\ t er

CHAPTER 9

Absorption
':

fk

\'lj\

Hill

The most common use of the massfransfercoeffcientsdevelopedin Chapter8

is the analytical descriptionof large-scaleseparationprocesseslike gas absorptionand
liquid-liquid extraction. These mass transfercoefficientsdescribethe absorptionof a
solutevapor like SOz or NH3 from air into water. They describethe extractionof waxes
from lubricatingoils, the leachingof copperfrom low-gradeores,and the efficiencyof the
distillationof xyleneisomers.
Mass transfercoefficientsare useful becausethey describehow fast theseseparations
the maximum
occur. They fhusrepresenta stepbeyondthermodynamics,which establishes
separationsthat arepossible.They are a stepshortof analysesusing diffusion coefficients,
which havea more exactfundamentalbasis.Mass transfercoeffcientsare accurateenough
to conelateexperimentalresultsfrom industrialseparationequipment,and they providethe
basisfor designingnew equipment.
areaffectedby masstransfercoefficientsbut to differentdegrees.
All industrialprocesses
Gas absorption,the focus of this chapter,is an example of what is called "differential
contacting"and dependsdirectly on masstransfercoefficients.Distillation,the focusof the
next chapter,is an exampleof what is called"stage-wisecontacting"and is lessinfluenced
by mass transfer. Extraction and adsorption,the subjectsof Chapters 11-12, may be
effectedin either differentialor stagedcontactors.
Understandingabsorptionis the key to all fbur operations.This understandingis usually
cloudedby presentingthe ideascompletelyin algebraicterms. All chemistryand all simple
limits areimplied ratherthanexplained.As a result,novicesoften understandeverystepof
the analysisbut havea poor perspectiveof the overallproblem. To avoidthis dislocation,we
begin,in Section9.1, with a descriptionof the gasesto be absorbedand the liquid solvents
that absorbthem. A few of theseliquids dependonly on the solubility of the gas; many
more liquids reactchemicallywith the componentsof the gas.
Once this chemicalproblemis stated,we turn, in Section9.2, to the physicalequipment
used. This physicalequipmentis simple,but it is constrainedby the fluid mechanicsof the
gas and liquid flowing past eachother. Theseflows are complicated,describedlargely by
empirical correlations.The best strategymay be to follow the turnkey procedureto solve
the fluid mechanics.
In Section9.3 we turn to the simple caseof dilute absorptionand in Section9.4 to the
parallel caseof concentratedabsorption.For the dilute solution case,we assumea linear
isotherm, that is, that a solute's solubility in liquid is directly proportionalto its partial
pressurein gas. This leads to a simple analytical solution. For the concentratedcase,
we do not assumethe isotherm is linear and we recognizethat the liquid and gas flows
changewithin the equipment. Now the solution requiresnumerical integration. These
two sectionsmirror our earlier discussionof diffusion, where the simple case of dilute
diffusion in Chapter2 gaveway to the concentratedand more generalresultsin Chapter3.
Understandingthe dilute caseis the key to the concentratedcase.

245

9 / Absorptiott

246

9l'T:,B.

9.L The Basic Problem

When you drive by a chemicalplant at night, the most impressivepa is the lights'
They outline every piece of equipment. When you look more closely,you can often see
threetypesof silhouettes.The tallestare the thin distillationcolumns,which are described
in the next chapter.The next tallestarethe fat gasabsorptioncolumns,which arethe subject
of this chapter.Ironically, the shortestsilhouettesare the chemicalreactors,chargedwith
reagentsto make the desiredproducts.
This relative size has a moral: while the chemical plant would not exist without the
the
chemical reactors,the biggestexpense- the biggest equipment will often be in
gas
absorption,
and
separationequipment.This separationequipmentcenterson distillation
is
the two most importantunit operations.The analysisand the designof theseoperations
centralto the entirechemicalindustry'
I havefound that distillation is betterunderstoodthan gasabsorption.I believethat this
is becauseeveryoneknowsthat distillationis how you concentrateethanolfrom water: Disfor'
tillation is how you turn wine into brandy. In contrast,few know what gasabsorptionis
happens
What
gases?
What specificgasesare absorbed,anyway?What liquids absorbthe
to the lquids afterwards?I find this ignoranceironic becauseof increasedenvironmental
yet
concerns. Gas absorptionis the chief method for controlling industrial air pollution,
many with environmentalinterestsremain ignorantof its nature'
In this section,I want to begin to removethis ignorance'I want to list the gasesthat we
I
most often seekto removeand to give rough limits for the inlet and exit concentrations.
want to explainwherethesegasmixturesoccur. I will do so qualitatively,without equations;
there are more than enoughequationsin later sections.I do want to make one point now
about cost. ln thesesystems,the cost of absorptionis usually log linear' It coststwice as
tt
much to remove 997oas it doesto 907o,and it coststwice as much to remove 99'97cas
doesto remove997o. Thts increasingcost shouldbe a key in environmentallegislation'

Prtrce.:

Ammrrntrn-..
C o a lS a .
H r g hB t u ; .
LLr\\ BIu :- j

Ethrlenen-r.:
F l u es l r d e . , .
Hr drtrqenn'..
\atural sr. ::
Orlde:ulu:.
R e n n e qd e - ,
S rn g a : t , , r .- -

9.1.
The
:11\ture ilnd l
- r.-h nprh ,n.
'''--"' t -""'t

Lr.rffilCIi\

r- .l

- LrflCehIftltl-.
l;rI.

f\ tf.l

::l!'ITed trr;.
.: .' nlA\ ba I

::o,iuce rtrliJ

T h e r eS : : .
, : n t r a t e di l : .
-:ihtrilte .

9.1.1 Which GasesAre Absorbed

Mostgasabsorptionaimsat separationof acidicimpuritiesfrom mixedgasstreams'
Theseacidic impuritiesincludecarbondioxide (COz), hydrogensulfide(H2S),sulfur dioxide (SOz),and organicsulfur compounds.The most importantof theseare CO2 and H2S,
inwhich occur at concentrationsof five to fifty percent. The organic sulfur compounds
atom
with
a
sulfur
alcohols
clude carbonyl sulfide (COS) and merceptans,which are like
in placeof the oxygen. Merceptansstink: For example,butyl merceptanis responsiblefor
the stenchof skunks.
Other impurities vary widely. One common impurity is water,which can be removed
by either absorptionor adsorption. Another is ammonia (NH:), which is basic, rather
(NO*) are of
than acidic. Sulfur trioxide (SOr), prussicacid (HCN), and nitrogen oxides
from some
removed
concem becauseof their high chemicalreactivity. Oxygen must be
gas.
reagentstreams,and nitrogencan be absorbedto upgradenatural
The occurence of these streamsand the targetsfor their removal are summarizedin
Table 9. I -l . The ubiquitouspresenceof H2S reflectsthe fact that fossil fuels' especially
more
coal and petroleum,containlargeamountsof sulfur. Moreover,as the world becomes
gas,
which
industrialized,the targetswill decrease.This is particularlytrue for SO2in flue
i s t h e s o u r c eo l ' a c i dr a i n .

l
"i
- , 1 . 1 . 1 1 1 p 1 -1r1
-::llinC

-:'i*L

!rll_1 .

: \ \ J : . , i -

..-..::l\ 3 rl.
Q ,r; '.-- . - ' j \ : \ \ r i j

rl)Itotl

9.1 / The Basic Problem

141

Table 9. 1- 1. Gas treating in major industrial processes

:-:-lights.
:lensee
-:..ribed
- r' .ubject
.:_:e,iwith

Process
Ammonia manufacture
Coal gas
High Btu gas
Low Btu gas
Ethylenemanufacture
Flue gas desulfurization
Hydrogen manufacture
Natural gas upgrading
Oil desulfurization
Refinery desulfurization
Syn gas fbr chemicalsfeedstock

: 1 l r u tt h e
.: rn the
-.,'rption,
: : , r l i o n isS
, hitthis
- . : i f :D i s . :r is fbr.
-

':

: .--lJtlOflS,

: lnl now
: - : . , rt c e a s
'-.tiasit
'.rt1tlO.

-:. .tfilllS.

- . : . r rd i o x - . , ; l dH 2 S ,
: .ndsin- ::rr atom
, ' . i b l ef o r
,:' :i lllOVed

:-:.. rather
, ,,areof
:: :ll SOme
- ,:r-1zed
in
: . recially
'-';':

lTOfe

. - : - .r i h i c h

Common targets
(7oAcid gas)

co2, NH3, H2S

<16 ppm CO2

co2,H2s,cos

500 ppm COz; 0.01ppm H2S

100ppm H2S
<l ppm H2S, I ppm CO2
90Varemoval
<O.lVcCO2
< 4 p p m H 2 S ; < l 7 oC O z
100ppm H2S
l0 ppm H2S
<500 ppm CO:;<0.01 ppm H2S

HzS
H2S,CO2
SO:
Coz
H2S,CO2,N2, RSH
HrS

co2,H2s,cos
co2,H2s

9.1.2 What Are the Absorbing Liquids?

nq
' 'l fn rn' e
""

::ntental
. . , : t \ r ny. e t
r - ihatwe
: : . , l t C t n SI .

Gasesto be
removed

The choice of a liquid absorbentdependson the concentrationsin the feed gas

mixture and on the percentremovaldesired.If the impurity concentrationin the feedgasis
high, perhapsten to fifty percent,we canoften dissolvemostof the impurity in a nonvolatile,
nonreactiveliquid. Such a nonreactiveliquid is called a physical solvent. If the impurity
concentrationis lower, around one to ten percent,we will tend to use a liquid capableof
f'ast,reversiblechemical reactionwith the impurity. Such a reversiblyreactiveliquid is
refened to as a "chemical solvent." If the impurity concentrationin the feed is lower still,
we may be forced to use a liquid that reactsirreversibly,an expensivealternativethat may
producesolid waste.
Thesegeneralizationsmay be clearerif we considerthe caseof H2S. If we havea concentratedfeed stream,we can dissolvethe H2S in liquids like ethyleneglycol or propylene
carbonate,which are physical solvents. At lower feed concentrationsof H2S, we would
commonly use aqueoussolutionsof alkylamines. One common exampleis monoethanol
amine
H2NCH2CH2OH
As you can see, this is like ammonia but with one proton replacedwith ethanol. Such
speciesreact reversiblywith acid gaseslike H2S, so their aqueoussolutionsare chemical
solvents.Finally, if the HzS is presentonly in traces,we can removethesetraceswith an
aqueoussolutionof NaOH. This will producea wastestreamof NaHS, which is discarded.
Gasabsorptionprocesses
producea liquid containinghigh concentrations
of theimpurity.
Ths commonly is removed- stripped- by heatingthe liquid so that the impurity bubbles
out. Often, this removal is acceleratedby pumping an inert gas - a sweep stream through the hot liquid. Recently,chemical companieshave been borheredby the high
cost of heating the large volumes of absorbingliquids. To avoid thesecosts,they have
begunusing absorbantswhosechemicalreactivityis pressuresensitive.Becauseswingsin
pressurecan be lessexpensivethan swings in temperature,I expectthe switch to pressure
sensitiveabsorbantswill continue.
Both temperatureand pressureswingsyield a concentratedimpurity requiringdisposal.
The disposalis againillustratedby the exampleof H2S. The H2S is normally strippedfrom

9 / Ahsorption

248

Gos in
Liquid oul

of the
Fig. 9.2-I . A packedtowerusedfor gasabsorption.A gasmixtureentersthe bottom
countercurrently,
flowing
liquid
by
is
absorbed
towerandflowsout the top. Partof'thismixture
from toP to bottom.
stream is burned:
amines by heating; the concentrated HzS stream is split into two. The first
a

H2S+

io,

--, Soz* Hzo

This productgas is reactedcatalyticallywith the remainingH2S:

SOz*2H2S+35+2H2O
process"has been
The H2S is convertedinto solid sulfur, which can be sold. This "Claus
century.
a
for
almost
the key to sulfur recovery
into a liquid'
Thus gas absorptioncenterson removing an impurity from a gas stream
for this
equipment
of
design
and
analysis
the
will
discuss
ln the reit of this chapter,we
liquids'
nonreactive
is,
on
that
solvents,
physical
on
task. our discussionwill be entirely
in
absorption
than
less
common
times
twenty
almost
Gas absorptionin physicalsolventsis
solvents
physical
on
discussion
our
focus
We
liquids.
chemicaliolvents,that is, in reacting
16.
becausethey are much simpler;we will explorechemicalsolventsin chapter

9.2 AbsorPtionEquiPment
packedtowers
Gasabsorptionat an industrialscaleis most commonly practicedin
set
on its end and
like that shownin Fig. 9.2-I . A packedtower is essentiallya pieceof pipe
the tower trickles
filled with inert materialor "tower packing." Liquid pouredinto the top of
countercurrently
down throughthe packing;gaspumpedinto the bottom of the tower flows
effectsthe gas
way
this
in
achieved
liquid
gas
and
between
contact
upward. The intimate
absomton.
The mass
Analyzing a packedtower involvesboth masstransferand fluid mechanics.
packedtower' This
transf'er,detailedin the following section,determinesthe height of the
reactionsthat often
masstransfri s describedasmolr flows, partly becauseof the chemical
area
occur. The fluid mechanics,describedin this section,determinesthe cross-sectional
of
a consequence the
of the packedtower. The fluid mechanicsis describedas massflows,

ft-.-r:

DcJ
f l f f , . - *

;ll

h "

rE*
n{!H
lry&6.
pJltr-.-

:--

,trptton

249

9.2 / AbsorptionEquipment

P
L--J
Raschig Ring

%@

@@
Pall Ring

A
\4
NunsrBing

Fig. 9.2-2.Sx typesof randompacking.Thesepackingsaim to resolvethe conflictnggoalsof

fast flow and largeinterfacialareas.
- .,f the
-::iUrrently,

:--.:' burned:

' - - h a sb e e n
-:,,uhquid.
- ::it tbr this
-: .: liquids.
--.,irption in
. - , : r o l v e n t s

', \3d towers

: t \ e n da n d
.i
: er trickles
.- :: r-currently
: : , ' J r st h e g a s
The mass
,uer. This
- . thatoften
. : , : r o n aa
l rea
of the
- --::rce
-

physics that control the process. To describe the physics, we discuss the tower packing, the
flows themselves, and the estimation of the tower's cross section.

9.2.1 Tower Packing

The fluid mechanicsin the packedtower is dominatedby the inert materialin the
packedtower. This material can be small piecesdumped randomly or larger structures
carefully stackedinside the tower. Randompacking is cheaperand more common; strucruredpackingis more expensivebut more efficient. The efficiencyis typically improvedby
aroundthirty percent,a significantgain when producingcommodity chemicalsat very low
margins. Still, becausestructuredpackingsvary widely, we will stressthe more common
randompackingshere.
Typical random packings, shown in Fig.9.2-2, replacethe crushedmaterial used in
early chemical processing. These packings try to permit both high fluid flow and high
interfacialarea betweenthe gas and the liquid. These goals are in conflict: High fluid
flow implies a few large channelsthrough the tower, and high interfacial area requires
many small channels.Thus tower packingsare compromises,developedwith eighty years
of empiricism. Sometimes,the Raschigrings and the Berl saddlesare describedas firstpackings,the Intalox saddlesandPall rings aresecondgeneration.andthe Nutter
_seneration
rings are third generation.All aim at the samegoal: fast flow with big area.
9.2.2 Tower Flui.d Mechanics
The liquid and gas flows throughtheserandompackingscannotbe arbitrarily set
but mustrestwithin a narrow,empiricallydefinedrange.To seewhy this rangeis important,
imagineyou havea tall glassfilled with ice. You blow air into the bottomof theglassthrough
a straw,and you pour cola into the glassat the sametime. You watch what happens.
If you pour the cola at a very slow rate,it won't flow evenly downwardthroughthe ice
but will run down in only a few places. Such a flow, called "channeling,"occurs when
the gas or liquid flow is much greaterat some points than at others. Such channelingis
undesirable,for it can substantiallyreduceinterfacialareaand hencemasstransfer. lt is
usuallyminor in crushedsolid packing and is minimal in commerciallypurchasedrandom
packing,exceptat very low liquid flows.

250

9 / Absorption

If you now pour the cola faster (rememberto keep blowing), you get a casewhere the
cola flows through all the ice more evenly,with your breathbubbling up through ir. The
conditionswheretheserelativelyevenflows begin is calledloadingand is a requirementfor
good masstransfer.When loadingbegins,the flows may slightly decrease,but the dramatic
increasein the gas-liquid areameansthat masstransferis fast. Yorr almost alwayswant
to operatea packedtower in this loadedcondition.
However,if you now begin blowing much harder,you will push in so much air that the
cola can't flow into the column, but splashesbackward,out of the top of the glass. This
conditionis called"flooding." It not only reducesmasstransferbut also decreases
the cola
that is flowing into the glass.
Thesesamethree conditions- sfinnnsling,loading, and flooding - can exist inside
of any packed tower. You will want to use liquid flows that are high enough to avoid
channelingand achieveloading. You will want to use gas flows that are low enough to
avoid flooding. But you will also want flows that are large enoughfor a specifictask, for
example,largeenoughto treat 6000ft3/min of flue gas. You must choosethe packing and
the shapeof the packedtower to allow theseflows without floodine.

9.2,3 Tower Cross-Sectional Area

At this point, we should restateour objective. We aim to analyzeindustrialgas
absorptionin packedtowers. This analysisdependsmost strongly on massbalancesand
rate equationsgiven in subsequentsectionsof this chapter. It also dependson the fluid
mechanicswithin the tower, which is the subjectof this section.
In most cases,the absorptionprocessthat interestsus will have specifiedflows of gases
and liquids. Theseflows must load but not flood the tower. We achievethis by changing
the tower's cross-sectional
area.This changesthe gasand liquid fluxes,that is, the amount
of fluid per cross-sectional
areaper time. By increasingthe cross-sectional
areaat constant
flows, we decreasethe fluxesandthe velocitiesof the gasandliquid flowing pasteachother.
The empiricalcorrelationsmostoften usedfor estimatingtower crosssectionsareshown
in Fig. 9.2-3. This figure is tricky, a mixture of dimensionlessand dimensionalquantities.
The abscissa,often called the flow parameteris dimensionless:

L' fO;
- 1-

- l ^ ' \ l

u '',1Pt

"

u f
I t,p,
l

'
l l

'/'
(e.2-t)

Ll?cu'6 1

whereL'(: pluv) andGt(: p6u6) arethe massfluxesof liquid andgas,respectivery;

pl
and p6 are the correspondingdensities;and u7-and u6 are the superficialvelocities. Two
points about this abscissamerit mention. First, while L' andG' are massfluxesand hence
dependon the tower's cross-sectional
area,their ratio L' f G' doesnot dependon this area.
Second,the flow parameteris a measureof relativekinetic energy: It is the squareroot of
the ratio of the liquid's kinetic energyto that in the gas.
The ordinatein Fig. 9.2-3 is more difficult. First of all, it is dimensional,not dimensionless. In particular,the gas flux G' is given in poundsper squarefoot per second;the
densitiesp6 andpL are given in poundsper cubic foot; the viscocity trris that of the liquid,
expressedin centipoise;ry' is the ratio of the density of water to the density of the liquid;
the gravitationalconstantg,. is 32.2; and the packing factor F is roughly inverselyproportional to the packing'ssize. Valuesfor F are listed for common packingsin Table 9.2-I .

-'

1,

CD

(\
^
u_

or

rl)tLon

. :'..'rrthe
: rr. The
r : l . n tf b r
ri:Jt-natic

9.2/ AbsorytictnEquipment

0.20

o
ct)

0.10
0.060
(5 0.040

' ,:i : WA[t

: rhat the
,,.' This
r - : h ec o l a

0.020

q
c,

0.010
0.006
0.004

(\l'|.

o
, :-: inside
- . , a\,oid
:: .ugh to
- ..1.k.for
. -r l l l ! a n d

251

0.002
0.001r0.01

0.04 0.1

0.4 1.0

4.O

L/G (po/p.)1/2
Fig 9.2-3.Correlationfor estimatingtowercrossseotionalarea.The conelationimpliesa
mixtureof specificunits,asexplainedin the text.

Table9.2-1.Packing.factorsFandareaspervolume(pert'ot)forrandompackings

-.:nrl gas

Nominal packing size (in.)

-:" -c'S Olld

| 1/4

::ta fluid
, ' ' gases

- "r "n oI n"O'

: r .tlnount
:i ,,rllSt0lt

. ,,.h other.
::.' \hOWn
-.,,rntities.

e . 21- )
- : . . 1 ) ,p; I .
' .'.. Two
.' J hence

RaschigRings
rCeramic)
RaschigRings
' li32 in. Metal)
RaschigRings
i/16in. Metal)
Berl Saddles
Ceramic)
PallRings
\ letal)
Pril Rings
Pastic)
lntaloxSaddles
Ceramic)
H1 Pak Rings
\letal )

580
(ril)
300
(128)
410

( rr 8 )

380
(100)
t70
300

255
(80)
r55
(84)
220
(72)

n0

240
(142)

(82)
8l
(104)
95
(104)

200
(r90)

145
(102)

t79
(58)

I t/2
93
(38)

65
(28)

83
(41)
65
(44)
40
(3e)
40
(3e)
52
(60)
29
(12)

57
(31)
45
(32)
2'7
(31)
26
(3I )
40
(36)
26
(33)

37
(1e)

tl)

(63)
144

(s7)
t10
(76)
56
(63)
55
(63)
92
(78)
45
(69)

-)L

(21)

l8
17
(26)
22
I6

(3r)

\irtr'.'Theareaspervolumearegivenin parentheses
(abstracted
fom Strigle,lagT).

- :l\ afea.
:::' fOOt Of

: dimen. : - , r n dt:h e
'r-'1iquid,
-: iquid;
: . fropor. , -t 9 . 2 - 1 .

This melangeof mixed metric and English units is a historicalartifact born in the largely
\nrerican developmentof the petrochemicalindustry.
The physical significanceof the ordinateis also obscure.we recosnizethat it is domi:.ited by the ratio
(G)2 F

)o o 'l

Pc QtSc

p1.q.(packing
size)

(e.2-2)

252

9 / Absorpton

This suggeststhat the ordinatecanbe regardedasthe ratio of the kinetic energyin the gas
to the potentialenergyin the liquid. The other factors,like p0 2, arejust later empiricisms.
The history of correlationin Fig. 9.2-3 is curious. The original form, due to Sherwood
Shipley and Nolloway (1938), was limited to the flooding curve. The curvesat constant
pressuredrop were addedby Leva (1954). More recently,many have quarreledover the
form, correctlyfeeling that somethingwith a better-definedphysicalsignificancewould be
prefrable.While I agree,I recognizethat Fig. 9.2-3 is the startingpoint for most who are
w o r k i n go n a b s o r p t i odne s i g n .
To use Fig.9.2-3 to find the tower's cross-sectionalarea,we must first know the gas
and liquid flows and hencethe flow parameteron the figure's ordinate. After we choose
a packing from the myriad available,we want to choosea pressuredrop in the tower. In
conventionalpractice,absorbersare designedto operateat pressuredrops of 0.2 to 0.6
inch H2O per foot. The lower pressuredrop will minimize foaming. Alternatively,we can
calculatethe column's performanceat flooding and arbitrarily chooseto operateat a gas
flux equal to half the flooding value. In both this method and the previousone, we must
make sure to design the tower for the point where the maximum flows of gas and liquid
occur. For absorption,this is normally at the tower's bottom; for stripping,it's normally at
the top.
Using Fig. 9.2-3 for estimatingthe tower'scrosssectionis straightforwardthoughcomplicated. Rememberthis figure has two major limitations. First, it implies that at large
gas flows, the cross sectionalarea should vary with liquid density and velocity. In fact,
it should be independentof these. Second,this figure is largely basedon iquid and gas
densitydifferenceslike thoseof water and air. Thesetendto give optimistic predictionsfor
nonaqueoussystems(i.e., smallerthan optimal tower crosssections).Thus in nonaqueous
systems,like those involving ethyeneand propylene,you may need different methods.
Again, make early estimateswith the methodsin this section,and then discussyour case
with equipmentsuppliers.

Example 9.2-1: Estimating a tower cross-section You are planning to reducethe two
percentcarbondioxide in 23 poundsper secondof a naturalgasstreamusing absorptionin
aqueousdiethylamineflowing out at 40 poundsper second.You want to useeither 1j inch
Raschigrings or I j inch Pall rings. In eithercase,you want to designfor a pressuredrop of
0.25inch H2O per foot, so that foaming is minimized.-Underthe operatingconditions,the
densitiesof the gasand the liquid are 2.8 and 63 lbs/fti, respectively;the liquid's viscosity
is 2 centipoise.
areabe?
What shouldthe tower's cross-sectional
Solution This problemillustratesthe routineuseof Fig. 9.2-3. We frst calculate
the flow parameter:

L, P;
G'\ p,

4otbs/sec E.Slbtlftt

xtbvr*V 63lbr/f

From Fig. 9.2-3,the capacityfactor is thus

\lrsorption r

F : : h el l i n c h R

(c')(9

u
G':0.

Thu: the tower I

of -5.7 feet. For t
Horrever,while t
is a considerab

9.3 Al

We nor
we will wantto t
to use our analr
case,we will bu
allowedestimat
To simplift c
from a gas into
clearest.Becau
both constantse
key equations:

(1) a solu
(.2) a solu
(3) a solu

Thesethree ke'
equation.respe
W e b e g t nr t :
on a smali tou e

>o
1
I rr'.
\
G {

'.\hL-re and l
rr the r t-r1un-

( G ' f n Pp o z

: 0.015

Pc PL.8c

t:

\D\orptrcn

: \ i n t h eg a s
:piricisms.
Sherwood
,rt cOlSt&tlt

iJ over the
-: \\ ould be
,rt$ho are
:,,\\ the gas
- '',,. choose
::.' lowef. In
: r ) . 1t o 0 . 6
: , : ' l \ .w e c a n

9.3/ Absorptionof a Dilute Vapor

253

For the I 2 l n c n Raschigrings, the packingfactor F is given in Table9.2-1 as 93, so

( c ' ) ( e( 3Y)\ r "

\ o J , /

:0.015

2.8(63)32.2
G ' : 0 . 9 0 l b s / f t :s e c
to a diameter
Thus the tower has a crosssectionof (2310.90:)26fe. This corresponds
of 5.7 feet. For rhe Pall rings, the packingfactor is 40, so the diameteris smaller,4.6 feet.
However.while thereis little differencein the tower diameterfor thesetwo packings,there
is a considerablechangein the tower height,as shownin the next section.

::,:i3 Ct O $0S
'.:'. \\e [lUSt

,. .:ndliquid
. -rlrnally at
::. Jughcom::.1t at large
- :t, In fact,
-i..J and gas
:: i:ctions for
- -.,rnqueous
:r:ti nethods.
-.. \ our case

9.3 Absorptionof a Dilute VaPor

We now returnto the analysisof gasabsorptionin a packedtower. In many cases,
ri'e will want to usethe analysisto estimatethe tower's height. In othercases,we will want
to use our analysisto organizeexperimentalresultsas masstransfercoefficients.In any
case.we will build on the fluid mechanicsdescribedin the earliersection,a descriptionthat
allowedestimatingthe tower's crosssection.
To simplify our analysis,we will begin with the caseof a dilute solutevapor absorbed
fom a gas into a liquid. This focus on the dilute limit makes the physical significance
clearest.Becausethe vapor is dilute, the molar gas flux G and the molar liquid flux L are
both constantseverywherewithin the tower. With this simpliflcation,we then needthree
key equations:

: i - . J e t h et w o
: .,.'(rrptionin
,

- .:r'f l;

llCll

': - - .rrdioPof
. ':irtions,the
-i.\iscosity

: 'r:.t calculate

( 1) a solutemole balanceon both gas and liquid,

(2) a soluteequilibrium betweengas and liquid, and
(3) a solutemole balanceon either gasor liquid.
Thesethree keys are traditionally called an operatingline, an equilibrium line, and a rate
equation,respectively.
We begin with a mole balanceon the solutein both gasand liquid. We makethis balance
on a small tower volume AAz locatedat position z in the tower:

entering
entering
7 solute
\
/ solute
\
:
leavingI
minus
(
leaving
minus
I
|
in liquid /
\
in gos /
\
G A ( - v l . + n-. ) ' 1 . ): L A ( x 1 4 6 , - r l , )

(e.3I)

rvhere,v and x are the mole fractionsin the gas and liquid, respectively.When we divide
bv the volume ALz.,we find
dv
G--:
d:.

dx
L ,
oz

(9.3-2)

) </1

9 / Absorption

Rearanging,
d x G
d

(e.3-3)

,y : .r'o ,l : .trO

(e.3-1)

wherethe subscript0 indicatesthe streamsat the bottom of the tower. Rememberthat the
gasis enteringand the liquid is leavingat this position.Integrating,
G
r:-ro*7(l'-.ro)

(e.3-s)

The first key equation,which is nothing more than a mole balance,is calledthe "operating
line."
The secondkey equationfor analyzingabsorptionis an equilibriumrelationfor the solute
in the gas and in the liquid. Becausethe soluteis dilute, this has the form
\'* : mx

(e.3-6)

where m is closely relatedto a Henry's law constant. This relation, briefly discussedin
Section8.5, is a frequentsourceof error becausethe units of the constantare not carefully
considered.Rememberalsothat -'),*doesnot exist at the sametower positionasx. In fact,x
is the actualliquid mole fraction,-y*is the gasmole fractionwhich would be in equilibrium
with that liquid, and ,r,is the actualgas mole fraction. This secondkey equationis called
the "equilibrium line."
The third key relation,the rate equation,is found by anothersolutemole balanceon the
differentialvolume A Au but on the sas onlv:
/ solurelosr \
\ b y a b s o r p t i o/n

(e.3-1)

In symbolic terms,this can be written as

0:

G A ( . y 1 -. . ' ! [ + a : ) - K 6 a ( A L z . ) ( c r- c i )

(e.3-8)

in which d representsthe packing areaper volume and K6; is the overall gas phasemass
transfercoefficient.
Valuesfbra.inft2/ff.aregiveninparenthesesforavarietyofcommon
packingsin Table 9.2-l (in the previoussection). The concentrationc1 is that in the bulk
gas,and the concentrationcf is the value that the gas would have if it were in equilibrium
with the liquid. Again, we divide this equationby the volume AAz and take the limit as
this volume goesto zero; we also recognizethat the tota molar concentrationc of the gas
is constant.Thus c1 equalsc,tr,cf equalsc-.1,*,
and

o : - r # - K 6 a c ( y - , r: ' *-)r # -

We nog
with the eqL

i =

subjectto (at z : 0),

solute
soluteflow \
/
\ _
- /
a
c
c
u
m
u
l
a
r
i
o
r
i
\
/
\ n m i n u so )

9.3/ Absor

K , a ( -y. r ' * )

(e.3-e)

This rate equation,a mole balanceon that part of the solutethat is in the vapor,is the third
key in our analysis.

where/ is rf
t -

The impona

t -

rl)tton

255

9.3/ AbsorptionoJ a Dilute Vapor

'We

e 3-3)

e.3-4)
i : r h a tt h e

rl l-5)
:aratlng
::!'\0lUte

e.3-6)
. - . \ \ e d i n
: ,.:rcfully
I: f act.,r
-...:Lrbrium
': :. called
" , : o nt h e

e.3_7)

now completeour analysisby integratingEq. 9.3-9. To do so, we first combine it

with the equilibrium line in Eq. 9.3-6 and rearrangethe result:

r:I,d,:-h1,,',
f*:-h l:,:^

where / is the tower height. Vy'efurther combinethis with the operatingline, Eq. 9.3-5

':-*1.,"

, trlllllOll

" :hc bulk

.--.,.rlbrium
. - : l i m i ta s
i the gas

(vo-'\l
r,:r,uLt,;T,/
: s l ( - ' \ ,,"(,;=i]

,"{+-x)]
t',+l

G
K,,a

\ ' -

- :hethird

(9.3-12)

L /

Solving for the height / is as easyas plugging in the numbers.

This result merits reflection. First, although the analysisrepeatedlyexploits the assumptionof dilute solution, the extensionto concentratedsolutionsshould be relatively
straightforward.Second,we have implied masstransferof a solutevapor from a gas into
a liquid; such a processis called gas scrubbing. We can repeatthe identical analysisfor
masstransferof a vaporfiom a liquid into a gas;sucha reversedprocessis calledstripping.
Third, we havewritten the proceedingequationsin terms of gas-phasemole fractions;we
could write completelyanalogousequationsfor liquid-phasemole fractions:

+)'"e:#)l

(e.313)

Note that the overall masstransfercoefficientis different in thesetwo equations.Understandingthe difTerencebetweenthe coefficientstakescare.
Equations9.3-l2 and9.3-l3 arethebasisof mostmodemanalyses
of diluteabsorption.
They are especiallyappropriatefor chemical solventsbecausereactionsof the absorbing
solutecan be incorporatedinto the overall masstransfercoetcient. However,especially
in the older literature,a relationlike Eq. 9.3-12 is sometimesrearrangedas

l : H T U. N T U
r9.3-9)

(e.3-l l )

The importantresult can be written in a variety of usefulforms:

, : * [ (

I:'.:.t

ay

j ' - * l xl } + t ( ,cv - , 1 0l ) l

i9.3-8)
ll1OSS

(e.3r0)

(e.3-14)

whereHTU is a heightof a transferunitdefnedas

HTU :

"a

Kca

( 9 . 3l-5 )

256

9 / Absorption

and NT U is a "number of transferunits" given by

[]rt

dtt

NTU: I

J,,

.'l

-)"

^ln

MU

l _ _

/lo

-rnxs\

\ v,-,,,n )

( 9 . 31- 6 )

Other definitions of HTU and NTU can be basedon other forms of the overall mass
transfercoefficients.The useof "transferunits" is a rough parallelwith the useof "stages"
in distillation or the term "theoreticalplates" in chromatography. As such, it seemsa
historicalgenuflectionby the more recentabsorptionanalysesin the directionof the older
equilibrium theoriesof distillation.
The use of HTUs and NTUs doeshave a soundphysicalinterpretation.The NTUs are
a measureof the difficulty of the separation,of the distancethe final streamswill be from
equilibrium. If the NTUs are large, the separationis hard. The HTUs, on the other hand,
give an idea of the efficiency of the equipment. A small HTU is a sign of a good tower,
implying, for example,a largesurfaceareaper volume. Moreover,becausethe overallmass
transfercoefficientoften dependson the velocity, the HTU can be largely independentof
flow over the practicalrange: It tendsto be between0.3 meterand 1.0meters.Learn to use
F,q.9.3-12and the idea of an HTU interchangeably.

ll

Fi

Example 9.3-1: Carbon dioxide absorption A packedtower usesan organicamine to

absorbcarbondioxide. The enteringgas,which contains L26molTo CO2, is to leavewith
only 0.04molToCO2. The amineenterspure,without COz. If the amineleft in equilibrium
with the enteringgas (which it doesn't),it would contain0.80 molToCO2. The gas flow is
2.3 gmol/sec.the liquid flow is 4.8 gmol/sec,the tower'sdiameteris 40 centimeters,andthe
overall masstransfercoefficienttimes the areaper volume K,,a is 5 . 10 5gmol/cmrsec.
How tall shouldthis tower be?
Solution We first make an overall carbon dioxide balanceto find the exitins
liouid concentration:

F*m-

R r',-'
f t : . r : :- ' " '

GA(Yo-)t): LA(xs*x1)
smol
2 . 3: . i 0 . 0 t 2 6
sec

smol
_ 0 . 0 0 0 4: )4 . 8 "
( x o_ 0 )
sec

n--

bun:
htt*:,'

"ro: 0'00585
N e x tw e f i n d t h ee q u i l i b r i u mc o n s t a n t

'nb'fr

lo: mr
0.0216: n(.0080)
m : 1.58

if

!!u

-:

)rplon

q .l / Absorption of a Dilute Vapor

257

\ow we insertthe valuesgiveninto Eq. 9.3-12:

2.3gmol/sec
r7T

mol

lL;+ t 4 0 c m lI|2s . l o - t- : e . 3I-6 )

CmiSeC

fl=*-)'(

L\'-

4.s /

)l

0.0126- 1 . s 80.005
( 85)
0.0004 t .s8(0)

:32m
fhe simplicityof thiscalculation
is typicalof dilutesolutions.

:':ill mass
: .tages"
: r e e m sa
: ::l!'Older
\TUs are
be fiom
::-.:'rhand,
J tower,
::.rllmass
::rJent of
::ll

tO USO

Erample 9.3-2: oxygen stripping you are testinga new packedtower to strip oxygen
:rt)m water using excessnitrogen. The oxygen-freewater is to be used in microelectric
:nanufacture.Your tower is small, about 2 metershigh and 0.6 meter in diameter,filled
'i ith I inch Hy-Pakrings. You expectthe valueof lnG for oxygenis large
andthe dominant
.ransfrcoefficientin the liquid witl be 2.2 .10 3 centimeters
per second.The waterflow
:' to be 300cm3/sec.How much oxygencan we removewith this tower?
Solution To begin,we recognizethat becausethe nitrogengas flow is in excess,
andy7 arezero,and(L I mG) is much lessthanone. As a result,Eq. 9.3_l3 becomes

, :- L f , - / * o \ l
K oL ' "\ ; / l
From Thble 8.2-2 andthe fact that masstransferin the liquid is controlline.
Kr:k*:kr'l

- -:llilDe tO

--.:re with
- - : Ii b r i u m
- - , . t l o wi s
: : . . . r n dt h e
r
. nl sec.
'-.

FrornThbfe 9.2-1,a is 60ft27ft3,or 2.26cm2/cm3. Thus

200cm:

3oot'3..
sec

l* al

[ (60 cm)22.2.l0-3cm . secc7_L

xt)

1 : o.ol
-r0

-ritino

'\'e'reremovingover ninety-eightpercentof the oxygen. An interesting

exerciseis to check
rL' nitrogenflows implied by this calculation.

Erample 9.3-3: Alternative forms of absorption equations show that Eq. 9.3-l2
can
-.' rewrittenin the form

:;;f(+"(
,_I G

CI G. l

! LI

H ClL .t

)l

frere u6 and u1 are the superficialvelocitiesof gas and liquid, where K5 is defne<i
by
Nr:Kc(ctc-cic)
rJ the Henry's law constantH is given by
ci-.: Hc17

9 / Absorption

258

9.1/ Absor:

We frst recognize that

Solution
G : ccuc
L:

CTUL

We then
where c6 and cL are the total molar concentrationsin gasand liquid, respectively'
rewrite Eq. 9.3-6 as
(1.,

c|L
cL

cG
SO

H :

MCC

tr,-

-----:

.-

CL

I . -:

ir.-

Finally,from Table8.2-2,

Ko : K,-lcc
result'
thevaluesof m, K,.,G, andI intoEq.9.3-12givesthedesired
Inserting

'

9.4 Absorption of a Concentrated Vapor

concenIn this section,we want to extendthe precedinganalysisto the caseof a
packedtower. As
tratedvapor. As before, we plan to accomplishthis absorptionusing a
gas fluxesthat
before,we must decideon an appropriatetower packing and on liquid and
though now for
will avoid flooding. As before,we dependon a variety of mole balances'
concentratedsolutions.
our analysisfor
Beforewe developthesenew massbalances,we canbenefitby looking at
key equations'
a dilute vaporin a somewhatdifferentway. This analysisdependedon three
(see
9.3-3):
Eq'
gas
and
liquid
both
on
a
balance
A first key equationcamefrom
d y : L

(9.4-1)

d x G
We integratedthis easilY:
I

t':yo+_(x-xo)
G

(.9.4-2)

key equationis the

This mole balance,shownin Fig. 9.4-1, is the operatingline. A second
equilibrium condition (seeEq. 9.3-6):

(9.4-3)

!*:mx

line. Finally,
This thermodynamicrelation, also shown in Fig' 9'4-1, is the equilibrium
from a massbalanceon the gas alone,we found (seeEq' 9'3-1)
dY

G
/')tt
': *.o
J,. ."-r

(9.4-4)

height i '
we combined Eqs.9.4-Zthrough9.4-4 andintegratedto find the towef's
on the operating
ln contrast,we could havemadeuseof the graphin Fig. 9.4-I . We begin
line at the point
line at the point (x1,r'i) and move vertically until we hit the equilibrium

tr-

\.. \orptlon

9.4 / Absorption of a ConcentratedVapor

259

O p e r o t in g
line \

\\'e then

Fig. 9.4- L Designing an absorption tower for a dilute vapor. The height of the tower is closely
related to the area of the trapezoid shown. However, fbr a dilute vapor, this area is easily
calculated analytically using the equations of Section 9.3. The equilibrium line shown here is
based on thermodynamics, and the operating line reflects mole or mass balances.

ii Concentr)$ er. As
dures that

.:h now for

nalysisfor
r'QUatlOlS.

(9.4-1)

(.rr,yl ). From thesepoints,we know ,y1 )1. We repeatthis procedurefor a lot of valuesof
r . We then usetheseresultsto integrateEq. 9.4-4 by either graphicalor numericalmeans.
We thus find the tower height /.
At first glance,this methodof calculationusingoperatingandequilibriumlinesmay seem
archaic,an anachronismfrom the daysof sliderules. Certainly,this methodwas developed
to circumventthe elaborateintegralsthat areoftenencounteredin the analysisof large-scale
masstransferprocesses.Theseintegralscan now be routinely handledwith computers.
Still, operatingand equilibrium lines remain a focus of everyone'sthinking. This is
not just the result of mental inertia or academicsloth. Instead,this focus has remained
raluablebecausethe operatingline summarizesa massbalanceand the equilibrium line is
a statementbasedon the secondlaw of thermodynamics.Such a split can make thinking
rbout separationprocesseseasierand more rational.
We want to extendthis analysisto absorptionin concentratedsolutions.We begin with
a mole balanceon both gas and liquid. The result is a parallelto Eq. 9.3-2:

s:-itGyt+?rtxl
az

clz.

(e.4-s)

(9.4-2)
rtronis the
(9.4-3)

Before,the flux of gas G and that of liquid L were nearly constantbecausethe absorbing
\pecieswas alwaysdilute. Now, however,we expectthat

G : G" \nl lr-lr ' l

(e.4-6)

:. Finally,
ri hereG6 is the flux of the nonabsorbinggas. For example,if we are using water to absorb
SO3out of air, Gs is the flux of air. Similarlv.

(9.4-4)

L:Ln
" \fl f- l* /
r operating
,t thepoint

(e.4-7)

'r here Ls is the flux of the nonvolatileliquid. When we combine these equationsand

9 / Absorption

260

9.4/ Absorptior

The towerhei
tiom Fig. 9..1-l
madeduring the
review. First. *
nonvolatileliqur.
i i q u i d :t h el i q u r d
gas.Theseapprt
il-.r') 2inthe
E q u i l i b r i u ml i n e

X
Theheightofthetoweris
Fig.9.4-2.Designinganabsorptiontowerforaconcentratedvapor.
againrelatedto the areaof the figureshown.This heightis ofien moreeasilyfoundgraphically
of the equlibriumandoperatinglinesreflect
oi numericallythananalytically.The curvatures
solutions.
the fact thatboth gasandliquid areconcentrated

Jiflerentsetoi rr
: t a l . .1 9 7 5\:l c C
:,ictorsand aren,
The secondk,
r q u a t e l ye x p r L .:r.rtmasstransi
,3rtalnli do dc'p
- I rrnl\ a ftrstap

integrate, we find

.ro \
l-ru)/

yo \
Lol .r
|I ____:___
Gr\l-*
\l-',,)

;m.*(*-*)

(9.4-8)

This mole balanceis the operatingline for a concentratedvapor,the analogof Eq. 9'3-5
or 9.4-2. It reducesto theseequationsas the concentrationsbecomesmall. However,in
general,its shapeis more like that inFig.9'4-2.
The next step is the specificationof a new equilibnum relation analogousto Eq. 9.3-6
or 9.4-3:

e'4-9)

-y*: .)*(:r)

This relation is often not written in an analyticalform, but simply presentedas a table or
graph of experimentalresults. The importantpoint is that .y* and f are no longer directly
proportional,relatedby a single, constantcoefficient. Instead,they vary nonlinearly,as
exemplifiedby the equilibrium line in Fig. 9.4-2.
The final stepis a mole balanceon the gasin a differentialtower volume:
d
O:-*(Gt)

(9.4-10)

-K"a(y-.r.)

We combinethis result with Eq. 9.4-6 to find

o:-

Gn,'f -r,uty-1.'l

( 9 . 4 -rl)

( l - ) ' ) ' 11:

where K., is the overall coefficientbasedon a mole fraction driving force. Rearranging,

':lu'o':*l:'

dv-

: HTU.NTU

(9.4-t2)

solutionsreducesto Eq. 9.3-11or 9.4-4 for dilute solutions,

This resultfbr concentrated
w h e r et I - r ' ) i s a b o u tu n i t Y .

r:ntple 9.{-1:

rt) tloll

J\\ CT IS

:.,'rhically
. rcflect

9.4/ Absorptionof a ConcentratedVttpor

The tower height/ can be found by integratingF,q.9.4-12,using valuesof ,r'and .r'*read

fom Fig. 9.4-2. The integrationis straightforwardbut is limited by two key assumptions
made during the analysis. These assumptionscan have subtle implications and so merit
review. First, we are assumingabsorptionof a single vapor from an inert gas into a
nonvolatileliquid. The gasis inertin the sensethatonly negligibleamountsdissolvein the
liquid;the liquid is nonvolatilein the sensethatonly negligibleamountsevaporate
into the
cas.Theseapproximations
underlieEq.9.4-6andleadto thefactorsinvolving( t - r')-l and
( I - t)-2 in the analysis.In passing,we shouldmentionthatsometextbooksusea slightly
differentsetof assumptionsand so useslightly differentequations(King, I 97 I ; Sherwood
et al., 1975;McCabeand Smith, 1975;Treybal,1980).
The diff'erences
arecausedby these
luctorsand are not often important.
The secondkey assumptionin this analysisis that a mass transfercoefficientcan adr'quatelyexpressthe masstransferin a concentratedsolution. In other words, it implies
that mass transfercoefficientsare independentof concentrationdifferences,though they
certainlydo dependon variableslike the Reynoldsand Schmidtnumbers.This turnsout to
he only a first approximation.In general,

N r : K , A - )+ K ( A ) ) 2+ . . .

(9.4-8)

' l - r U < - \
J
'.-'
LY|.

',\eVer,in
Fq. 9.3-6
t9.4-9)
. ., tableor
-:r directly
':t.arly,as

i q . 4 -1 0 )

( 9 . 4 I- I )
r.rnglng,
t9.4-12)
: .rrlutions,

261

(e.4l3)

,rhere K{. is a new correctionfactor fbr concentratedsolutions.

The reasonwhy masstransfercoefficientsmay not be accuratein concentratedsolution
. becausemasstransferitself createsconvection. Such convectionis like that causedby
j i t f s i o n , a s e x p l a i n e d i n d e t a i l i n S e c t i o n 3 .El .x t e n s i o n s om
f asstransfercoefficientsto
llore concentratedsolutionsor, more strictly,to situationsof fast masstransf'erareoutlined
:t Section13.5. Howevel theseextensionsare not often usedin practice,evenwhen they
-re known in principle. Instead,practicingengineerstend to use empirical correlationsof
:,tual experimental
data.Theseareusuallyreliable.

F-rample9.4-1: Ammonia scrubbing A gasmixture at 0"C and I atmosphereflowing at

l0 m3/sec,and containingthirty-sevenpercentNH3, sixteenpercentN2, and forty-seven
. rrtent H2 is to be scrubbedwith watercontaininga little sulfuricacidat 0'C. The exit gas
.:\)uld conta'none percentNHr and the exit liquid 23 mol% NH3.
Designa packedtower to caffy out this task. The tower shoulduse2-inch Berl saddles,
' r r e hh a v ea s u r f a c ea r e ap e r v o l u m e 1 0 5 m 2 / m 3( c f . T a b l e9 . 2 - l l . I t s h o u l do p e r a t ea t
- lr percentof flooding.
Pilofplant data suggestthat the overall gas-sidemass transfer
- :licient in this tower will be 0.032metersper second;this valueis largerthan normal
- r-rLlseof the chemicalreactionof ammoniawith water.
In this design,answerthe following specificquestions:(a) What is the flow of purewater
-: , thetop of the tower?(b) What towerdiametershouldbe
used?(c) How tall shouldthe
.,.r'r be?
Solution (a) We first fnd the total flow AGs of the nonabsorbedgases(i.e., of
" . . r n dH 2 ) :
A G s , : g ""

1 . 2 0m 3 / s e c

\ zz.+m3/kgmot

: 0.0338kgmol/sec

9 / Absorption

9.4/ Absorptiort,

We then find the ammoniatransferred:

/ N H . \ / l I. _2n 0 m
r / s e c \ / 0 ' 0 1| -( 0| ' 0 3 3 8 k g m o l / s e | c t \
2 - 7I

"'' ' \zz.l+mrTkgmol/ \

\ absorberd
)

0.99

: 0.0195kgmo/sec
Fromthis.we findthedesiredwaterflow ALs:
/ 0.11\
kgmol/sec)
ALo- t ) (o'0195
\v.tJ

: 0.0652kgmol/sec
(b) The risk of flooding is greatestat the bottom of the tower where the flows are
on mass
greatest.Moreover,becauseflooding is determinedby fluid mechanics,it depends
molecular
average
the
find
that
we
first
conversion,
this
make
To
flows, not molar flows.
weight of the gasis 11.7. Then we seethat
/ total flow \ I \ of gas /
f

Fig. 9.'1--r

I I .7 kg / 0.0338kgmol/sec\
l |
0.63
kgmol \
/

: 0.628kg/sec

fr
- d - : -

is 17'8,so
The averagemolecularweight of the liquid stream(neglectingany HzSO+)

1
d : 0

17.8kg ( 0.0652kgmol/sec\
0.77
kgmol \
/

/ toralflow \
\ of liquid /

. re tower's diame
(c) Th,

: 1.51
kg/sec

HTU :

Thus
I .51kg/sec
/liquid flow \ r'l^
l t t P c / P t : 0.628kg/sec
\ gasnow /

Jffi

: 0.055
we find that
Rememberingthat the valuesfound in Fig. 9.2-3 are not dimensionless,
/

g a sf l u x \ '

o ' 1 7P aP t g '

\ainoooing): aI t3z.2r
on ( oz.+\to.o32ot
)
fir
t,t

:@

t"-

:
:rndthenumbe
- .\n astheopera
: rnthefigure.\'
:r lt - 0.37to
NTU :
' . :r Eq.9.3-14
t:(HTt

or
/

gasflux \

"ttililt

: z'zokglm2sec

shouldbe half this value' or

Becausewe want to operateat ffty percentflooding, our flux
about 1.15kg/m2-sec.We now can find the tower's diameter:

: (0.4

- - emsof stripp
. :briumline.

t' )[ IO11

9.4 / Absorption of a ConcentratedVapor

263

-.!\\'s arg

''. .rtl lnass

".'iecular

o.1

0.3

Fig.9.4-3.Absorption
of concentrated
ammonlaThe values shown are for

Examole 9.4.1.

s 2 _ 0 . 6 2 8k g l s e c
4
1 . 1 -k5g / m 2 s e c
d:0.84m
The tower's diameteris about 2.7 feet.
(c) The calculationof the tower'sheightcan beginwith 8q.9.4-12. From this,
HTU -

G,,
,--K6;ac

kgmol/secl/
t0.0338
[ (ttI 41Q.84m)21
(0.032m/sec)( I 05 m2/m3) (l kgmolI 22.4m3)
: 0.41m
l:nal

Tofindthenumberof transferunitsNTU, we firstplotvaluesof ) versusx usingEq.9.4-8,

.hownastheoperating
linein Fig.9.4-3.V/ealsoploty* versus.r,shownastheequilibrium
rnein thefigure.Wethenreadoff valuesof .t,*versus.y
at fixedx,andintegrate
Eq. 9.4-12
:rom-)0: 0.37to yr - 0.01.Theresultis
NTU : 13
:romEq.9.3-14
I : (HTU)(NTU)
: (0.41m)(13):5.3m

r aue,or

?roblems
of strippinggasesarevery similarexceptthattheoperatingline fallsbelowthe
:;uilibriumline.

9 / Absorption

264

9.5 Conclusions
This chapteranalyzesgasabsorption,an importantseparationprocessin chemica
manufactureand pollution control. Gas absorptioncommonly is effectedin packedtowers
llled with inert packing that gives a larger interfacialarea betweengas and liquid. The
gas rises through the tower; the liquid trickles countercurrentlydownward. The liquid is
often chemicallyreactive,binding the solutesbeing absorbed.For example,acid gaseslike
H2S are absorbedinto aqueoussolutionsof amines. However,the analysisin this chapter
implies nonreactiveliquids; reactiveliquids are discussedin Chapter 16.
The analysisof gas absorptiondependson fluid mechanicsand on masstransfer. The
fluid mechanicsdeterminesthe acceptablerangeof gasandliquid fluxes,which areadjusted
areaof the tower. The masstransfercoefcientsdetermine
by changingthe cross-sectional
the rateof absorptionandhencetheheightof the packedtower. This heightcanbe estimated
by either algebraicor geometricmethods.The algebraicformulationis simplefor the case
of a dilute solute,a casedetailedin Section9.3. This casedependson threekey relations:
an overall mole balance,a thermodynamicequilibrium, and a rate equation. This dilute
caseis the easiestway to leam about absorption.
systems.
The geometricanalysisof absorptionis suitablefor eitherdilute or concentrated
It alsodependson the samethreekey relations.Almost perversely,the overallmole balance
is now calledthe operatingline andthe thermodynamicequilibriumis calledthe equilibrium
line. The rateequationsometimeshasthemasstransfercoefficientsrewrittenin termsof neu
quantitiescalledHTUs, heightof transferunits,which are measuresof the efficiencyof the
packedtower. Thesenew terms provide occasionalphysicalinsight; simultaneously,thel
are effectiveat discouragingthe inexperiencedfrom trying to learn about gas absorption.
If you are inexperienced,don't give up. Work hard on the dilute limit; be encouragedbr
the fact that the concentratedlimit and the geometricanalysisare more complicated,but
involve no new ideas.

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]

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Further Reading

mfll
"": ,ill li ".,
F'ttg: -:'- ---

Prcgress
90 (6) 55.
Engineering
Kaiser,V. (1994).Chemicul
Prot:esses,
NewYork: McGraw-Hill.
King,C. J. (1971).Separation
90 (2) 23.
Progress
Engineering
Kister,H. 2., Larson,K. F.,andYanagi,T. ( 1994).Chemical
87 (2) 32.
Progress
Engineering
Kister,H. 2., andGill, D. R. ( 1991).Chemical
Serle.s,50,51.
Progress
Symposium
Engineering
Leva,M. (1954).Chemical
ed.,New
Engineering,3rd
oJ'Chemical
McCabe,W.,andSmith,J. C. (1975).Unit Operutions

ro:d;'--

flilu:-r
Ii:*

"llluouri -.
,u:u:"'.-

York:McGraw-Hill.
Handbook'5thed.,NewYork:
Engineers
Perry,R. H., andChilton,C. H. (1973).Chemical
McGraw-Hill.
Progress
87 (5) 87.
Robbins,L. A. (1991).ChemicalEngineering
NewYork:McGraw-Hill
T. K., Pigtord,R. L., andwilke, c. R. (1975).MassTransJr.
Sherwood,
T. K., Shipley,G. H., andHolloway,F.A. L. (1938).IndustrialandEngineering
Sherwoorl,
Chemistn30,765.
Houston:
GulfPublishing.
andPackedTow'ers,
Packings
Strigle.
R. F.(1987).Random
ed.NewYork:McGraw-Hill'
Trevbal.R. E. (1980).MassTransferOperatktns,3rd

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-

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