vari ati ons i n moi sture contents across the cross secti on, hence reduced
ri sk of longi tudi nal cracks developi ng i n the shoulders
b) Good lateral support for the pavement
c) Increased di stance to si de drai ns, hence reduced probabi li ty of moi sture i ngress
Ministry of Works
Appendix 5
A5.1
Handling of Bitumen
Products
Safety - General
Training personnel in the correct use of bituminous materials and equipment will assist in reducing the possibility
of accidents resulting in personal injuries. At least one person fully trained and qualified as a first aid attendant shall
be employed who will be available at all times of operations. Particular injuries are burns due to splashes from hot
bituminous materials or contact with hoses or pipes carrying materials at high temperatures.
Personnel handling hot bituminous materials shall always wear suitable protective clothing and footwear. When
skin is splashed with hot bitumen no attempt should be made to remove the bitumen. The bitumen covered burned
area should be drenched or immersed immediately in cold, preferably running water. If iced water is available it
should be used. Medical assistance should be obtained without delay to have the burn treated.
A5.2
Heating Procedures
Heating Site
The site should be selected so that the sprayer and tankers have ready access to the heaters under all weather
conditions. Particular care should be given to selecting a relatively level site which allows fire outbreaks to be
cleared and shall remain free from pools of oil and accumulation of flammable material.
The heating site shall be located minimum 100m from storage sites for cutter oil and on the side furthest from the
loading point for these materials.
Before leaving a heating site it shall be cleaned up by removing all debris and pools of bitumen and oil and neatly
stacking all materials remaining on the site.
Fire precautions
Handling and spraying of petroleum products at high temperatures creates a potentially high fire hazard. Most fires
are due to the human error and it is therefore important for personnel to be instructed on the dangers and the
precautions that must be taken.
Some of the necessary precautions to be taken are:
n studying and following fire legislation applying to the locality, particularly as the operation involves lighting of
fires in the open
n firebreaks shall be prepared by grading or by controlled burning around the camp, storage and heating sites,
plant and equipment in order to prevent the spread of fire into adjoining property
n heating sites shall be completely cleared of all vegetation and other such flammable materials
n overheating, frothing or overflow of any bitumen, fluxed bitumen cutback bitumen and oil must be avoided.
When boil over occur the burners on any heating equipment shall be turned off immediately and earth or
sand quickly shovelled over any material on the ground that take fire
n smoking, fires or naked lights shall be prohibited within 15m of any operation involving the heating, blending,
transfer, or spraying of oil or bituminous materials
n spraying papers, combustible rubbish, etc, shall be carted to a suitable site for disposal
n fire fighting equipment shall be available at site and personnel shall be properly instructed in their correct use
and maintenance
n open drums of kerosene or other flammable liquid shall not be allowed within 60 m of a tanker site when
burners are in use
n do not heat cutback bitumen at a rate greater than 30oC per hour
Ministry of Works
A.13
Appendix 5
Handling of Bitumen
Products
A5.3
Temperature for Storage
Maximum temperature for storage of bitumen and its products is shown in Table A5.1.
Table A5.1
Maximum temperature for storage
Max storage temperature (0C )
Ty pe of binder
U p to 24 hrs
Ov er 24 hrs
80/100 Pen. grade bi tumen
175
125
150/200 Pen. grade bi tumen
160
110
MC 3000 C utback bi tumen
155
100
130
80
70
Ambi ent
60
Ambi ent
60% Bi tumen emulsi on
60
Ambi ent
A5.4
Cutting-back Operations
Cutters
Cutting back is the addition of volatile oils to produce a temporary reduction of the binders viscosity. Depending on
the volatility of the cutters used, a cutback bitumen that is rapid curing, medium curing or slow curing will be
produced. Table A5.2 shows the cutters that produce the respective types of cutback bitumen.
The viscosity of the cutback bitumen is determined by the amount of cutter used and not the type of cutter used. The type of cutter determines the
length of time (Rapid, Medium or Slow) for evaporation to take place producing RC, MC or SC grades.
Table A5.2 Cutters

Grade of the produced cutback
C utter
N otes
RC (Rapi d C uri ng)
Petrol
Hazardous, shall not be used
MC (Medi um C uri ng)
Kerosene (Power paraffi n, i llumi nati ng

paraffi n, Jet A1 avi ati on turbi ne fuel)
SC (Slow C uri ng)
D i esel or heavy fuel oi ls
Safety procedures
The operation of cutting back bitumen on site may be hazardous unless appropriate safety precautions are taken to
prevent fire and safeguard personnel handling the operation.
The following safety precautions shall be adhered to:
n cutter shall not be mixed with bitumen having a higher temperature than 140oC
n do not heat cutback blends above the required temperature
n the blending site shall be located at a minimum 100 metres from installations, homes or places that people
occupy
A.14
Ministry of Works
Appendix 5
Handling of Bitumen
Products
n within a radius of 100 metres no open fire or smoking shall be allowed during the blending operation. This
includes heaters in bitumen tanks
n the blending site shall not be closer than 100 metres to storage sites of cutter or fuel
The following mistakes are absolute hazards that carry considerable risk of explosion and fire:
n the manhole shall NEVER be used for adding cutter to hot bitumen
n cutter shall NEVER be pumped into an empty tank that is still hot after having contained bitumen
n the level in the tank shall NEVER be allowed to fall below that specified by the manufacturer while the
heaters are in operation, normally minimum 150 mm above the highest point of the heater pipes
A5.5 Anti-Stripping Additives

Purpose of anti-stripping additives
The adhesion between bitumen and aggregate depends on close contact between the two materials. Stripping is the
breaking of the adhesive bond between the aggregate surface and the bitumen. By adding a comparatively small
quantity of anti-stripping additive to the bitumen, the surface tension of water is reduced and the bitumen is able to
wet aggregates surfaces.
Adhesion agents have the following properties:
n promote the adhesion of binder to damp aggregate by displacing a film of water
n prevent loss of adhesion under the influence of subsequent rain, assuming that satisfactory adhesion had been
achieved originally
n provide satisfactory adhesion during construction
Safety
Anti-stripping agents are often corrosive and require use of protective gloves and eye goggles during handling.
Liquid agents easily cause splashing and require special care, however some solid agent may appear in a liquid
form depending on ambient temperature and should be treated equally with caution.
Anti-stripping additives are used in bitumen to promote adhesion in adverse conditions. There are many brands on the market in the form of liquids,
pastes or pellets and their effectiveness varies.
The handling of procedures required vary depending on the type of the product, however in general the additive may be added to the sprayer before
or after the bitumen, depending upon the consistency, and whether the a primer or binder is being prepared. The contents of the sprayer should be
circulated for 20 minutes to ensure thorough mixing.
Admixture of additives
The most common method of admixture is to pour the calculated amount into the bitumen distributor immediately
before the spraying operation is to start and allow 30 minutes of circulation to ensure a homogeneous mix.
A wire basket suspended inside the bitumen distributor can improve matters if a solid anti-stripping agent give a problem in not dissolving properly.
Anti-stripping agents that has been kept hot in the bitumen distributor for more than five hours shall be considered
stale, and an additional dosage is then required, amounting to half of the originally specified percentage.
There is a variety of anti-stripping agents in the market, of which some are less adversely affected by high temperatures.
Ministry of Works
A.15
Appendix 5
Handling of Bitumen
Products
A5.6
Check of Bitumen Distributors
Correct operation of bitumen sprayer is of the utmost importance in all sprayed work. The distributor driver and
sprayer operator must be skilled and properly trained, with an understanding of the operation of the sprayer.
There are three basic requirements of a bitumen sprayer:
n to spray the product uniformly over the entire area to be covered
n to apply the product at the correct quantity
The main tests for bitumen sprayers are:
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
general inspection
road speed indicator
nozzle calibration
transverse distribution of spray bar
pump output
consistency of sprayer output
thermal characteristics
power output of prime mover
preparation of application rate chart
The uniform distribution of the binder is controlled by the spray nozzle.

The following checks need to be made before commencing the sprayer run:
n check the line to guide the sprayer driver has been properly marked and instruct the driver regarding any special
requirements
n record the volume and temperature of the sprayer contents while it is on level ground and circulation has
stopped
n determine the length of the sprayer run from the quantity in the sprayer and the application rate
n check the spray bar horizontal and vertical alignment and its cleanliness
n determine the appropriate number of nozzles for the width to be sprayed
n check that the nozzles in use are symmetrical about the sprayer
n check the alignment and setting of the nozzle to ensure that the fans of material from intermediate nozzles are
parallel and at the correct angle to the centre line of the spray bar
n set the height of the spray bar so that the lower faces of the nozzles are at the correct height above the pavement,
in accordance with the manufactures specifications
n fit and end shield to the spray bar when necessary to prevent splashing material on kerb and gutters
A5.7
Waste Disposal and Spillage
Bitumen waste shall be discharged to an approved land-fill which may be a borrow pit in use during road
construction, but it shall always be covered by soil before being abandoned. Uncovered, the bitumen would remain
viscous and be a hazard to pedestrians and animals. Small amounts of bitumen waste may be discharged on site
during operations, such as when testing nozzles of bitumen distributors or when blinding off the start and end of
road sections being sprayed by the use of paper or sheets. Such spillage shall be burnt if it cannot be disposed of in
an approved land-fill. Although burning bitumen emits clouds of thick black smoke, it is better to incinerate such
limited discharge than to leave it on the ground.
A.16
Ministry of Works
Appendix 6
Problem SoilsInvestigation Procedures
A6.1
Expansive Soils
General
This appendix gives procedures to identify expansive soils and to classify these according to their expansiveness.
Routine investigations
Routine investigations include:

n
n
n
n
simple geological and geomorphological assessments

field assessment
routine indicator testing of Atterberg limits and grading, [CML tests 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.7 and 1.8]
analysis of routine test data
Simple geological and geomorphological assessments are carried out during desk studies of projects for
supplementary information about the likelihood of encountering expansive soils.
Field assessments
Identification of expansive soils by examinations in the field requires that centreline soil surveys and reporting are
carried out in strict accordance with the given standards by the Ministry of Works. The information in Table A6.1 is
routinely to be collected as part of proper field assessments, with typical features of expansive soils given in
keyword form:
Table A6.1
Features of expansive soils soil descriptions
Soil description
Ty pical features of expansiv e soils
Soi l type
The more clayey the soi l, the more li kely to be expansi ve
C onsi stency when sli ghtly moi st to dry
Sti ff to very sti ff
C onsi stency when wet
Soft to fi rm and sti cky
Structure
Typi cal cracked surface, sli cked-si ded fi ssures
C olour
Only a reli able i ndi cator when combi ned wi th local

knowledge
Local knowledge from road projects i n the area i s i nvaluable
Laboratory tests
A soil is potentially expansive and requires extended investigations if exhibiting the following properties:
n the result of the field assessments indicates expansive soils, and
n PIW is greater than 20%
where:
PIW = Plasticity Index tested on fraction <425mm according to CML test 1.2 and weighted for the
samples actual content of particles <425mm, i.e.:
PIW = PI x (% passing 425mm) / 100
Ministry of Works
A.17
Appendix 6
Extended investigations
General
Extended investigations shall include:
n testing of Shrinkage Limit [ASTM D4943-89]
n calculation of expansiveness from given formulas
Calculation of expansiveness
Expansiveness (eex ) on the basis of extended investigations is calculated from the following formula:
eex =
2.4 x wp - 3.9 x ws + 32.5
where:
wp
ws
= Plastic Limit tested on fraction <425mm according to CML test 1.3 and weighted for the samples
actual content of particles <425mm (see below).
= Shrinkage Limit tested on fraction <425mm according to ASTM D4943-89 and weighted for
the samples actual content of particles <425mm. (see below).
Weighting for particles <425mm :

wp = (Plastic Limit) x (% passing 425mm) / 100 [CML test 1.3]
ws = (Shrinkage Limit) x (% passing 425mm) / 100 [ASTM D4943-89]
In-depth studies
General
In-depth studies of expansive soils include:
n
n
n
n
oedometer compression test with unloading and consolidation stages

determination of swell index from unloading stages
calculation of expansiveness from given formulas
instrumental analysis to identify characteristic clay mineralogy, e.g. X-ray diffraction, differential thermal
analysis, electron microscopy
Classification of expansive soils may have far reaching budgetary consequences on major road projects traversing long sections affected by this
problem. Such projects may warrant in-depth studies of the expansiveness of the soil including determination of clay mineralogy.
Calculation of expansiveness
Expansiveness (eex ) on the basis of in-depth studies is calculated from the following formula after determination of
swell index ( CS) from oedometer tests:
eex =
644 x CS - 18.4
where:
CS
A6.2
= Swell Index determined in accordance with TRL/ODA Project

Report no. PR/OSC/012/93, ref. /6-3/
Dispersive Soils
General
This appendix describes available procedures for testing of dispersive soils. Where dispersive soils are suspected
after having made field observations, it is recommended to perform simple indicator testing.
If the problem is expected to be severe on any project then specialised testing should be employed.
A.18
Ministry of Works
Appendix 6
Field observations
Topography
Excess of sodium, which in combination with low contents of soluble salts is the feature that characterises dispersive soils, is released during weathering of geological formations that are rich in sodium. The sodium is in turn
deposited in locations where drainage is restricted and dispersive soils are therefore found in low lying areas in
relatively flat terrain.
Erosion pattern
A good field indicator of dispersive soils is by observation of the erosion pattern. Severe erosion is seen if dispersive soils are present where earth moving activity has exposed the clay horizon below the top soil cover, or where
these soils have been used in any fillings. The erosion is shown as extensive developments of piles and gullies. The
erosion can take the form of vertical pinnacles, appearing to have a sandy surface.
Colour
Dispersive soils commonly have a light grey colour, however colour is not considered a reliable indicator of dispersive soils.
Vegetation
The vegetation cover in the presence of dispersive soils is normally sparse.
Indicator testing
Crumb test
A simple indicator test that is recommended for initial field identification of dispersive soils is the crumb test (CML
test 1.17). A crumb of soil is placed in a glass of distilled water, its behaviour is observed and the dispersion is
classified depending on the degree of muddiness of the water. See Figure A10.1.
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Figure A6.1 Crumb test - bottom of the glass
Double hydrometer test

The double hydrometer test is recommended as indicative laboratory testing for identification of dispersive soils.
The procedure is as follows:
a) Determine the percentage passing 0.005 mm with standard hydrometer testing using a chemical dispersing
agent such as ordinary sodium hexametaphosphate.
b) Carry out a separate hydrometer analysis using no dispersing agent and determine the percentage passing 0.005 mm.
c) The percentage dispersion is defined as:
Dispersion =
and where:
Ministry of Works
%-passing 0.005 mm from b)

%-passing 0.005 mm from a)
x 100
Values greater than 30% are significant

Values greater than 60% are critical
A.19
Appendix 6
Specialised testing
General
Specialised testing is only required for road projects where dispersive soils are considered a major problem. The test
procedures are not fully described here, but reference is made to the Central Materials Laboratory, Ministry of
Works for further details.
Presence of dispersive soils is a far more severe problem in construction of dams than normally for highways. A number of procedures for testing and
interpretation of results have been developed in dam engineering to control dispersive behaviour, some of which are included here.
Chemical testing
Chemical test of pore water extracts, including tests of pH are carried out and the results analysed to
establish potentially dispersive properties.
Pinhole test
The pinhole test is a physical test whereby water under various heads of pressure is caused to flow through a hole of
1 mm diameter in a sample specimen. Erosion and widening of the hole is observed and dispersive properties
derived from the results.
A.20
Ministry of Works
Appendix 7
Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA)
General
This appendix deals with Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):

n what it is and what purpose it serves
n when and how EIA is commissioned
Definition and purpose of EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) discovers unintended consequences of a project. Those are impacts.
Such impacts may affect:
n cultural heritage
n society
n the local economy
n natural resources, now or in the future
The purpose of EIA is to ensure that a project does not achieve its own goals at the expense of loss or inconvenience
to non-beneficiaries or future generations.
It is cheaper to discover and deal with potential problems in advance than to rectify them retrospectively.
Procedure for conduct of EIA

General
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is commissioned by the Ministry of Works. The conduct of EIA is a
mandatory requirement in Tanzania, for new roads and road up-grading, as for other substantial developments. Full
EIA is not required for regravelling and similar periodic maintenance. Environmental assessment is conducted in
three stages:
1. scoping (reported)
2. detailed EIA (reported)
3. continued EIA (by monitoring throughout the project)
The consultancy firm doing the engineering work may be invited to undertake the Environmental Impact Assessment for a road project. Advice may be
sought from National Environment Management Council (NEMC) on any aspect of EIA in the country.
Scoping
Scoping is the investigative stage, parallel to feasibility study of a road. The product of scoping is a preliminary
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), often called the Scoping Study.
Detailed EIA
Detailed EIA is conducted at the same time as preliminary design, so that the findings may be incorporated into
detailed design. The written output from detailed EIA is the full Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
Approval of an EIS implies commitment to implement its recommendations. Funding of a project is normally dependant on approval of the EIS by the
client, the environmental authority (NEMC) and, where applicable, by the financier.
Continued EIA by monitoring

EIA is not concluded by the presentation of an EIS. It continues throughout the project by the observance of
mitigation measures and by the feedback of the findings of environmental monitoring to project managers. Monitoring verifies the attainment of intended mitigation measures.
If an adverse impact is not being mitigated as foreseen, further measures have to be adopted.
Ministry of Works
A.21
Appendix 7
Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA)
Social Impact Assessment (SIA) and Resettlement Action Plan (RAP)
Consideration of socio-economic aspects should be combined with appraisal of biophysical attributes in the EIA.
Then, a separate Social Impact Assessment (SIA) is not required. If the proposed roadworks would displace any
settlement or economic activity, a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) will be necessary.
Displacement of illegal structures within a road reserve does not normally require a RAP; but the Ministry of Works should be consulted on a case-tocase basis.
Using EIA and the RAP

Mitigation measures
Usually the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) includes a set of mitigation measures to bring potentially
adverse impacts within tolerable limits. This is done in three ways.
n Vulnerable ecosystems or land uses may be by-passed by realignment of the road
n Recommendations may be made for conditions to be observed during construction and maintenance
n Compensation is the mitigation measure of the last resort, to be used when potentially adverse impacts cannot
be avoided by either realignment or operational conditionalities
Very rarely will an EIA conclude that a project should be halted. Conditions to be observed during construction and maintenance should be mentioned
in the invitations to tender.
Implementing RAP
Implementing a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) requires detailed records of persons and properties affected,
negotiation of compensation in keeping with prevailing regulations, and satisfactory conclusion of the actual
resettlement.
The principle of fair compensation is that compulsory resettlement should leave the displaced persons and businesses no worse off, and preferably
slightly better off, than they were previously.
A.22
Ministry of Works
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
A8.1
Design Traffic Loading
Input data
n
n
n
Design period = 20 years.

Pavement construction is expected to be completed 3 years after the time of traffic survey.
Traffic growth rate = 3.5% (for all heavy vehicle categories).
Traffic counts (Chapter 4.2.1)
B u ses
D irection 1
D irection 2
Vehicle category /counts
Vehicle category /counts
MGV
H GV
VH GV
B u ses
MGV
H GV
VH GV
D ay 1
13
11
24
13
24
11
D ay 2
11
17
17
14
26
12
D ay 3
15
28
11
20
15
13
16
20
D ay 4
13
19
15
24
10
29
26
D ay 5
11
36
26
15
30
10
38
D ay 6
14
18
15
33
13
25
12
21
D ay 7
16
11
13
16
13
28
D ay 8
17
11
TOTAL
92
151
78
157
93
168
87
163
D ai ly
13
19
10
20
13
21
11
20
Summary of axle load survey and equivalency factors. Assessment of axles heavier than
13 tonnes. (Chapters 4.2.2, 4.2.3 and 4.2.4 )
Vehicle
category
D irection 1
Avg.
Gross
wt.(ton)
Avg.
VEF
(80 kN)
Total
No. of
veh.
D irection 2
E80 from all

axles
E80 from
Avg.
axles heavi er Gross
than 13 tonnes wt.(ton)
Avg.
VEF
(80kN)
Total
No. of
veh.
E80 from all

axles
E80 from axles

heavi er than
13 tonnes
Buses
17.396
3.922
92
360.824
0 17.265
4.033
93
375.069
13.25
MGV
12.217
3.705
151
559.455
280.19 12.615
3.262
168
548.016
220.93
HGV
23.146
8.959
78
698.802
282.40 22.480
8.557
87
744.459
359.15
VHGV-SEMI
39.196
8.087
114
921.918
133.57 45.160
13.81
131
1809.11
128.35
40.548
10.031
43
431.333
204.72 33.987
7.936
32
253.952
173.58
0.000
0.000
0.000
39.566
8.620
163
2063.06
301.93
511 a=3730.60
b=895.26
-TR
Avg. of all
VHGV s
0.000
42.966 12.657
SUM of
VHGV s
157
TOTAL
478 a=2972.33
Ministry of Works
1353.25
b=900.88
A.23
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
From the heaviest loaded direction, proportion of E80 made up from axles heavier than 13tonnes (in direction 2):
= (b/a) x 100 = (895.26/3730.60) x 100 = 24%
This value is less than 50%, thus the Traffic Load Class will not be denoted heavy (-H) and no special measures are
required in the pavement design or design of improved subgrade.
Traffic growth and design traffic loading (Chapters 4.2.5 and 4.2.6)
D irection 1
B u ses
D ai ly counts
VEF
E80/day
MGV
D irection 2
H GV
VH GV
B u ses
MGV
H GV
VH GV
13
19
10
20
13
21
11
20
3.922
3.705
8.959
8.620
4.033
3.262
8.557
12.657
50.986
70.395
89.590
172.400
52.429
68.502
94.127
253.140
Total E80/day
383
468
Use the heaviest direction in axle loading for calculating the traffic loading, in this case direction 2. The cumulative
number of standard axles, E80 = 365 x t1 x (1 + I)N - 1
i
where:
Substituting:
t1 =
i =
average daily number of standard axles in the year of traffic survey

annual growth rate expressed as a decimal fraction
N =
calculated period in years
t1 =
468
0.035 for all heavy vehicle categories
The cumulative number of E80 for the design period and the time from present until completed pavement
construction is calculated using (20 + 3) = 23 years, and let be denoted as E8023.
E8023 = 365 x 468 x (1 + 0.035)23 1 = 5.9 million E80
0.035
The cumulative E80 for the time from present to completion of pavement construction is calculated using 3 years,
and let be denoted as E803.
E803 = 365 x 468 x (1 + 0.035)3 1 = 0.5 million E80
0.035
Hence E80design = E8023 - E803 = 5.9 0.5 = 5.4 million E80
Construction traffic (Chapter 4.2.7)
On the completed pavement 90,000 m3 of construction materials is expected to be transported using trucks of a
capacity of 15 m3 and having an equivalency factor (VEF) of 12.5 when fully loaded.
Therefore 6000 loads will be required.
E80construction = 6000 x 12.5 = 0.075 million E80
Hence Total E80design = 5.4 + 0.075 = 5.475
A.24
i.e. say 5.5 million E80
Ministry of Works
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Traffic Load Classes (TLC) (Chapter 4.3)
Design traffic loading of 5.5 million E80 puts the project road into TLC 10. /Table 4.3/
A8.2 Subgrade CBRdesign

Input data
n
Traffic:
TLC 3.
n
Climate:
Moderate.
n
Alignment: Shallow embankment or cuttings throughout the route.
n
Subgrade CBR: 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9,10, 6, 8, 9, 9, 9, 11, 12, 12, 14
Identify homogenous sections from site reconnaissance (Chapter 5.2.3)
Section 1:
Section 2 (cutting):
Section 3:
CBR values: 5 - 6 - 3 - 5 - 4
CBR values: 8 - 10 - 8 - 7 - 8 - 7 - 9
CBR values: 12 - 8 - 6 - 9 - 14 - 11 - 9 - 12 - 9
The 90%-ile CBR value (Chapter 5.2.3)
For sections with no cuttings, the CBRdesign is obtained by plotting a graph of CBR (arranged in ascending order )
against test number and obtain the CBR value corresponding to: /Figures A8.1 and A8.2/
d =
where:
0.1 x (n 1)
d = is the value in the horizontal axis starting from sample 1

n = number of tests used in the design
The use of standard deviation in a normal distribution ( MEAN - 1.3 x std.dev ) gives excessively conservative
results. A direct use of the measured CBR values and exclusion of 10% of the number of tests shall be the applied
method.
For cuttings, use the lowest CBR value for the section (Chapter 5.2.3)
Section 2 in a cutting has a CBR of 7% as its lowest.
Subgrade CBRdesign (Chapter 5.2.3)

Section 1:
CBRdesign = 3%
Section 2 (cutting):
CBRdesign = 7%
Section 3:
CBRdesign = 7%
Determine subgrade class (Chapter 5.2.3)

Section 1:
Section 2 (cutting) :
Section 3:
Ministry of Works
S3
S7
S7
A.25
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Design of improved subgrade layers (Chapter 5.5.1)

Section
Subgrade class
Upper layer
1
S3
2
S7
3
S7
150mm
150mm
150mm
G15
G15
G15
150mm
Lower layer
G7
not required
Graphs to determine the 90%-ile value

Section 1
7
CBR values plotted

in ascending order
CBR data
3
4
5
5
6
90%-ile
3,4
CBR(%)
5
4
n = 5 tests
d = 0.1 x (n-1)
= 0.4
3
2
1
CBR DESIGN
3%
d=0.4
0
1
Test
Figure A8.1 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 1

The CBRdesign value is obtained by normal rounding off the 90%-ile value.
Section 2
Cutting, lowest CBR is used as CBRdesign.
Section 3
CBR values plotted
in ascending order
16
14
12
90%-ile
7,6
CBR DESIGN
8%
CBR(%)
CBR data
6
8
9
9
9
11
12
12
14
10
8
n = 9 tests
d = 0.1 x (n-1)
= 0.8
6
4
2
d=0.8
0
1
Test
Figure A8.2 CBRdesign as the 90%-ile value for section 3

The CBRdesign value is obtained by normal rounding off the 90%-ile value.
A.26
Ministry of Works
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
A8.3
The CUSUM Method to Establish Homogenous Sets

of Data
The CUSUM is a method to establish homogenous sections by analysis of one parameter at the time. The method
utilises plotting of the cumulative sum of difference from the average value. The calculations, plotting and interpretation of data are shown below in an example where rutting measurements on an existing pavement are analysed.
Rutting
measured
C
Difference
from average
[Km]
[mm]
(A - B )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
14
13
15
14
13
14
7
9
8
13
15
18
14
16
14
14
15
18
14
15
9
10
9
12
9
11
-1,2
-0,2
-2,2
-1,2
-0,2
-1,2
5,8
3,8
4,8
-0,2
-2,2
-5,2
-1,2
-3,2
-1,2
-1,2
-2,2
-5,2
-1,2
-2,2
3,8
2,8
3,8
0,8
3,8
1,8
Average:
CUSUM
(Accumulated
values of C )
-1,2
-1,4
-3,6
-4,8
-5,0
-6,2
-0,4
3,4
8,2
8,0
5,8
0,6
-0,6
-3,8
-5,0
-6,2
-8,4
-13,6
-14,8
-17,0
-13,2
-10,4
-6,6
-5,8
-2,0
-0,2
Plotting of CUSUM against Chainage
Homogenous sections
10
5
CUSUM
B
Chainage
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Chainage
Interpretation of data:
A change of slope indicates change of conditions along
the data. Four distinct homogenous sections can be seen
in the above chart.
A = 12,8
Ministry of Works
A.27
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
A8.4
Pavement Rehabilitation Design Maximum

Deflection Method
Input data:
Two homogenous sections of a pavement rehabilitation project with granular base course have the following
deflection data after more than 20 measurements had been taken on each section:
Section 1:
mean: 0.73 mm
Section 2:
standard deviation: 0.029 mm
standard deviation: 0.086 mm
mean: 0.79 mm
Traffic loading /Chapter A8.1/

n past traffic loading:
2.0 million E80
n future traffic loading (design traffic loading ): 8.0 million E80
Design deflection:
Calculate design deflection for each homogenous section:

Section 1:
(mean deflection) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)

= 0.73 + 1.3 x 0.029 = 0.77 mm
Section 2:
(mean deflection) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)

= 0.79 + 1.3 x 0.086 = 0.90 mm
Expected total pavement life

Section 1:
a design deflection of 0.77 mm gives expected pavement life of 4.0 million E80. /Figure 9.5/
Section 2:
a design deflection of 0.90 mm gives expected pavement life of 3.0 million E80. /Figure 9.5/
Residual life
Section 1:
Residual life = expected life past traffic loading

= (4 2) million E80 = 2 million E80.
Section 2:
Residual life = expected life past traffic loading

= (3 2) million E80 = 1 million E80.
Strengthening of the pavement is required since the residual life is less than the future design traffic loading.
Target deflection
Sections 1 and 2: Future traffic loading of 8.0 million E80 plus 2.0 million E80 past traffic loading gives a target
deflection = 0.53 mm /Figure 9.5/
Required strengthening, SNdiff
Using target deflection and measured design deflection /Figure 9.7/

Section 1: SNdiff = 1.00
Section 2: SNdiff = 1.30
A.28
Ministry of Works
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Select overlay alternatives
Using SNdiff as input the follow asphalt overlays are required: /Table 9.7/
Section 1: AC = 60 mm
Section 2: AC = 80 mm
A8.5
Pavement Rehabilitation Design Structural Number

Method
Input data:
Existing pavement:
Material coefficients:
/Table 9.4/
t 1 = 60 mm
Asphalt concrete, severely cracked
a1 = 0.18
t 2 = 180 mm
Natural gravel, PI = 10, CBR = 40%
a = 0.10
t 2 = 150 mm
Natural gravel, PI = 15, CBR = 15%
a = 0.08
CBR = 8%
Design traffic loading: 8 million E80 (TLC 10)

Wet climatic zone
Rural main road with high traffic speed
Strength deficiency - SNdiff

Calculations:
/Chapter 9.2.2/
SNexist = (a1
Old AC
a1 = 0.18
t1 = 60mm
x t 1)
/ 25.4 = (0.18
SNrequired = 2.35 /Table 9.5/
CBR = 40%
a2 = 0.10
60) / 25.4 = 0.43
SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 2.35 - 043 =1.92 (highest, i.e. critical)

for TLC 10 and CBR=40
t2 = 180mm
SNexist = [(a1
x t1)+(a2 x t2)
] / 25.4 = [(0.18
60)+(0.10
180)] / 25.4 = 1.33
SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 2.75 - 1.33 = 1.42

SNrequired = 2.75 /Table 9.5/
CBR = 15%
a3 = 0.08
for TLC 10 and CBR=15
t3 = 150mm
SNexist = [(a1
t1)+(a2 x t2)+(a3 x t3)] / 25.4 = [(0.18
60)+(0.10
180)+(0.08
150)] / 25.4 =
1.61
SNdiff = SNrequired - SNexist = 3.30 - 1.61 = 1.69

SNrequired = 3.30
/Table 9.5/ for TLC 10 and CBR=8
CBR = 8%
Among the values of SNdiff (1.92 - 1.42 - 1.69) calculated at different levels in the existing pavement, 1.92 is the
highest and becomes the value for which rehabilitation design is carried out.
Ministry of Works
A.29
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Using SNdiff = 1.92 as input to /Table 9.7/ the nearest value of SNdiff in the table is 2.00 The following overlay
alternatives are given in the table:
1) The appropriate type of bituminous base course shall be selected depending on traffic load class according to
/Table 8.7/ in /Chapter 8 Pavement Design - New Roads/.
2) Best suited for roads with low traffic speed such as urban roads. For roads with high traffic speed a levelling course made
of a bituminous mix may be necessary to provide satisfactory riding quality.
3) Limited to the conditions given in /Tables 8.4/ and /8.5/ in / Chapter 8 Pavement Design - New Roads/ with regards to
traffic loading and climate. Consideration shall be given to reprocessing of the existing pavement.
Overlay alternatives
SNdiff
The nearest value for SNdiff has been selected.
Asphalt concrete
overlay
Bituminous mix
for base course
1)
Penetration
macadam
2)
Granular base
course
AC
50 mm
PM 80
125 mm
Alternatively:
ST
2,00
AC
50 mm
Bit.
100 mm
PM 60
3)
AC
50 mm
100 mm
CRR
PM 60
00 mm
100 mm
Discussion
Overlays
n Overlays with a bituminous mix is not considered viable due to the high risk of reflective cracking from the
severely cracked AC surfacing of the existing pavement, unless specialised interlayer systems are employed.
n Overlay with granular base course and AC surfacing could be employed, but reprocessing of the existing
pavement is advisable if there is deformation in the existing pavement.
n Penetration macadam will arrest reflective cracking, but on a high speed road surface dressing alone on a
penetration macadam is not well suited.
n The following overlay alternative is appropriate, provided site conditions such as severe deformation in the
existing pavement, does not prohibit this construction method.
AC
50 mm
PM 80
125 mm
Partial reconstruction
If deformation of the existing surface is severe it is likely that partial reconstruction is the most viable rehabilitation
option. i.e. to reprocess the existing surface and base course to subbase in the new pavement /Chapter 9.3.2/.
A.30
Ministry of Works
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
New surfacing
New base course
New base course and surfacing to be selected in compliance with

/Chapter 8.3.2/ depending on achieved quality of the new subbase.
Exitsing AC reprocessed, or removed, depending on chosen method.
Reprocessed AC
Existing base course (and subbase)
A8.6
Existing base course (and subbase) reprocessed to subbase

in the new pavement.
Surface Dressing Design Including Determination of

ALD
Determination of the average least dimension (ALD) of aggregates
The average least dimension (ALD) of an aggregate is the average minimum size of each particle. The ALD may be
determined by using the following procedures:
Method A
The least dimension of a sample of approximately 200 representative aggregate particles is measured manually. The
aggregates are obtained by careful sample sub-division in accordance with CML test 2.4. The mean value of the
measurements is then calculated.
Method B
A more practical method, however of sufficient accuracy, is by using the test results from the grading analysis and
the flakiness index to determine ALD is determined as follows:
1. Draw the grading curve as a smooth curve /Figure A8.3/ through the plotted points except that the nearest
point above 50% is joined to the nearest point below 50% passing by a straight line unless a curved shape is
obviously required.
2. The median size, which is the particle size where 50% of the aggregate would be passing, is read off in mm as
the ordinate corresponding to the crossing point between the grading curve and the line for 50% passing.
3. The flakiness index is determined in accordance with CML test 2.4.
4. The ALD is read off from the nomograph shown in /Figure A8.4/ using median size and flakiness index as
input data.
In this example the median size obtained after grading is 17.2 mm /Figure A8.3/. Assuming the flakiness index is
23, locate these data on line A and C respectively /Figure A8.4/. Finally join A to C and then read the ALD on B,
which is 11.8 mm in this example.
Figure A8.3 Determination of median size
Ministry of Works
A.31
Appendix 8
Worked Examples
Method:
Join A to C
Read average least dimension on B
Figure A8.4 Determination of average least dimension
Design a double surface dressing

/Table 10.4/
/Chapter 10.2.6/
A coarse surfacing type has been chosen, using 20mm and 10mm chipping in 1st and 2nd layer
respectively.
Input data:
n
double surface dressing, new road, dry, primed base course
n
AADT = 700, two lane road with surfaced width of 6.5 m
n
20% heavy vehicles
n
20 mm chipping: ALD = 11.5 mm
n
n
0.1% passing 0.075 mm (not dusty), water absorption 0.8%
n
flat terrain
Aggregate spread rates /Chapter 10.2.1/
/Table 10.1/
To be determined on site. For planning purposes the following apply:

n
1st layer for 20 mm aggregate: 0.016 m3/m2
n
2nd layer for 10 mm aggregate: 0.009 m3/m2
/Chapter 10.2.4/
Bitumen spray rate 1st layer:

The road has a surfaced width of 6.5 m, i.e. the AADT can be used directly.
/Table 10.5/
Basic hot bitumen spray rate:
A.32
= 0.11 x ALD
= 0.11 x 11.5
= 1.27 l/m2
Ministry of Works
Appendix 8
Worked Examples

/Table 10.5/
There is no correction of spray rate for the 1st layer.
/Chapter 10.2.4/.
Bitumen spray rate 2nd layer

The road has a surfaced width of 6.5 m then the AADT is used directly.
/Table 10.6/
/Table 10.6/
There is no correction of spray rate for the 2nd layer.
= 0.90 l/m2
Design of a combined seal using single surface dressing and a sand cover seal
/Chapter 10.4.2/
Input data:
n
double surface dressing, new road, dry, primed base course
n
AADT = 200, two lane road with surfaced width of 6.5 m
n
20% heavy vehicles
n
n
river sand in combination as 2nd layer
n
0.15% passing 0.075 mm (not dusty), water absorption: 0.7%
n
flat terrain
/Table 10.1/
Aggregate spread rates

To be determined on site. For planning purposes the following spread rates apply:
1st layer for 14 mm aggregate:
2nd layer sand:
/Chapter 10.2.4/
/Table 10.3/
/Table 10.3/
/Table 10.11/
Ministry of Works
0.012 m3/m2 /Chapter 10.2.1/

0.010 m3/m2 /Chapter 10.4.1/
Bitumen spray rate 1st seal

The road has a surfaced width of 6.5 m then the AADT is used directly.
= 0.16 x ALD
= 0.16 x 8.0
= 1.28 l/m2
There is no correction of spray rate for the 1st layer.

Bitumen spray rate for sand seal 2nd seal /Chapter 10.4.1/
The binder for sand seals shall be cutback bitumen of type MC3000.
The hot spray rate of MC3000 cutback bitumen ranges between 0.80 l/m2 and 1.00 l/m2 to be
determined on site depending on the surface texture of the underlying seal.
A.33
Appendix 9.1
Physical (topography)
Appendix 9.2
Geology
Appendix 9.3
Soils
Appendix 9.4
Vegetation
Appendix 9.5
Rainfall
MAY 1999
ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 1 - 5

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MAY 1999

ISBN 9987 - 8891 - 1 - 5

THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

Pavement and Materials

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Ngumbulu Director of Trunk Roads (Chairman)

Ag. Director of Rural Roads

Ag. Chief Engineer, CML

Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and Construction, Trunk Roads

Ag. Chief Engineer, Design and Construction, Rural Roads

The Working Group consisted of the following members:

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

California bearing ratio

Materials testing standards

Issued by the American Association for

Prime (Sprayed on granular layers)

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Cut back slope

Embankment side slope

Figure 1 Cross section terms

Original ground level

Asphalt concrete surfacing

Surface treated pavements

Structural layer (improved subgrade, if required)

Figure 3 Pavement details

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1.1

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage ....................................................................................................... 3.1

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Geo-textiles as filter ..............................................................................................................................

Problem Soils .............................................................................................................................................. 6.1

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Geo-textiles used as separating layers ................................................................................................ 7.17

Geo-grids for reinforcement ............................................................................................................... 7.18

References ....................................................................................................................................... 7.18

Pavement Design New Roads ................................................................................................................. 8.1

Pavement Rehabilitation ............................................................................................................................. 9.1

General ................................................................................................................................. 9.2

Bituminous Surfacings .............................................................................................................................. 10.1

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Materials and construction ................................................................................................................. 10.2

Surface Dressing ................................................................................................................ 10.3

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Major gravel roads ............................................................................................................................. 11.4

Minor gravel roads ............................................................................................................................. 11.5

Units of Measurements .....................................................................................................................A8

Cross Section and Pavement Performance ................................................................................... A12

Handling of Bitumen Products ...................................................................................................... A13

Problem Soils Investigation Procedures .................................................................................... A17

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) .................................................................................... A21

Worked Examples .......................................................................................................................... A23

List of Tables and Figures

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

7.15 Material requirements FBMIX ....................................................................................... 7.14

Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999

10.14 Mix proportions for asphalt concrete ............................................................................. 10.19

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Pavement DesignNew Roads