M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.

QXD

7/13/11

1:30 AM

Page 136

Chapter

Torsion

CONTENTS
Rotation (pg. 138)

4.2

Shear Strain in Circular Shafts

(pg. 140)

4.3

Application and Transmission

of Torque (pg. 148)

4.4

Shear Stress in Circular Shafts

(pg. 150)

4.5

Strength and Stiffness (pg. 162)

4.6

Dependence of Stiffness and Strength

on Shaft Properties (pg. 164)

4.7

General Guidelines for Torsional

Stiffness of Non-Circular
Cross-Sections (pg. 166)

4.8

Torsion of Shafts with Rectangular

Cross-Sections (pg. 176)

4.9

Torsion of Shafts with Thin-Walled

Cross-Sections (pg. 178)

DEFORMATIONS

SYSTEM

4.1

Rotation

Twistrotation
Relation

4.10 Shafts with Non-Uniform Twisting Along

Their Lengths (pg. 186)

4.11 Internal Torque and the Relation

4.12 Relation Between Senses and Signs
of Internal Torque,Twist, and Stress
(pg. 190)

4.13 Shafts with Varying Cross-Sections

(pg. 192)

SEGMENT

to Twist and Stress (pg. 188)

Twist

4.14 Statically Indeterminate Structures

Subjected to Torsion (pg. 202)

4.15 Power-Torque-Speed Relations

for Rotating Shafts (pg. 210)

ELEMENT

Twiststrain
Relation

Shear strain

2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.QXD

7/13/11

1:31 AM

Page 137

Body Composed
of Elements
Chapter 2.
Force and
Deformation in
an Element

Common
Deformation
Modes
Chapter 3. Axial

Chapter 4.
Torsion
Chapter 5.
Bending

Unit 1

FORCES

Unit 2

Design Against

Chapter 6.
Excessive
Deformations
Chapter 7.
Material Failure
Chapter 8.
Buckling

Unit 3

Chapter Outline
SYSTEM

External
torque

Torquetwist
Relation

SEGMENT

Externalinternal
torque Relation

Internal torque

Torquestress
Relation

ELEMENT

A shaft of a torsion bar suspension deforming due to

up and down displacement of a tire is an example of
twisting or torsional deformation. A shaft subjected
to torsion can be viewed as composed of segments or
slices along the length of the member. Each crosssection rotates through some angle (4.1). When end
faces of a segment rotate through different angles,
the segment twists, giving rise to shear strains that
vary in the radial direction (4.2). External loads on
the bar result in an internal twisting moment or
torque that acts oppositely on the two ends of a segment (4.3). The shear stresses acting on each face of
a segment add up to the internal twisting moment
(4.4). For a shaft of circular cross-section loaded
only by opposite torques at its ends, the twist or relative rotation depends on the bars length, shear modulus, and its polar moment of inertia, a property of
the cross-section (4.54.6). The relation between
torque and twist and maximum shear stress can also
be determined for some non-circular cross-sections
(4.74.9). A shaft can be subjected to several external torques along its length, with the internal torque
varying in different segments (4.104.14). When a
motor drives a shaft causing it to rotate at constant
speed, the power, rotation speed, and torque are
interrelated, but stress and deformation are related to
internal torque just as for a stationary shaft (4.15).

Stressstrain
Relation

Shear stress

137
2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.QXD

4.1

7/5/11

5:32 PM

Page 138

Rotation

The pattern of deflection is a characteristic feature of a shaft in torsion.

Successive cross-sections of a twisting shaft rotate by different amounts.
Here, we describe this deflection pattern and how it is quantified.

1. Each cross-section of a
shaft in torsion rotates about
the shaft axis.

Now, one leg is held down and the other is

pivoted. We consider the center portion, which
stays straight and twists, to be the shaft.
The pivoting leg rotates by f. If f is small
(in radians), then the end deflects by wf.

This wire was lying on the flat surface.

2. The rotation of one end of

the shaft relative to the other
captures the deformation
in twisting and it is related
to the torque.
Twist, f, is defined as the difference
in rotation angle of one cross-section
of a shaft relative to another, due
to torsional deformation.

We define twist as the difference in rotation:

the rotation angle of one end minus the other.
In this case, since one leg doesnt rotate, the
twist is equal to f. The fingers apply forces
to the legs that result in opposite torques
on the central portion equal to Fw.

F
F
w

T Fw
T Fw
L

Here is a torsion bar suspension. Engineers

design the torsion bar to give the right
Fixed to car frame
resistance to up and down motion of the
tire over the road. When driving over
Torsion bar
a bump, the tire moves up relative to
the rest of the vehicle, due to twisting Pivot axis
of the torsion bar. The torsion bar is
analogous to the twisting center
portion of the wire. The upward
Control arm
motion of the tire is analogous to
the end of the wire leg that lifts.
If the torsion bar does not twist
enough, the vehicle moves up too
much (with the tire). If the twist is
too great, the tire deflects too much relative
to the vehicle and could contact it.

138

CHAPTER 4

Torsion
2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

Tire moves up and

down with road
surface, causing
control arm to pivot.

M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.QXD

7/5/11

5:32 PM

Page 139

3. Successive cross-sections

A twisted shaft not only rotates at its ends. Every cross-section rotates, usually through a different angle.

along the length of a twisted

shaft rotate by different
amounts.

The pegs on this shaft were initially aligned. The shaft is then twisted by rotating the right end
through some angle.

From the new orientations of the pegs on the shaft, you can see that each cross-section rotates
through a different angle.

4. For a uniform shaft twisted

by torques at its ends, the
rotation angle varies linearly
with distance along the shaft.

A foam tube can illustrate the variation in

rotation along a twisted shaft. A straight line
was drawn on the side.

The tube was then twisted slightly, moving

the line.

As viewed from the side, the line stays approximately straight. The vertical displacement of the line
varies linearly along its length. So the rotations of cross-sections vary linearly.
We express the linear variation of rotation f from f1 at x = 0 to f2 at x = L as follows:
x
f = f1 + (f2 - f1)
L
1

where x is the distance along

the shaft and L is its length.
For example, halfway along
the shaft (at x = L>2),
f = (f1 + f2)>2, that is
equal to the mean of the
rotations at the ends.

2
x
T
L

Rotation is measured relative to the orientation before twisting.

A cross-section can rotate in either direction, which we
distinguish with a plus or minus sign. We use the right hand
positive
rule to define positive rotation. The rotations f1 and f2 here,
and at all cross-sections in between, are positive.

5. The twist per length, that

is, the change in rotation angle
per unit distance along the
body, captures the intensity
of the twisting deformation.
Twist per length captures the intensity
of the torsional deformation, and it is
defined as the difference in rotation
angle of one cross-section of a shaft
relative to another, divided by the
distance between the cross-sections.

x positive

Every 1 mm of the shaft feels the same twisting torque. So the additional rotation that accumulates
over every 1 mm segment is the same. Every segment of this shaft has the same twist per length
(e.g., the same degrees of rotation per millimeter length).
Twist per length = f>L = (f2 - f1)>L
The twist per length captures the intensity of the twist.

>>End 4.1
2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

4.1

Rotation

139

M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.QXD

4.2

7/6/11

2:59 PM

Page 140

Shear Strain in Circular Shafts

Rotation of successive cross-sections through different angles

distorts or strains elements in a shaft. Here we look at the type
of strain, its variation from point to point in the shaft, and how
the overall twisting of the shaft affects the strain.

1. Rotations of successive

Rectangles were drawn on the side of

this shaft.

cross-sections through
different angles cause shear
strain.

When the shaft is twisted, the angles are

no longer 90. The rectangles have distorted or sheared into parallelograms.

Shear strain is due to the different rotations of successive cross-sections.

2. The shear strain, which

is equal to the relative shear
displacement over an element
divided by its length, can be
related to rotations at the ends
of the shaft.
x1

The cross-section at x1 rotates

by f(x1). The cross-section at x2
rotates by a greater angle f(x2).

This element extends from x1 to

x2. Follow its deformation when
the shaft ends rotate.

(x1)

(x2)

x2

Here is the element, originally and as deformed

R(x1)

R(x2)

To see only the change in shape (strain), move the deformed element up by Rf(x1).

R[(x2) (x1)]

Compute the shear strain from the angle change as

the rectangle distorts into a parallelogram.

x2 x1

Shear strain on the outer surface of shaft is

g =

R3f(x2) - f(x1)4
x2 - x1

If the element extends over the length of the

shaft (x1 = 0, x2 = L) and has a twist f, then

140

CHAPTER 4

g =

Rf
L

Torsion
2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

R[(x2) (x1)]

M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.QXD

7/5/11

5:32 PM

3. Shear strain is proportional

to the twist per length.

Page 141

f
, which is the twist per length. This is the intensity of twisting, or how
L
rapidly the rotation changes over the length L of the shaft.
Shear strain depends on

As an example, for this shaft

1

f
deg
3 - 1
rad
=
= 4
= 6.98 * 10 - 2
L
0.5
m
m

0.5 m

4. Shear strain increases with

radial distance from the shaft
center.

So far, we have considered strain on the outside surface of the shaft. What is the strain of an element
inside the shaft, located at a distance r from the center? Use the same reasoning as above, except
now all displacements are equal to rf, instead of Rf.

(x)

Shear strain varies with radial position r:

5. The direction of the shear

strain depends on the position
of the element around the
circumference of the shaft,
but not along the length.

g =

(x)

rf
L

We just considered how the strain magnitude varies with radial position r in the shaft. The direction
of the strain varies at different points around the shaft circumference.

The strain varies because rotation about

the shaft axis produces
displacements in the
circumferential direction.

Because the shear strain depends on the relative displacements of neighboring cross-sections,
the direction and magnitude of the strain do not vary along the length of the shaft.

>>End 4.2

4.2

Shear Strain in Circular Shafts

2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

141

M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.QXD

7/5/11

5:32 PM

Page 142

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4.1

15 in.
B

C
x

(a) The shaft BC twists and arm AB pivots rigidly about B. As a result, end
A of the arm displaces by 0.1 in. perpendicularly to AB in the y-direction.
Determine the axis about which the rotation occurs and the rotation
in degrees.
(b) The arm CD is initially oriented at 35 relative to the y-axis. BC twists,
causing CD to rotate by 0.1 about the positive x-axis. Determine
the displacement of the point D along each of the coordinate axes.

Solution

35

(a) Here are 3-D and 2-D views of AB pivoting rigidly about B.
20 in.

B stays in position, and A displaces by 0.1 in. Pivoting rigidly means that AB
does not deform, but keeps its original shape. With the right hand rule,
the rotation is about the negative x-axis.
0.1 in.
0.1 in.

0.1 in.

15 in.

15 in.

Displacement 0.1 in. = 15 in. tan(f). Displacement 0.1 in. is small compared
to 15 in. Q 0.1 in. = (15 in.) f, (angle f in radians).
Therefore, f = 0.667 * 10 - 2 rad = 0.382.
(b) Here are 3-D and 2-D views of CD pivoting rigidly about C. The rotation is 0.1
about the positive x-axis. So as rotated, BC is 35.1 from the y-axis.

20 in.

0.1

0.1
y

0.1

20 in.

35
C

C stays in position, and D displaces by u = (20 in.) tan (f).

0.1 = 1.745 * 10 - 3 radians V 1 Q displacement is perpendicular to the
initial direction of CD. u = (20 in.) f = 3.49 * 10 - 2 in.
Displacement is - (3.49 * 10 - 2 in.)(cos 55) = - 2.00 * 10 - 2 in. along y.
Displacement is (3.49 * 10 - 2 in.)(sin 55) = 2.86 * 10 - 2 in. along z.
u 3.49 102 in.

z
y

90 35 55

>>End Example Problem 4.1

142

CHAPTER 4

Torsion
2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.QXD

7/5/11

5:32 PM

Page 143

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4.2

The shaft twists due to equal and opposite torques acting at its ends.
End A rotates by 1.5 about the positive x-axis, and end B rotates
by 2 about the negative x-axis.

z
A
400 mm

Determine the shear strain of an element located 300 mm from A

at a point C on the side of the cylinder. Find the magnitude
of the shear strain, and draw a strained element.

x
C

300 mm

B
15 mm

Solution
Since equal and opposite torques act at its ends, the shaft twists uniformly. The strain is
uniform along the length and varies in the radial direction (from the shaft centerline).

Line originally parallel

to shaft axis
1.5

Here are the rotation directions. The relative rotation is f = 1.5 + 2 = 3.5.
If the rotations were in the same direction, instead we would have
f = 2 - 1.5 = 0.5.

2.0

In the formula for the shear strain g = rf>L. f must be in radians, so

f = 3.5 = 6.11 * 10 - 2 rad.

Same line with

shaft twisted

relative to this face

On the outer surface, r = R = 7.5 mm, so

g = rf>L = (7.5 mm)(6.11 * 10 - 2)> 400 mm = 1.145 * 10 - 3.
Consider how the faces of a cubic element at point C, aligned with the coordinate
axes would move.
This face moves down
(toward negative z)

The element deforms as shown under this strain.

The direction of straining would change as one considers different elements around
the circumference.

Strained
element

>>End Example Problem 4.2

Example Problem 4.2

2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

143

M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.QXD

7/5/11

7:32 PM

Page 144

PROBLEMS
Additional data on material properties needed to solve problems can be found in Appendix D or inside back cover.

4.1 The shaft AB twists, and BC moves rigidly. At B the shaft rotates
by 1.5 about the + x-axis. How much does the end C displace
and in what direction?

A
y
C
15 in.

Prob. 4.1

4.2 Arm AB is initially oriented at 25 from the x-axis. The shaft BC

twists, while AB moves rigidly. A displaces by 0.5 mm in the
y-direction. (A also displaces in the x-direction.) What is the
rotation angle of the shaft at B, and about what axis is the rotation?

z
200 mm

25
A
C

Prob. 4.2
4.3 The shaft at B and the attached disk rotate by 2
about the -y-axis. By how much does the point C
displace? (Indicate direction and magnitude along
the x- and y-axes.)

A
z
C

80 mm
x

30

B
y

Prob. 4.3

4.4 The shaft twists due to two equal and opposite torques applied to
its ends. The rotations are 0.7 about the -z-axis at B, and 0.1
about the -z-axis at D. What is the direction and magnitude
of the rotation (a) at C and (b) at E?

E
30 in.
D
40 in.
C

20 in.

20 in.

Prob. 4.4
4.5 The shaft twists due to two equal and opposite torques applied
to its ends. Point C displaces 0.2 mm in the -x-direction. Point B
displaces 0.1 mm in the y-direction. Determine the direction
and magnitude of the displacement of point A.

150 mm

100 mm
B
60 mm

C
200 mm
300 mm

Prob. 4.5

144

CHAPTER 4

Torsion
2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.QXD

7/5/11

5:32 PM

Page 145

4.6 The shaft twists due to equal and opposite torques applied to its
ends. The cross-section A rotates by 0.3 about the -z-axis, and
B rotates by 0.1 about the z-axis. What is the magnitude of
the shear strain at point C? Also, draw the deformed shape of an
elemental cube at C.

0.75 in.
B

C
z

20 in.

C
x

Prob. 4.6
z

4.7 The shaft twists due to equal and opposite torques

applied to its ends. The cross-section B rotates by 1
about the -x-axis. At point C, the shear strain is
2 * 10 - 4 (the deformed element is shown in the
diagram). What is the direction and magnitude
of the rotation at A?

A
C

300 mm

300 mm

12 mm

B
C

Prob. 4.7
y
4.8 A thin disk is bonded to each end of a shaft, which
has outer and inner diameters of 1 in. and 0.75 in.
Twisting is due to equal and opposite torques
applied to the ends. Point A, located along the z-axis,
displaces by 4 * 10 - 2 in. in the - y-direction, and
C, located along the y-axis, displaces by 6 * 10 - 2
in. in the + z-direction. Determine the magnitude
of the shear strain at point B, which is located
at the shaft inner diameter. Also, draw the deformed
shape of an elemental cube at B.

z
3 in.

z
C
15 in.

Prob. 4.8
4.9 The 16 mm diameter shaft twists due to two equal
and opposite torques applied to its ends. Points A, B,
and D are 40 mm, 30 mm, and 50 mm from the center
of the shaft. The displacement at B is 0.3 mm
in the x-direction. The shear strain at C is 3 * 10 - 4
(deformed element is shown in the diagram). Determine
the displacement of points D and A.

200 mm B
x

z
C
400 mm

250 mm

Prob. 4.9
4.10 The shaft ABC, 40 mm in diameter, twists under equal
and opposite torques applied to its ends. Rotation at A
is 1 about the -y-axis. Due to the rotation at C, point D
of the rigid disk moves 0.2 mm in the -z-direction
(D also displaces in the x-direction). Determine
the magnitude of the shear strain at point B. Also, draw
the deformed shape of an elemental cube at B.

A
B

z
D
C

D
100 mm

160 mm
x

300 mm

60

Prob. 4.10

2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

Problems

145

M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.QXD

7/5/11

5:32 PM

Page 146

Focused Application Problems

4.11 The bottom bracket spindle undergoes torsion during pedaling. If the spindle
is fixed against rotation at the chain ring and the rotation where the spindle
connects to the far crank is 0.1, by how much has the initially horizontal
crank and pedal moved downwards? Take the dimensions to be a = 70 mm,
b = 25 mm, c 9.5 mm, d 80 mm, and L 170 mm.

Pedal

Crank

L
b

Spindle
Chain ring

Prob. 4.11 (Appendix A1)

4.12 A large downward force on the right pedal results in a moment about the
forward axis of a bike. This moment can be balanced by an opposite
moment of the hands pulling up on right handlebar and pushing down on
the left. Thus, two equal and opposite moments have to be absorbed by the
frame. A portion of this load results in twisting of the down tube. If the
tube material has allowable shear strain of 0.002, what is the maximum
allowable relative angle of rotation of the head tube and the seat tube? Let
the down tube be 24 in. long and have a circular cross-section with outer
diameter of 1.75 in. and wall thickness of 0.125 in.

Top
tube

Seat tube

Head
tube

Down
tube

Prob. 4.12 (Appendix A1)

4.13 Consider a simplified drill string consisting of single sized drill pipe. Say the
bit does not rotate, and the maximum shear strain that the pipe material can
safely take is known to be 0.0012. Determine how many turns of the string are
allowable at the top of the L 400 m string without exceeding the maximum
shear strain. Take the parameters to be Do 120 mm and Di 76 mm.

Di
Do

Prob. 4.13 (Appendix A3)

4.14 Say that the pivot-beam is initially horizontal and that the legs lift so that
the end of the pivot-beam displaces upward by 1 in. Determine the rotation
of the shaft where the pivot-beam connects to it. Take the dimensions to be
D2 1 in., q 6 in., R 9 in., s 3 in., and w 17 in.

Cord disk
R
q
s

Pivot
beam

D2

Shaft

Prob. 4.14 (Appendix A4)

146

CHAPTER 4

Torsion
2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

M04_STEI3340_01_SE_C04.QXD

7/5/11

5:32 PM

Page 147

4.15 Say that the pivot-beam is initially horizontal and that the legs lift the padded
beam by 1.5 in. If the maximum shear strain in the shaft to the cord disk is
0.001, by how much has the plate stack been lifted by the cord? Neglect any
elongation in the cord. Take the dimensions to be D2 1 in., q 6 in.,
R 9 in., s 3 in., and w 17 in.

Cord disk
R
q
s

Pivot
beam

D2

Shaft

Prob. 4.15 (Appendix A4)

4.16 A torsion analysis of an external fracture fixation system under a forward load
on the foot predicts that the carbon fiber rod twists about its axis by a 5 angle
at the plane of the lower pin relative to the upper pin. Say that the other
deflections of the rod are neglected, and the pins and bone are rigid. What is
the transverse deflection of one bone fragment relative to the other at the
points in the bone nearest and farthest from the rod? Approximate the bone
as circular with an outer diameter of 26 mm and an inner diameter of 20 mm.
Let the diameter of the solid carbon fiber bar be 10.5 mm. Take the dimensions
to be Lr 300 mm and Lp 60 mm.

Lp
Pin

Rod

Fracture
plane
Lr
Bone

Ls
F0

Prob. 4.16 (Appendix A5)

4.17 An intramedullary nail is fixed by screws to the bone at its two ends a distance
L 300 mm apart across the fracture. Approximate the bone as circular with
an outer diameter of 26 mm and an inner diameter of 20 mm. The nail itself has
an outer diameter of 10 mm and an inner diameter of 5.4 mm. Say the two
screws rotate by a 10 angle with respect to each other due to twisting of the
intermedullary nail. What is the maximum relative displacement between the
two faces of the fractured bone fragments? Assume that no load is transmitted
from the rod to the bone between the screws (the nail is fully within the
intramedullary canal).

Bone

Screw
L

Intramedullary
nail

Prob. 4.17 (Appendix A5)

4.18 An intramedullary nail is fixed by screws to the bone at its two ends a distance
L 300 mm apart across the fracture. Approximate the bone as circular with
an outer diameter of 26 mm and an inner diameter of 20 mm. The nail itself
has an outer diameter of 10 mm, and an inner diameter of 5.4 mm. If the shear
strain in the nail is not to exceed 0.005, what is the allowable rotation of the
two bone fragments with respect to each other?

Bone

Screw
L

Intramedullary
nail

Prob. 4.18 (Appendix A5)

>>End Problems
2012 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved

Problems

147