Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Sustainable Development
Through Service Learning:
A Pedagogical Framework and
Case Example in a Third
World Context
HOLLY H. BROWER
Wake Forest University
Because of changes in awareness, student values, and social responsibility, universities
have an increasing interest in developing meaningful courses on sustainable community
development and social enterprise. I suggest that the nature of these courses and the
complexity of the issues are best addressed using a service-learning pedagogical
approach. Two faculty members and eight students spent 1 month studying and
experiencing poverty, malnutrition, education with dire lack of resources, and other
social dilemmas and explored how one brings sustainable change, owned by the
indigenous community. This case example of a business elective about sustainable
community development in a third world country serves to illustrate the framework for
delivering such content. The unique characteristics of sustainable community
development are integrated with the strengths of service learning into a framework that
may be used by others who might develop similar courses. Drawing on both literatures,
the framework provides a powerful opportunity to experience the context in which
development happens while learning the content.
........................................................................................................................................................................
2009; Gloeckler, 2008). In fact, the millennial generation is more interested in making a difference in
their world in terms of social responsibility than
many previous generations. In business schools
around the country, clubs that focus on social enterprise are replacing finance and marketing clubs
as the most popular among students (Gloeckler,
2008). In addition, the pedagogical approach of service learning is growing in popularity across all
areas of education including business education
(Klink & Athaide, 2004; Tomkovick, Lester, Flunker,
& Wells, 2008).
There has been unprecedented growth in and
popularity of the field of sustainable development
since it was originally defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987
(Huesemann, 2003). It has been embraced by the
international business community, including the
International Chamber of Commerce. In fact, several governments, including the United States,
have established organizations for sustainable de-
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poverty-stricken areas, they recommend an interpretative approach. The three key processes of this
approach are awareness, appreciation, and ethical
action, and they are evident in the framework presented below.
There is also some literature that addresses educating professionals in the development field.
This work emphasizes the need to reflect on significant development work experience to better understand how to mobilize and empower communities (Ersing, Loeffler, Tracy, & Onu, 2007). Authors
suggest that the nature of SCD requires direct
participation of community members affected and
necessitates experience to understand capacity
building of poor and marginalized groups (Alvord,
Brown, & Letts, 2002; Ersing et al., 2007; Green &
Haines, 2002).
The small amount of published work on teaching
SCD to students who have not yet survived the
negative conditions and do not have significant
development work experience stresses the importance of seeking engagement from all stakeholders and understanding community needs and
wants (Schneider et al., 2008). It also stresses use of
problem-based learning and decision making in a
real context rather than by theories and cases
(Steinemann, 2003). In fact, some recognize the
value in theory-based learning, but criticize its inability to equip students with the necessary skills
to maneuver the difficult and complex tasks of
reconstruction, recovery, and reconciliation in developing countries (Chantrill & Spence, 2002).
These authors emphasize the values of practicum
courses to give liberal arts students hands-on experience in difficult contexts where they can collect live information, analyze data, and make
meaningful recommendations for specific actions
(Kotval, 2003). Similarly, business students need to
be exposed to the ambiguity, difficulty, and messiness of development work, especially in a third
world context. The efficiency king that often resides in business curriculum is difficult to find, or
even defend in this context. High-quality service
learning addresses these needs because it facilitates critical thinking development through experiential learning (Richardson, 2006). Through actual experience, students learn effective concepts
and strategies and understand the difficulties of
implementation.
Todays college students are typically interested
in voluntary activity and community involvement.
Service learning is an increasingly popular and
powerful pedagogical tool that pairs voluntary
community activity with course content, but service learning is far more than merely facultydirected volunteerism. Rather, it is carefully de-
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world course projects where students produce tangible, professional products for use in the local
community as they work with and learn from organizations designed to serve community needs
(Kenworthy-URen, 2000: 59). To be most effective in
achieving the desired student outcomes, servicelearning courses must integrate rigorous course
content with real work that is meaningful to both
students and members of the service organization
(Cushman, 2002; Godfrey et al., 2005; KenworthyURen, 2003). This means that an effective servicelearning course is not only serving the community
but that students are actually learning important
theoretical content to be able to identify community issues and to understand best how to create
sustainable community change. This issue of service learning may be linked to several SCD principles, such as partnership, community ownership,
and departure because these principles are part of
the content of such a course. However, this issue of
service learning is most closely linked with the
first principle, training and resources made accessible to the poor, because students actually acquire knowledge that enhances their understanding and ability to work effectively within the
community. They come to understand what tangible resources and services are beneficial to impoverished communities and individuals.
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Reciprocity
In addition to being integrated and realistic,
service-learning courses must involve reciprocity,
reflection, and explicit attention to moral imperatives such as civic engagement. Reciprocity means
that both the student and the agents of the organization benefit from the relationship. This reciprocal benefit is critical to the initial and sustained
success of the experience (Cushman, 2002; Kenworthy-URen, 2003; Kenworthy-URen & Peterson,
2005). Faculty must be engaged with the organization and understand their needs and the appropriateness of student involvement in the organization. When the match is effective, faculty gain the
trust and understanding of the organization and
coach students to create a reciprocal arrangement
that benefits both (Cushman, 2002). This reciprocity
in the academic relationship with NGOs and communities is most similar to the partnership principle of SCD. In both situations the newcomer (either
the faculty and student or the NGDO) must develop
trust and understanding so that the newcomer is
not misperceived as the outsider coming in with
prescriptive, preconceived solutions that may not
fit the context.
An example of the significance of reciprocity
comes from one of the NGDO directors in the Nicaragua project described below. He told about
American relief organizations spending millions of
dollars on solar-powered ovens and training for
poor refugees in disaster-worn Nicaraguan communities. The solar-powered ovens were highly
efficient, ecologically superior, and dramatically
healthier for the women who traditionally spent
entire days gathering wood and cooking over open
fires. These women often died early of lung diseases and were unable to devote time to more
lucrative and sustainable entrepreneurial efforts.
The relief workers saw solar-powered ovens as an
obvious solution. However, as soon as relief workers left, the ovens returned to disuse and were
eventually completely discarded because relief
workers had failed to understand the culture of the
women who saw significance in the relationships
they maintained with each other throughout the
days while visiting around the fires. They also
gained a sense of worth from providing for their
family and community by spending their entire
days preparing and cooking meals. The relief
workers did not understand the important principles of community ownership and partnership. In a
similar way, students who are engaged in a trusting partnership with faculty who develop meaningful relationships with the NGDOs have a model
of reciprocity and engagement when both parties
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memory and recall. Therefore, it models sustainability after the end of the course, or resources, as
well as teaches pertinent values.
In what follows I present a course taught in Nicaragua titled Social Enterprise Leadership in a
Developing Country. It is intended to illustrate the
connections between service learning and SCD
principles and to evaluate the effectiveness of the
framework. The column on the far right in Table 1
includes examples of student deliverables from
the course that fit with the principles of SCD and
elements of service learning.
CASE EXAMPLE
The image of La Chureca is ingrained in
my memory, an image that epitomizes the
stark inequalities between the developed
and developing worlds. I was impassioned
by my experience . . . [which] solidified my
interest in a career involving sustainable
development and the advancement of
human rights.
Junior student
What is drastically different across the
world is not essential humanity, but
the conditions under which we live.
Unbelievable disparities exist in the
economic situationsit is this, more than
anything else, that has led me to form a
philosophy of charity.
Senior student
These quotes come from students who completed a
service-learning course, Social Enterprise Leadership in a Developing Country. They demonstrate
the power of service learning for such a course.
The course looked at economic and human development issues in developing countries. Eight undergraduate students and I read theoretical work
and studied cases of organizations involved in
these development efforts. The course was focused
on the work of NGDOs in impoverished communities and the complexities of making such work
sustainable. In addition to reading and discussing
the literature, we engaged in the development
community in a third world country, Nicaragua,
where students worked in various NGDOs identifying and solving real problems, participated in
class discussions about readings and experiences,
engaged with expert speakers in the field, and
reflected on content and experiences to embed
their learning.
The following case serves as an example for
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TABLE 1
Corollaries Between Significant Issues of SCD and Service Learning and the Model Course
Sustainable Community Development
Service Learning
Issue
Community Result
Training and
resources made
accessible to the
poor
Partnership
Community understands
issues and learns to
solve problems
Rigorous course
content integrated
with real work
Reciprocity
Community
ownership/
Empowerment
Enhances self-esteem,
awareness, ability to
advocate for self
Student
voice/ownership
Faculty developed
relationships with NGO
directors and set up
student involvement
Final projects identified and
designed by students
Reflection; learning
organization
Reflection
Departure of NGDO
Issue
Student Result
illustrative and evaluative purposes of the framework presented above. The course was part of a
program located in and focused on issues relevant
to Nicaragua. Nicaragua is the second poorest nation in the Western Hemisphere, with an average
per capita annual income of $1023 (U.S. Department of State). Over 50% of Nicaraguans fall below
the poverty line (Library of Congress). One hundred NGOs are registered in Nicaragua with thousands of other international NGOs addressing
issues of hunger, poverty, malnutrition, homeownership, entrepreneurship and small business
development, child labor, ethical business practices, community development, adoption and
child abandonment, and many others (http://app.
cancilleria.gob.ni/sysong/ong/controlongs.aspx).
Many universities are developing programs and
partnerships abroad and are encouraging students
to experience study and service learning in other
cultures. In fact, in Managua alone, we were aware
of five other U.S. campuses that have developed
study abroad or service-learning programs partnered with NGOs in the area. Our university has
placed priority on development of study abroad
and significant learning experiences in other cultures. Figure 1 presents a flowchart depicting the
process of developing such a program. This flowchart may be replicated in numerous and diverse
settings and is used here to illustrate the process
of development in this particular case example.
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that provided therapy for disabled Nicaraguan children, including equestrian therapy. Another student
was not interested in being placed in a Christian
organization, so we were limited to nonsectarian organizations. We found that while working on selecting students, we were continuing to develop incountry relationships and logistics (see Fig. 1).
The matching process with students and organizations continued until we found appropriate
placements for each. In addition, solidifying details in the country alleviated concerns of students
and their parents. Ultimately, we found five placements for eight students. Table 2 presents a summary of these. The lessons learned in the placementmatching process included the following: (1) It is
critical to have an open mind for potential opportunities and to be flexible in matching opportunities
with student interests and skills; and (2) if possible,
try to place students in different organizations,
where they will have richer experiences because
they are in small groups and cannot hide.
Local Lodging
The criteria were safety (in many third world countries, properties employ private guards), Internet
access for students and faculty, meeting space
available to conduct class, eating and entertainment options for students in the evenings, and
proximity to student placements so that transportation did not consume more than 1 hour per day. In
order to diminish stress in a situation that could be
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FIGURE 1
Flowchart of Course Development and Delivery Process
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TABLE 2
Final Student Projects at Their NGDO Placement in Nicaragua
NGDO
Description of Organization
Tesoros de Dios
Nica HOPE
New Life
Orphanage
Ola Verde
Restaurante
Nejapa Christian
School
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large vehicle, a couple of smaller vehicles, or hiring a driver. Public transportation was not available. The faculty chose to drive in two smaller
vehicles to facilitate quicker delivery and pickup
of students and to allow for flexibility for other
cultural and entertainment excursions. However,
this choice limited the number of students who
could participate in the program. Lessons learned
from the transportation decision included that (1)
transportation can be very difficult and stressful in a
developing country; therefore, consider multiple options and weigh the costs and benefits of each, and
(2) pay attention to the option of living on site for the
development work or near public transportation
routes, if available, because the time and stress involved in transportation may be significant.
Family Immersion
Although some programs might have students live
with local families and others have students live
together in a dormitory-type setting for the entire
program, we chose to include a family stay with
local Nicaraguan families for two nights during
the stay. The other options have significant value
and should be considered. Our choice helped provide students with a valuable cultural immersion
experience while dealing with the reality of the
poverty and vulnerability of most Nicaraguan citizens and answered their desire to spend extended
times in environments with consistent running water, electricity, and pest control. The Managuan
staff person formed a partnership with a local language school that regularly placed students with
local families as part of their education programs.
Therefore, the school recruited local families who
had already passed through their screening
process.
Students lived in these local homes for one
weekend. This dimension of the program allowed
for deep cultural and language immersion for each
student, but the students were quite intimidated by
the prospect once they had experienced the poverty in Nicaragua. Faculty members reassured
them by calling each student on the first night to
check on their safety and the appropriateness of
each setting. Although two families were rather
wealthy, six families were poor, more typical of the
working-class population. All students commented
afterward that it was a worthwhile part of the
experience. The lessons learned from the indigenous family immersion part of the program included that (1) it is important to provide an opportunity for deep cultural immersion. The manner in
which this takes place may vary with location, but
it presents a significant learning experience, and
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leadership that I studied in class. . . . The people I met through this organization put a human face on this industry and the community
which it serves.
Students initial research project on a critical issues such as poverty, education, adoption, disabilities, and nutrition as well as reading theoretical
and practical articles on SCD gave them theoretical content knowledge about issues they needed to
understand to make the greatest impact in the
areas they served. They also integrated their
coursework on SCD with their experience and had
to evaluate the sustainability of their final project
based on theory.
In addition to meeting the service-learning principle of integrating course content and real work,
students learned practical solutions to poverty and
the other issues addressed by their organizations.
They began to wrestle with the difficulties of integrating theories of SCD with the practical, daily,
dire needs of the people they served. Addressing
those needs appropriately was more complex and
ambiguous than when they merely read about
them. Experiencing them (smelling the smell of
dire poverty, becoming emotionally attached to
children and staff, having to decide how to spend
limited resources on sustainable efforts or meeting
immediate needs) caused the theories to come
alive.
Regarding student voice and ownership, faculty
worked with both partnering organizations and
students to ensure that students were given or
initiated meaningful projects and had adequate
independence in identifying and developing these.
This ownership allowed students to develop their
own thinking about pertinent issues. One student
wrote I have found that the more time I am working on my projects . . . the more I am agreeing with
and identifying with the main ideas that I am
working with. I have always known that organic
food is better to eat but I never knew the extent to
which organics are good for the entire world.
Student ownership and autonomy in these projects modeled the power of letting people solve
their own problems. They were not merely told that
allowing people to be involved and own their own
community solutions was more sustainable than a
Northern entity coming in with all the answers;
they experienced that power. They understood the
frustration and the motivation that results from
having to come up with answers of their own that
were not handed to them.
Students worked with the directors of their organizations to ensure the project they designed
would be useful and practical to the organization,
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CONCLUSION
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Universities have an increasing interest in developing meaningful courses on topics such as SCD
and social enterprise. The nature of these courses
and the complexity of the issues are best taught
with a service-learning pedagogy. These topics do
not have to be taught in a third world context. They
are applicable to many contexts, including urban
and rural America. The framework of key principles coupled with elements from service learning
can be utilized across contexts, and tests of the
framework in a variety of contexts are welcome
and encouraged. The course presented here as a
case example demonstrates the usefulness of the
framework in a single context. The case can inform
faculty about important considerations and address many of the issues that other faculty members would need to consider when developing similar programs.
APPENDIX A
Summary of Lessons Learned in Case Example
1. Identify a local contact in the host country to help develop
key partnership, relationships, and options for housing,
restaurants, etc.
2. Getting to know as much about the country and culture
before taking students is helpful in answering their questions and alleviating concerns of parents.
3. Establishing relationships with NGDOs that may serve
as sites for the experience is very important as a first step
in the reciprocal relationship essential to effective service learning.
4. It is critical to have an open mind for potential placement
12.
13.
opportunities and to be flexible in matching opportunities with student interests and skills.
Try not to place all students in the same organization.
Students will have a richer experience if they are placed
individually or in very small groups in organizations so
they cannot hide.
The living location is critical to provide opportunities for
students and faculty to both interact in the local culture
and live relatively stress free.
All constituents are interested in safety and health so
take the measures necessary to assure faculty, students, and parents that these issues have been given
significant consideration.
Transportation can be very difficult and stressful in a
developing country; therefore, consider multiple options
and weigh the costs and benefits of each.
Pay attention to the option of living on site for the development work or near public transportation routes, because the time and stress involved in transportation may
be significant.
Emphasize relational health and friendships in addition
to academic development. Sustainable development and
living in a third world culture place deep emotional and
stressful burdens on students, which can have a positive,
life-changing impact, given a supportive community.
Pay attention to the need for faculty community and support.
Effectively developing and facilitating such a servicelearning experience requires deep commitment and energy. Faculty should be sensitized to the level of commitment.
There is significant reward for faculty in being involved
in such an experience with students; faculty should be
recruited with that reward in mind.
APPENDIX B
Checklist for Trip Preparation
Meet with directors of NGDOs to develop catalog of placement
opportunities
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Pharmacy
Grocery
U.S. Embassy or police
Post office
Printing facility
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March
Holly Brower received her PhD in organizational behavior and human resources from Purdue
University. She is currently on the faculty at Wake Forest University where she teaches
undergraduate and MBA courses in leadership, organizational behavior, and nonprofit leadership. Brower has also taught in international programs in Nicaragua and Germany, and has
developed and directed the internship program for the Business and Enterprise Management
major at Wake Forest.
In addition to her graduate education, Brower has 12 years of management experience in
the nonprofit sector, including directorships in the American Cancer Society, Neighborhood
Housing Services, and Youth For Christ. Her training and consulting expertise lie in the areas
of leadership, team building, governance, and strategic planning.
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