JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL

RESEARCH, VOL. 99, NO. B7, PAGES 13,791-13,811, JULY 10, 1994

Flexural and stratigraphic developmentof the westIndian

continental margin
BrianM. Whiting1
Departmentof Geology,Universityof Noah Carolinaat ChapelHill

Garry D. Karner and Neal W. Driscoll

Lamont-DohertyEarth Observatoryof Columbia University, Palisades
New York

Abstract. Subsidencecurvesfor 27 wells from the westerncontinentalmarginof India showa

characteristic
late Oligoceneto early Miocene(-24 +5 Ma) rapidincreasein subsidence
rate
superposed
on the long-lived,slowsubsidence
typicalof the thermalsubsidence
phaseof
passivecontinentalmargins. By subtractinga bestfit negativeexponentialsubsidence
from the
observedsubsidence
curves,we obtainan estimateof the distributionandmagnitudeof the
"excess"subsidence
affectingthe Neogenedevelopmentof the westIndian margin. The
magnitudeof thisexcesssubsidence
increasesseawardfrom the coast,rangingfrom a few
metersto >2000 m nearthe shelfedge. We examinethe followinghypotheses
to explainthe
distributionand timingof thisexcesssubsidence:(1) modificationof basinstratigraphydueto
the effectsof lithosphericin-planecompression,
(2) creationof accommodation
spaceon the
marginby flexural effectsassociated
with Indusfan loading,and (3) rapidgrowthof the
continentalmarginand associated
flexuraleffects. Of the threehypotheses
tested,the least
importantmechanismto accountfor the observedexcesssubsidence
is thatof variationsof
lithosphericin-planeforce,principallybecausemaximumin-planecompression
within the IndoAustralianplate was only achievedin the late Miocene. BecauseIndusfan sedimentdeposition
beganin the late Oligoceneto early Miocene, we investigatedthree-dimensionalflexural effects
associated
with fan loadingas a causeof the excesssubsidence
beginningat -24 Ma. The
distributionand magnitudeof modeledflexuraldeflection,however,are not consistentwith the

observedexcesssubsidence.
Interpretation
of seismicreflectiondataindicatesthatthemargin
hasaggradedandprogradedby --100 km basinwardsincethe Oligocene. Therefore,we evaluate
the flexuraleffectsof thismargingrowthby estimatingthe amountof spaceinfilled by margin
progradationand aggradationsince24 Ma and computingthe resultingdeflection. This
deflectionmatchesthe distributionandmagnitudeof observedexcesssubsidence
alongthe
margin. In addition,the distributionof the flexuralbulgepredictedfrom the combined
deflectionsdue to Indusfan andmarginloadingis spatiallycoincidentwith the distributionof
exposedmarineterracesanddrainagedividesin the SaurastraPeninsulaandthe regions
surroundingthe gulfsof CambayandKutch,respectively.Availablegravity,seismicreflection,
refraction,and well dataare consistent
with our predictionof a 4000 to 5000 m thick sediment
load developedduringthe Neogenealongthe outermargin. We proposethat flexural
deformationdue to sedimentary
loadingprovidesa potentialtectonicfeedbackmechanismthat
affectscoastalandfluvial depositional
processes.As regionsin closeproximityto the loadare
depressed,
regionsfartherfrom the loadexperienceuplift (i.e., theperipheralbulge),whichis
sufficientto causesubaerialexposureof largeportionsof the shelfandto modifyexisting
drainagenetworks.This feedbackrepresents
a mechanismfor inducingrelativesealevel
changeswithoutinvokingglacialeustasy.
an initial episodeof rapid subsidence
accompanying
activeextensionfollowed by a long period of thermal subsidencethat
Analysis of subsidencecurves offers insight into the mechatendsto be regionallydistributedanddecreases
as a functionof
is a
nisms responsiblefor the developmentof sedimentarybasins. time sincethe cessationof rifting. This postriftsubsidence
Passivemargin subsidencecan be divided into two components: consequenceof the cooling and isostaticadjustmentof the lithospherefollowing extension. Subsidencestudiesof the western
continentalmargin of India have recognizednot only this slow
1NowatDepartment
ofGeological
Sciences,
University
ofKentucky,
postriftsubsidence
componentbut alsoa relativelyrapidphaseof
Lexington.
subsidenceoccurring late in the history of the basin [Mohan,
Copyright1994by theAmericanGeophysical
Union.
1985; Agrawal, 1990]. The subsidencecurvesof Mohan [1985]
Introduction

Papernumber94JB00502.
0148-0227/94/94JB-0050255.00

were based on data from three offshore wells. Mohan [1985]

suggested
that the observedlate Oligoceneto early Miocenesub13,791

13,792

WHITING

ET AL.'

SUBSIDENCE

OF THE WEST INDIAN

CONTINENTAL

MARGIN

sidence rate increase was due to "active subsidence," which he

Norton and Sclater, 1977; Besseet al. , 1984; Molnar et al., 1988]

ascribedto an increasein seafloor spreadingrate in the Indian

Ocean. However, the mechanismlinking an increasein midoceanridge spreadingrate and passivemarginsubsidence
or how
this mechanismmight operatewas not discussed.
Agrawal [1990] usedbackstrippingmethodson a larger and
more widely distributedsetof unpublishedwell datato showthat
this late Oligocene to early Miocene increasein subsidencerate
appearedto characterizethe entire margin. In this backstripping
study, Agrawal [1990] assumed that the effects of paleobathymetry were unimportantand that the tectonicsubsidence
was compensatedlocally. Agrawal [1990] speculatedthat the
late Oligocene to early Miocene increasein subsidencerate was
related to changesin the lithospheric stressregime associated
with the onset of the India-Eurasia continentalcollision [e.g.,
Powell, 1986]. Further, he proposedthat this collision was responsiblefor inducing a renewed phaseof extensionalong the
westernmargin of India. It is importantto realize that the only
evidence for this reactivation is the departurein post-Oligocene
subsidencerates from those expectedfor a simple lithospheric
cooling process. No geological or geophysicalevidenceexists
for post-Oligocenerift basin developmentalongthe west Indian
margin.
The purposeof this studyis to investigatethe origin of the late
Oligocene to early Miocene phase of subsidenceon the west
Indian margin given that there is no evidencefor extensionaldeformation at this time. In particular, we will assessthe importanceof the following processeson the developmentof the west
Indian margin: (1) deflectionof the margin due to the effectsof
compressionalin-plane force causedby the India-Eurasiacollision, (2) creation of accommodationspacealong and acrossthe
margin in responseto Indus fan sedimentloading,and (3) sediment loading of the margin associatedwith progradationand
aggradationin responseto increasedcarbonateproductionand
subsequentclastic sedimentsupply. In order to evaluatethe effectsof theseprocesses,
we compareandcontrastthe spatialdistribution, timing and amplitude of the "excess"subsidenceobservedalong and acrossthe west Indian margin,as definedfrom
27 offshore explorationwells, with the predictionsof each pro-

suggestthat the separationof India from the Mascareneplateau

occurredby transtension(Figure 2). Magneticanomalies27, 26,
and 25 (63.3, 60.5, and 59.0 Ma respectively)lie to the west of
the Laxmi Ridge (Figures1 and 2; Candeet al. [ 1989]). Seismic
reflection,magneticandbathymetricdatahavebeenusedto infer
that the Laxmi Ridge (Figure lb) marks the boundarybetween

cess.

Regional GeologicSetting
The Mesozoic developmentof the westernmargin of India
was dominatedby the breakupof Gondwana,which occurredin
severalstages. By 83 Ma (Santonian),a spreadingridge formed
in the Mascarene basin separatingIndia (combinedwith the

Mascarene
plateau;
Figurel a) fromMadagascar
[Nortonand
Sclater, 1977' Besseet al. , 1984; Molnar et al. , 1988]. From late

Cretaceousto middle Eocene time, the Indian plate moved

rapidlynorthwardtowardEurasia[e.g.,Molnaret al., 1988]. At
approximately65 Ma (Maastrichtian), voluminouscontinental

flood basalts,termedthe DeccanTraps (Figure2), were emplacedduringan intervalof lessthan 1 millionyears[ Courtillot
etal., 1986;Jaegeret al., 1989;Vandamme
et al., 1991]andcovered an area estimatedto be >1,000,000 km2 [Duncan, 1990;
DeveyandStephens,1991]. DeccanTrap equivalents
havealso

beenencountered
duringexploration
drillingnearthewestIndian
marginandin OceanDrilling Program(ODP) coringsiteson the
MascarenePlateau (Figure la) [Duncan, 1990; Deveyand
Stephens,1991].
Onsetof seafloorspreadingin the northernArabian Sea fol-

lowedsoonafterDeccanvolcanism.Platereconstructions
[e.g.,

oceanic and thinned continental basement [Naini and Talwani,

1982; Droz and Bellaiche, 1991; Miles and Roest, 1991]. The

extrusionof the DeccanTraps is a late synriftevent as evidenced

by the ageof the traps,-65 Ma, andthe oldestseafloor-spreading
magneticanomaliesobservedin the ArabianSea,59.0 to 63.3 Ma
[Cande et al., 1989]. In addition, the Deccan Traps extrusives
form the summitof muchof the westernGhats(Figure lb).
Following Deccan volcanism, the northward motion of the
Indian plate was slowedby collisionwith Eurasia. The timing of
collisionis controversial,althoughmost workersplace the age of
initial collision in the Eocene to early Oligocene,basedon decreasesin plate velocitiesrecordedin seafloor-spreading
marinemagneticanomalies[e.g., Norton and Sclater, 1977; Klootwijk,
1979; Besse et al., 1984; Patriat and Achache, 1984; Besse and

Courtillot, 1988; Coward et al., 1988; Dewey et al., 1988, 1989].

Regardlessof the exacttiming of the initial continentalcollision,
the late Oligocenetransitionfrom flysch to molassesedimentation suggeststhat sufficient terrigenousclasticshad been produced to overfill the Himalayan foreland basins (Figure 3)
[Johnsonet al., 1986; Searle et al., 1987; Dewey et al., 1989],
and thereby provide material to initiate the developmentof the
Indus fan.

Thermochronologicalevidencefor the timing of major clastic

production comes from in situ crystalline rocks within the
Himalayas that indicate a regional unroofing event in late
Oligocene throughearly Miocene time [ Copelandet al., 1987;
Richter et al., 1991]. Thermochronologyof metamorphicrocks
from northernPakistanalso showsa markedincreasein cooling
ratesduring the late Oligoceneto early Miocene [ Treloar et al.,
1988; Treloar and Rex, 1990]. Rapid resetting of the ther-

mochronological
"clocks"
implies
theremoval
of overburden
by
denudation. For instance, Treloar et al. [ 1988] estimatedthat 10
+2 km of overburdenmust have been removedto yield their ob-

servedcoolinghistory,and Chamberlainet al. [ 1991] concluded

from numerouspublished thermochronologicalstudiesthat a
wide area of northernPakistanexperiencedsignificantunroofing
just prior to 20 Ma.
Direct evidenceregardingthe time of initial Indus Fan sedimentationcomesfrom Deep Sea Drilling Project(DSDP) Leg 23
Sites220 and 221, locatedon the distalportionof the fan (Figure
l a). Drilling at these sites penetratedoceanicbasalts. Weser
[ 1974] concludedthat the Indus River first becamean important
contributorto Arabian Sea sedimentationby late Oligocenetime
(-25 Ma), basedon the increasein Himalayan-provenancesediments. An increasein sedimentationrate beginningin the late
Oligocene was determined from the section recovered from
DSDP Sites 220 and 221 [Shipboard Scientific Party, 1974].
This evidenceis consistentwith thermochronological
studiesdiscussedabove which imply that a major increasein terrigenous
sedimentation

occurred at this time.

The chronostratigraphicdevelopmentof the Indian onshore

and offshorebasinsis summarizedin Figure 3. The synrift section of the western Indian margin is dominatedby terrigenous
clastics that include conglomerates and red beds of variable
thickness[ Gopala Rao, 1990]. Near the end of this rift phase,the
areally extensiveDeccan Trap tho!eiiteswere emplacedat ap-

WHITING

ET AL.:

50E

SUBSIDENCE

OF THE WEST

60E

INDIAN

CONTINENTAL

70E

MARGIN

13,793

80E

20N

F/k

ARABIAN
SEA

10N

221

LLI

:'

DISTAL

BEN

FAN

717-720

10S
DSDP/ODP

SITES

Figure 1. (a) Regionalsettingandlocationof studyarea. Starsindicatelocationsof DSDP/ODPdrill sites. (b)

Bathymetry,topographyandgeographicfeaturesof studyarea. Contoursare in meters;noteunevencontourintervals offshore/onshore.

proximatelythe Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary. Clasticseroded
from the exposedDeccan Traps rest unconformablyon the
tholeiites in the basin. The upper Paleoceneto late middle
Miocenepostriftsequences
consistof marinecarbonateswith interspersed
shalelayers. A majorepisodeof carbonateprogradation andaggradation
occurredduringthe lateOligoceneto early
middle Miocene (Figure 3). By the late middle Miocene (-11

Ma), the sedimentcompositionof the margin changedfrom carbonate to terrigenousdominated (Figure 3). A major climate
change[e.g., Copelandand Harrison, 1990; Burbankand Beck,
1991; Harrison et al., 1992] with an accompanyingincreasein
the erosionrate of the flanking onshoretopography(the western
Ghats,Figure lb) couldexplainthe suddeninput of clasticsedimentsto the Indian continentalmargin.

13,794

WHITING ET AL.: SUBSIDENCE OF THE WEST INDIAN CONTINENTAL MARGIN

INDIA

PAKISTAN

INDUS

RIVE

'-"

DELTA

24

C'RANN

OF
KUTCH

-ooo-i
GULF

c,,,OF KUTCH,

SAURASTRA!

(PENINSULA

20

BOMBAY

16

12
Figure 1. (continued)
Data

and Methods

Subsurfacedata for this studywere compiledfrom published

reports and summariesof 27 Indian Oil and Natural Gas
Commission(ONGC) offshore wells (Table 1). Most of the
wells are locatedon the continentalshelf adjacentto a major oil

determinationsare based on the time scale of Berggren et al.

[ 1985]. Paleobathymetric
estimates
arebasedon benthicassemblagesandbenthic/planktonic
ratios,alongwith information
on
relative abundancesof individual taxa (C.W. Poag, personal
communication,1991). Sedimentaryfaciesevidencewasusedas

an independent
estimate
of paleowater
depths.Forexample,the
provincedirectlyoffshorefrom Bombay. Chronostratigraphicpresence
of earlyto latemiddleMioceneooliticlimestones
in the
andpaleobathymetric
estimates
werederivedfrommicropaleon- areaoffshorefromBombay[e.g.,Roychoudhury
andDeshpande,
ourinterpretation
of shallowpaleowater
depths
tologicaldata. Age determinations
(Figure4) arebasedon stan- 1982]corroborate
dardplanktonic
biozonation,
exceptwherethescarcity
of plank- basedon micropaleontology,
providedthat the oolitesrepresent
tonicforaminifera
(particularly
for theNeogene)necessitated
the primarydepositional
features.Threebroadpaleoenvironments
correlationof regionalbenthicfirst and last occurrences
and/or were recognizedon the basis of sedimentaryfacies and
observedin the exploratorywell data:
assemblages
with the planktoniczonations.The references
listed foraminiferalassemblages
in Figure4 containdetailsof regionalcorrelationsandlistsof assemblagesusedto make age and paleobathymetry
estimates.Age

shallow to restricted marine, inner to middle neritic, and outer

neffticto upperbathyal.

WHITING ET AL.- SUBSIDENCE OF THE WEST INDIAN CONTINENTAL

o-

(1) o
z

MARGIN

13,795

13,796

WHITING

ET AL.'

SUBSIDENCE

OF THE WEST INDIAN

CONTINENTAL

MARGIN

WHITING ET AL.: SUBSIDENCE OF THE WEST INDIAN CONTINENTAL

Table 1. Well Names and Data Sources
Location in

ONGC Name

References

A-1
A-2
A-3
A4
B-1
B-2
B-3
B4
C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4
D-1
D-2
E-1
E-2
E-3
E-4
E-5
F-1
F-2
F-3
F4

B-12-1
C-2-1
MT-1
MT-2
B-58-1
B-55-1
H-12-1
B-13-1
R-6-1
R-8-1
R- 11-1
R- 12-1
R-l-1
R-2-1
D l-A1
D 1-1A
D12-1
DCS-2
SM-2-1
BH-12
H-l-5
B-44-1
BH- 1

4, 20, 26
6, 7, 10, 20
3, 6, 7, 20
3, 6, 7, 20
3, 7, 20, 21, 26
3, 7, 20, 21, 26
1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 21, 22
3, 4, 21
5, 7, 8
20, 26
5, 20, 26
20, 26
4, 5, 7, 9, 17
5, 7, 9, 17
1-7, 20, 23, 24, 26
1-4, 6, 7, 20, 23, 24, 26
1-7, 26
3-5, 7, 17, 20, 24
17, 20, 26
1-6, 21, 23-25
2-6, 21, 23-25
2-6, 21, 23-25
1-6, 11, 17, 21, 23-25

G- 1

OS-II-G 1

17

G-2
H-1
H-2

SS-1
KUTCH-1
KD-1

1, 3, 5-7, 17, 24
1, 13-17, 19, 26
1, 13-17, 19, 26

MARGIN

13,797

deformationsassociatedwith sedimentloading,we do not introduce the assumptionsand problemsassociatedwith backstripping. Instead, curves presentedin Figures 5 and 6 show total
subsidencefor the top of the Deccan Traps throughtime, cor-

Figure 6a

PALEO-

WATER
ZONE AGE, Ma DEPTH, rn LITHOLOGY
i

a..

0000000

tO ..........

- 0

7;]; ' ' '

:''.'.
-E'.':'2'.'

.'-]2-.'-.'-.'.-'.2-1000

....
N8

15-16

N8

15-17

upper
--,-T

1500

.....

....

2000

- 2500

References
(in additiontoAgrawal[1990]): 1, Sahay[1978];
2, Mohan [1985]; 3, Mohan and Kumar [1982]; 4, Basu et al.

[1980];5, Mohanet al. [1982];6, Roychoudhury

andDeshpande
[1982];7, Ramaswamy
and Rao [1978]; 8, SubbaRaju et al.
[1990]; 9, Basu et al. [1982]; 10, Khan and Rao [1981]; 11,
Prasadet al. [1978]; 12, Gopala Rao [1990]; 13, Biswasand
Deshpande[1983]; 14, Biswas[1982]; 15, Saraswati[1991]; 16,
Mehrotra [1989]; 17, Mehrotraand Biswas[1989]; 18, Guhaet
al. [1989]; 19,Das Gupta[1977];20, RaoandMittal [1979];21,
Mehrotra and Wani [1985]; 22, Datta and Singh[1976]; 23,
Mohanand Singh [1975]; 24, Mohanet al. [1978]; 25, Raoand
Talukdar[1980];26, BiswasandSingh[ 1988].

upper I
N4

22-23

P21-

32-24

.'.'
-.ff.'.-.'- 3000
..........

222._
- 35OO

P18

34-36

....

'--

722.'......

P15 42-44

..:.:-.-.:j:.-.-.
2-,:,-.-.-.-,:,-4000

P7

Decompaction and SubsidenceCalculations

To definesubsidence
ratescorrectly,it is necessary
to know
how the sedimenthaschangedthicknessasa functionof time and
thuscorrectthe present-daysedimentthicknesses
for the effects
of compaction.To decompactthe sedimentthicknesses
observed
on the west Indian margin, we followed the methodof Sclater

and Christie[ 1980]andassumed

a lithology-dependent
exponential decrease
of porositywith depthof theform

55-57

' ' '.'L'.'.'

upper
Z

P4-P5

58-60

P4

59-61

(1)

'.'::.'.'.v::.
4500
' '_-.t_.......
TD 4502

LITHOLOGY

KEY:

carbonates shale claystone calcareous.

13=00 e-cz

"-'-'
''m''

L..__....j=_.

Figure 4. Lithologies, ages,and paleobathymetricestimatesfor

where
13isporosity
atdepth
z inmeters,
130istheinitialporosity wells from the study area. Faunal assemblagesused to define
of thesediment,
andc describes
therateof porositydecrease
with
depth. To definethe compactioncharacteristics
of sedimentsin
the areastudied,we usedpublishedporosityinformation(Table

2) toassign
upper
andlowerbounds
totheparameters
130andc
in Equation(1). Becausewe are interestedonly in the flexural

agesand paleobathymetryare compiled from Mohan and Singh

[1975], Datta and Singh [1976], Mohan et al. [1978, 1982, 1984],
Rao and Mittal [1979], Rao and Talukdar [1980], Mohan and
Kumar [ 1982], Mohan [ 1983, 1985], Mehrotra and Wani [ 1985],
Mehrotra [ 1989], Agrawal [ 1990], and Saraswati [ 1991].

13,798

WHITING ET AL.: SUBSIDENCE OF THE WEST INDIAN CONTINENTAL MARGIN

Table 2. Porosityparameters
usedin decompaction

biozone(s)(or portionsthereof)assignedto the horizon. For example,if faunalevidenceindicatedthat a horizonrepresented

the
upperN5 planktonicbiozone,the numericalage rangeassigned
would have been 19 to 20 Ma, while a horizon representingthe
Lithology
130max
130min c max c min
P18 zone would have a range of 34 to 36 Ma. The estimated
minimumand maximumpaleobathymetry
curvesare alsoshown
shale/claystone 0.68
0.52
0.57
0.48
in Figure 5 as dashedcurves.
siltstone
0.56
0.50
0.39
0.33
The verticalorigin of the subsidence
curvesin Figures5 and
sandstone
0.49
0.23
0.40
0.27
6b is defined as the top of the DeccanTraps. In regionswhere
carbonates
0.42
0.20
0.71
0.28
the wells did not penetratethe traps,publishedseismicreflection
data [e.g., Agrawal and Singh, 1981; Prasada Rao and
130max,maximum
initialporosity'
130 min,minimum
initial Srivastava,1981; Biswasand Singh, 1988] were usedto estimate
porosity;
c max,c min,maximum
andminimum
values
of the the depthto the top of the traps. Because,theextrusionof the
parameter
describing
porosity
decrease
withdepth.References DeccanTraps is a late synrift event, wells in the studyareaare
are Sclaterand Christie[1980],Schmoker
and Halley [1982], predictedto recordpost-Deccansynrift subsidence.In Figure 5
(which correspondsto well G-2 of Figure 6b), rapid subsidence
Bond and Kominz [1984],Mohan [1985], and Hegartyet al.,
of-1500
rn is shownbetweenthe time of emplacementof the
[1988].
traps at -65 Ma and approximately60 Ma, at which time the

calculations

subsidence rate decreases.

rectedfor sedimentcompaction.In orderto ensureconsistency

in comparisons
amongthesetotalsubsidence
curves,we used
onlywellswhichpenetrated
thetrapsor wellswherethedepthto
the top of the trapscouldbe estimated
fromseismicreflection

A similar rate decrease is also seen at

this time in otherwells (Figure 6) and accordinglywe adopt60

Ma as a best estimate for the age of the rift-drift transitionin the

studyarea.
In Figure5, waterdepthsfor the periodfrom 60 to 45 Ma were
data. The sources of these estimates are listed in Table 1.
initially shallow to restrictedmarine, increasedto inner-middle
neritic range, and then to outer neriticupper bathyal rangeby
Results and Discussion
37 Ma. At 34 Ma, water depthsbegan decreasingthroughthe
samesuccessionto shallow marine rangeby 28 Ma. Beginning
SubsidenceCurves and PaleobathymetryEstimates
at 14 Ma, water depthsin Figure 5 againincreasedto middlenerFigure5 showsa plotof totalsubsidence
andpaleobathymetry itic rangeand thendecreasedto the presentshallowmarinerange
estimatesthat are basedon data shownin Figure4 and illustrate
duringthe Pliocene. Subsidenceratesin Figure 5 decreasedas a
representative
resultsin thestudyarea. Theverticalbarsshown function of time during the period from 60 to 37 Ma, increased

on the total subsidence

curvein Figure5 reflectthe rangeof de-

between 37 and 28 Ma, then decreased from 28 to 23 Ma.

compacted
sediment
thickness
values,
basedontheminimum
and

Beginning at 23 Ma, subsidencerates in Figure 5 increasedto

levelsequal to or greaterthan thoseobservedfor the periodfrom

maximumvaluesof thedecompaction
parameters
in Table2, and
the horizontalbarsrepresent
therangeof numericalagesbased
on foraminiferalassemblages.The age rangefor eachdated
horizonwastakento be thenumericalagerange(Figure3) of the

60 to 23 Ma.

For the periodfrom 60 to 23 Ma, the overallform of the subsidenceand paleobathymetrycurvesshownin Figure5 is consis-

tent with the predictions

of thermallydrivensubsidence
[e.g.,
Ma
60
, I ....

lOOO

50
I ....

40
I ....

30

20

I ....

I = =,

10
,I,,,,

0
I

syn-rift
subsidence
[{l}l
paleo
,
[:t?lbathvmetrv

_2ooo
o3

o3000
E

tota
"1::::1

J least-squares
ponenta

McKenzie, 1978] combinedwith a low sedimentsupplyuntil -37

Ma. We infer that this part of the margin was a region of sediment bypassuntil -37 Ma and that the subsidencerate increase
beginningat 37 Ma reflectsthe onsetof increasedsedimentation
in the area of this well. At -23 Ma, the subsidence
rate againincreased, but in contrast to the increase at -37 Ma, the subsidence

rate remainedrelatively high until the present,which impliesthat

the driving mechanismresponsiblefor the subsidencerate increasehasbeenoperativesincethe early Miocene.
In orderto quantifythe magnitudeof the observedexcesssubsidenceon the margin, we used a negativeexponentialcurve to
mimic

4000

subsidence from 60 to 24 Ma

S*(t)=S0e-Ctt

5OOO

6OOO

the form of the observed

(Figure 5). This methodassumesthat postriftthermalsubsidence

can be describedby an equationof the form

24 SMa

(2)

where t is the time since the rift-drift transition, S* is subsidence

attimet, SOis theamount

of initialsubsidence,
andctdetermines
Figure5. Totalsubsidence
curveandpaleobathymetry
estimates the rate of subsidencedecreasewith time. Equation(2) is solved
for the datashownin Figure4. Superposed
is theconstrained for ct in a least squaressense,with the least squarescurve conto passthroughSO, yieldingthebaseline
usedto measure
leastsquaresexponentialfit curveto totalsubsidence
between60 strained
and24 Ma andextrapolated
to thePresent
(seetextfor explana- the amount of subsidencein excessof that predictedsolely by
tion of methods).The departureof the observed
totalsubsidence thermal subsidence of the margin. In wells with no late
from this leastsquaresline definesexcesssubsidence.
This well Paleoceneto early Eocene sedimentaryhorizonssampled(e.g.,
groupsA, B, and F of Figure 6b), we usedthe subsidenceat the
corresponds
to siteG-2 in Figure6.

WHITING ET AL.' SUBSIDENCEOF THE WEST INDIAN CONTINENTAL MARGIN

66

68

70

72

74

13,799

76
24

22

G
20

Bombay High

1
18

16

1 O0

200 km.

14

Figure 6.
Figure 6. (a) Well locationsand major offshorefaultsin the studyarea. Circlesand labelsrepresentgroupings
of wells by structuralblock. (b) Total subsidencecurvesfor the 27 wells usedin this study, showingdecompactedsedimentthicknessversustime, alongwith paleobathymetry
estimatesand leastsquaresbestfit lines to
subsidence
from 60 to 24 Ma. The shadedrectanglescenteredat 24 Ma bracketthe age of onsetof excesssubsidence. As in Figure 5, the differencebetweenthe observedpost-24Ma subsidenceand the extrapolatedleast
squarescurvesdefinesthe "excess"subsidence
experiencedby the westIndian margin.

timeof theoldestdatedhorizonto defineSO fortheleastsquares rapid subsidenceratesbetween60 and 24 Ma correlatewith wells

fit. In the caseof wells A-3, A-4, andF-4, a leastsquaresfit was
not possibledue to the distributionand numberof sampledsedimentary horizons for the period from 60 to 24 Ma. However,
subsidence
and paleobathymetry
resultsfrom thesewells are still

from structurallows (i.e., regions of relatively greater lithosphericextension),while slower subsidenceratescorrelatewith

well positionsfrom structuralhighsand sitesclosestto the coastline. The aboveobservations
are broadlyconsistentwith predic-

useful to the discussion

tions of mechanical

that follows

and are therefore

shown in

extension

models in which the amount of

synrift subsidenceas well as postriftthermalsubsidenceis controlled by the degree of lithosphericthinning [e.g., McKenzie,
1978]. A late Eoceneto early Oligocenesubsidence
rate increase
appearsin wells of groupsA and B as well as in wells E-l, E-2,
and G-2. This rate increasecorresponds
with decreasingpaleobathymetry. Wells B-l, B-3, and B-4 clearly show a one-to-one
correspondencebetween decreasingpaleowaterdepth and increasingsubsidence,implying that subsidencerateswere subororigin to the first post-Deccandatapoints. For the periodfrom
dinateto sedimentationratesat theselocales. Exceptionsoccur
60 to 24 Ma, subsidenceratesgenerallydecreasedthroughoutthe
at sites A-2 and B-2, which show consistentlyshallow paleostudyarea,consistent
with a thermal-typesubsidence
mechanism. bathymetrythroughoutthis period,implyingthat sedimentsupply
The empiricalnegativeexponentialcurvesare a reasonableapkept up with subsidenceat thesesites.
proximationto the observedsubsidence
for thistime intervalfor
As canbe seenin Figure 6, the subsidence
rateincreasebeginmost of the wells in the different structuralsettings. Relatively
ning at 24 Ma is approximatelysynchronous(within +5 m.y.)

Figure6b.
Figure 6b shows decompacted subsidencecurves, paleobathymetryestimatesand the best fitting exponentialor thermal
curve for the 27 wells studiedon the west Indian margin. The
wells are groupedaccordingto their relationshipto the various
structuralblocksthat comprisethe margin(Figure6a). By definition, the origin of the curvesis at 65 Ma with zero thermalsubsidence,but for clarity we have not drawn the curvesfrom the

13,8oo

WHITING ET AL.: SUBSIDENCE OF THE WEST INDIAN CONTINENTAL MARGIN

Ma

60

40
,

2000
'4000

20
,

60
I

40
.

2000
..Q4000
B-1
6000

20
,

4000

6ooo-A-3

6oooA-4

40

60

6000

20

60

40

60

40
20
0
..=.-..
'
.,.;;.,

'

2000

4000

4000

4000-

6OOO

6000B-3

B-4
6000-

40
i

20

0
,

60

40

20
0
, t

2000-

2000

4000

4000-

4000

6OOO

6000

6000

40
.

I_

20
,_

2000

2000

2000

4000

4000

4000

4000

6000

6000

6OOO

60
I

40
20
I ...... I

0
I

40

60

2000

E-1

6OOO

E-2

60
0

2000

2000

2000-

2000

4000

4000

4000-

4000-

6000

6OOO

6000

6000-

Figure 6. (continued)

Ma

Ma
60

2000-

20

2000

2000

2000

I ..,.,,
.,,....,
....

4000-

20

4000

60

..Q4000-

40

6O
0
'

2000-

2000-

20

ooo.
0
,

40

A-2

60

A- "'"'%'"
' 6000

6000

Ma

Ma

Ma
4O

60

20
0
...;.---

I .......

20
k ......

0
J

WHITING

ET AL.'

40

60

20

SUBSIDENCE

60

OF THE WEST INDIAN

40

20

O ::1 , I I
.... _....

60

2000

2000

2000

4000

4000

4000

6000

F-2

6000

6O

2000

4O
.

, ............

60

40
.

20

13,801

Ma

2O
.

40
,

MARGIN

6oooF-4

F-3

Ma
0

CONTINENTAL

Ma

20
.

0
,

60

40

20

Ma
0

60

40

20
.

i!.iiiiiiiii

-- 2000
-

2000

2000

4000

4000

4000

4000-

6000

6000

6000

6000-

Figure 6. (continued)
acrossthe basin. This rate increaserepresents
a markeddeparturefrom thenegativeexponentialdecayratesassociated
with the
slow thermalsubsidencefor the periodfrom 60 to 24 Ma. The
increasein subsidence
ratesdoesnotin generalcorrelatewith decreasesin paleobathymetry(Figure 6b). Figure 7 is a contour
map of the distribution and magnitude of excess subsidence
acrossthe margin since24 Ma. The excesssubsidenceincreases
with distanceawayfrom the coast,rangingfrom negligiblevaluesto >2000 m, andis broadlydistributedparallelto the coast.

Uplift/SubsidencePatternsInducedby Changes
of Lithospheric in-Plane Force

The Eoceneto early Oligocenetiming of the initial collision

betweenIndia and Eurasiashouldinducein-planecompression
acrossthe Bombaymargin. The predictedflexuralresponse
of a
passivemarginwhenplacedinto in-planecompression
is one of
increased
subsidence
acrossthe marginanduplift of theoffshore
basinin water depthsof-1000 m [ Braun and Beaumont,1989;
Karner et al., 1993]. The effect of this compression-induced
flexuraldeformationis recordedin the preserved
stratigraphy
by
a landwardshift in marineonlap [Karner et al., 1993]. For the
magnitudeof compressive
in-planeforcegeneratedby the continent-continentcollisionof EurasiaandIndia, we wouldexpecta
maximumsubsidence
acrossthe westIndian marginof 200-400

Indo-Australian
plate,whichwasalsoaccompanied
by a regional
deformationof the crust, was only achievedduringthe late
Miocene(-7.5 Ma), basedon the drillingresultsof ODP site 116
[Cochran,1990]. This ageis significantlylaterthanthe-24 Ma
increase in subsidence rate observed in the well data on the mar-

gin.

Flexural EffectsInducedby IndusFan Loading

Barrell[ 1914]wasoneof thefirstto recognize

theimportance
of loadsdeliveredto a marginby river systemsin betterunderstandingthe long-termmechanicalpropertiesof the lithosphere.
An example of a migratingload that shouldinducea flexural responseof the lithosphereis the lateraltransportof sedimentsby
progradation. Using this idea, Walcott [1972] and Cochran

[ 1973] demonstrated
that flexural loadingcouldaccountfor the
generalarchitectureof present-dayalepositional
systemssuchas
thoseassociatedwith the Amazon and MississippiRivers. The
lithosphericresponseto loadingis characterized
by two components: a flexural depressionand a flanking flexural (or peripheral) bulge. The wavelengthof bothcomponents
is governedby
the flexural strengthof the lithosphere.We seefrom Figure l a
that the Indus fan developedadjacentto the Bombaymargin. It
is conceivablethereforethat the three-dimensional
loadingeffects of the fan may have inducedeither subsidenceor uplift
m [Karner et al., 1993].
acrossthe adjacentshelvesdependingon the flexural strengthof
A numberof observations
allowusto assess
theimportance
of the Arabian Sea lithosphere.It is this fan loadingeffect that we
in-planelithospheric
compression
in producing
theobserved
dis- explorenext as a possibleexplanationfor the observed"excess"
tributionof excess
subsidence
onthewestIndianmargin.First, subsidenceof the westIndian margin.
theexcess
subsidence
increases
seaward
fromthecoast(Figure
Our three-dimensional
analysisof elasticplate flexure treats
7), achievinga subsidenceamplitudemaximumof >2000 m. the Arabian Sea lithosphereas an elasticplate overlyinga fluid
Sucha valueis anorderof magnitude
greaterthantheoretical
es- substrateupon which we allow sedimentloadsto be deposited.
timatesfor flexurallyinduceddeformations
by in-planeforce Following Timoshenkoand Woinowsky-Krieger[ 1959], the difvariationscalculatedby Karner et al. [1993] and Kooi and
ferentialequationgoverningthe deflectionof a constant-rigidity
Cloetingh[ 1992]. Second,the entirewestIndiancoastline,with plate due to the applicationof a three-dimensionally
distributed
theexceptionof thegulfsof KutchandCambay,is oneof emer- load, in the absenceof horizontalin-planestressis

genceasopposed
to submergence
(Figure1), opposite
to thepredictedsenseof movement
for a marginin compression
[ Karneret
al., 1993]. Moreover,maximumin-planecompression
withinthe

Dra4w
+2 a4w a4w]
+Ap2gwI

tax4ax2a,2
+iy4]
=Ap
gh

(3)

13,802

WHITING ET AL.' SUBSIDENCE OF THE WEST INDIAN CONTINENTAL

64

68

72

76

MARGIN

80
28

24

"100
20

:.

2000

...

16
..

...

:....

WELL LOCATIONS

12

Figure7. Contours
of excess
subsidence
(asdefined
in Figure
5 andthetext)forthewestIndiancontinental
margin,
inmeters
below
sealevel.The200-misobath
isshown
forreference
asafinedotted
line.Contour
interval is 500 m.

where D is lithosphericflexural rigidity, w is the deflectiondue

35 km, accordingto estimatespublishedby Bodineet al. [1981].

to theloadh, g is theacceleration
dueto gravity,AO2 represents Becausethe history of fan sedimentationis not well known, we
the densitycontrastbetweenthe materialunderlyingthe plateand
the materialinfilling the deflection(i.e., Omantle- Pinfill), and

have maximizedthe flexural effectsof fan loadingby assuming

thatthe entiresedimentloadwasappliedat 24 Ma.

AOl is the effectivedensityof the load. Lithospheric

flexural
Because
Te is a function
of thethermalstructure
of thelithorigidity,D, is relatedto Te, theeffectiveelasticplatethickness, sphere,it is likely to vary with positionacrossthe margin and
with time. To explore the effects of spatially and temporally

by

D=ET3e/12(1-v
2)

theem(4) varyingT e onthewestIndianmargin,wehavemodeled

where E is Young's modulusand v is Poisson'sratio. Equation

(3) may be readily solvedfor w by transformationinto the frequencydomain,following the proceduredetailedby Karner and
Weissel[ 1990]. For the purposes
of thismodel,we assumethata
three-dimensionalsedimentload of constantdensity (equal to

placementof the Indusfan loadfor a rangeof T e values. Figures

9a, 9b, and9c showresultsof flexuralcalculations

for T e values
of 15, 25, and 35 km, respectively. Figure 9 shows that the
wavelengthof the flexural deformationassociated
with Indusfan

loadingis relativelyinsensitive
to thesevariations
of Te. A com-

2200kgm-3)is emplaced
ontoanelastic
plateof constant
flexu-

parisonof modelpredictions(Figure9) with calculatedexcess

subsidence(Figure 7) showsthat the distributionsof observed

ral strength. The sedimentload distributionand amplitudeare

determinedfrom isopachvaluesfor the Indusfan (Figure8) from

subsidenceand modeleddeflectionwith respectto the shelfedge

and coastlinesdo not match, regardlessof the different values

Rabinowitz et al. [ 1988]. In turn, the effective elastic thickness

usedforTe. In particular,
Figure9 predicts
a flexuralbulgeon

of the lithospherewasestimatedfrom the empiricalrelationship the Indian and Pakistani continental shelves in the area where the
between
Te andtheageof theoceanic
lithosphere
at thetimeof calculated excess subsidence is the greatest (Figure 7).
loading [e.g., Bodineet al., 1981], notingthat at the time of fan Furthermore,
thetemporal
variation
of T e isexpected
tobea second-ordereffect given the thermalage of the lithosphere
(-40
initiation (~25 Ma), the thermal age of the lithospherewas apMa)
at
the
time
of
fan
loading.
Therefore
we
conclude
that
flexuproximately
40 m.y. T e canbeexpected
to rangebetween
15and

WHITING ET AL.: SUBSIDENCE OF THE WEST INDIAN CONTINENTAL

56

64

72

MARGIN

13,803

80

24"

.
.

16

..

Figure8. Isopach
valuesof Indusfansediments,
fromRabinowitz
etal. [1988].Thecontour
intervalis 250m.
Thethickness
anddistribution
of thesediments
constitute
theloadh of equation
(3).

ral effectsassociated
with thedevelopment
of the Indusfan are
inadequate
to explaintheexcesssubsidence
observedon thewest
Indianmargin.

tion rateat Site 219 reflectedincreasederosionof the Indian sub-

continent,andhe wasable to distinguish

betweenDeccan-derived and Indus river clasticcontributionsto site 219 sediments
on the basisof provenancestudies. Indirect evidencethat this

Margin Progradation
andSediment
Loading

clasticinfluxwastriggered
by a changein paleoclimate
is based
on
carbon
isotopic
evidence
from
paleosols
in
northern
Pakistan
The Neogeneprogradation
andaggradation
of thewestIndian
continental
marginwasnotedearlier.Thecarbonate-driven
stage [Quadeet al., 1989]. Thecarbonisotopicdataindicatea drastic
in thelatestMiocenethatmaybe linkedto
of Neogene
margingrowthbeganin thelateOligocene
to early shiftin paleoecology
Mioceneandresultedin theverticalaggradation
of 2-3000m of the strengtheningof the monsoonsystem. We infer that inwith the development
of the monsoon
carbonates
aswell aslateralprogradation
of =100km [Figure3; creasedrainfallassociated
changesin regionalpaleoclimateled
RaoandTalukdar,1980;Basuet al., 1982;Roychoudhury
and systemand accompanying
to enhancedweatheringand erosionrates of the westernGhats

Deshpande,1982]. An episodeof clastic-dominant

margin
growthbeganin thelatemiddleMiocene(Figure3). It appears
that the carbonateto clastictransitionis relatedto regional
changes
in climateduringthelateMiocene.Forexample,
DSDP

continental
margindilutedthecarbonate
deposits,
thusexplaining

Leg 23 drilling resultssuggestthat materialerodedfrom the

the transition from carbonate-dominated sediments in the late

(Figurelb) in particular,andof the Indiansubcontinent

in general. Deposition of the resulting clasticsonto the west Indian

sediments
Deccan
Trapsbecame
a significant
component
atsite219(Figure Oligoceneto earlyMioceneto terrigenous-dominated
l a) duringlate Miocenetime,as indicatedby thepresence
of by thelateMioceneto Recent(Figure3).
montmorillonite
[Weser,1974]. Weser[ 1974]concluded
thatthis
In theprevious
section
wedemonstrated
thatIndusfanloading
changein provenance
andaccompanying
increase
in sedimenta- alone is not sufficient to account for the excess subsidence that

13,804

WHITING ET AL.: SUBSIDENCE

OFTHE WESTINDIAN CONTINENTALMARGIN

56

64

72

8O

24

16

Figure9. Deflection
ofthelithosphere
duetotheIndus
fansediment
loadfor(a)Te=15km,(b)Te=25km,and
(c)Te=35km. Thenegative
deflection
iscontoured
at250-mintervals,
whiletheflexural
bulge
iscontoured
at
10-m intervals.

excesssubsidence
beganat -24 Ma alongthe westIndiancontinental
margin. BiswasandSingh,1988],andthe calculated
depthestimates
of thisstudy.As in thecaseof
However,the coincidencein timing betweenindependent
esti- andpaleowater
comprismatesof the agesof the onsetof Indusfan sedimentation
(-25 the Indusfan, we assumethatthe densityof sediments
Ma) andtheobserved
onsetof marginprogradation
andaggradation suggests
thata link mayexistbetweenfan-induced
flexure
andmargingrowth.Thereforewe wouldlike to incorporate
the
flexural effects associatedwith margin growthinto the subsidenceandupliftpatterns
predicted
earlierfor theIndusfan sys-

ingthisloadis2200kgm-3. In Figure
10a,weshow
theloadrequiredto givefirst-order
agreement
betweenthecontoured
excesssubsidence
(Figure7) andthecomputed
deflection(Figure
10b)resulting
fromtheload. Theload(Figure10a)consists
of
two lobes,which are centeredbasinwardof the gulfs of Kutch

of-4800 m developed
tem(Figure9). TheseNeogene
carbonate
andclastic
packages
of andCambay,witha maximumthickness
shelfedge. We propose
thatthese
sedimentprogradedacrossthe westIndiancontinental
margin outboardof the present-day
infilled paleowaterdepthsto the eastof the Laxmi
andconstitute
loadson the lithosphere.Like theIndusfan load, sediments
asa consequence
of earlierriftingof
theseloadscanbe expectedto inducea flexuralresponse
in the ridge(Figurelb) produced
of thesepredicted
lobesare
lithosphere,
andthefactthattheymigratemeansthattheirflexu- themargin.Thesizeanddistribution
in agreement
withNeogene
sediment
accumulations
observed
in
ral effectswill be manifestedaschangesin subsidence
rates.
with
We now examinethe relationshipbetweenNeogenemargin wellsof thisstudy(Figure6) andappearto be consistent
growthandthe observedexcesssubsidence
alongthe margin. seismicreflection and refractiondata that indicateouter-shelfand
thickness
of 4000to 8000m [NainiandTalwani,
The magnitude
anddistribution
of theNeogene
prograding
sedi- slopesediment
ment load are constrained
by the presentlocationof the shelf 1982; Sahni, 1982]. In addition,the load is spatiallycoincident
edge,thepre-Miocene
positionof theshelfedgein theBombay with a free-airgravityhighparallelto the shelfedge[Naini and
offshore, as determined from seismic reflection data [e.g.,

Agrawaland Singh,1981;PrasadaRao andSrivastava,

1981;

Talwani, 1982].

The deflection(Figure10b)resultingfromtheloadof Figure

WHITING ET AL.: SUBSIDENCE OF THE WEST INDIAN CONTINENTAL MARGIN

56

64

72

13,805

80

24

16

o
Figure 9. (continued)

10a is in overall agreementwith calculatedexcesssubsidence

(Figure 7). The fact that the well data acrossthe shelf indicate
that paleowater depths remained relatively constantsince the
early Miocene constrainsthe deflection on the shelf due to the
margin load to be approximatelyequal to the on-shelfthickness
of the load. Basedon this,we proposethat the majority(4000 to
5000 m) of the load was depositedon the outershelf and slope
during late Tertiary time. The fact that the maximum thickness
of the load is centeredon the outer shelf and slopeimpliesthat
deflectionof the continentalmarginin responseto this off-shelf
load generated accommodationspace for shelf aggradation,
which is reflected in the observedexcesssubsidence. However,
more detailedseismicreflection,refraction,and exploratorywell
data are neededto fully testour predictionsregardingthe distributionand magnitudeof the outermarginload. After a satisfactory fit betweenFigures7 and 10b was achieved,we addedthe
margin load deflection to the deflection calculated earlier for the
Indusfan (Figure 9b). Figure 11 matchesthe first-orderfeatures
of both the distribution and amplitudeof the observedexcess
subsidence
on the westIndianmargin,namely;(1) a broadregion
of anomaloussubsidence
alongthe marginand (2) an amplitude
of >2000

m.

Independent evidence exists for an onshoretopographicexpressionof the flexural bulge portrayedin Figure 11. In particular, river drainage patternsand uplifted marine terracesaround
the SaurastraPeninsulasuggestthe existenceof a low-relief topographichigh alongthis regionof the Indian coastline(Figures
lb, 2, and 11). For example,rivers startingin the relatively high
Aravalli ranges to the north and northeastof the Indus river
mouth and the Bombay margin (Figure lb) attemptto flow into
either the gulfs of Kutch or Cambayand becomepondedin a regional topographiclow known as the Rann of Kutch (Figure lb).
In addition,rivers feedingthe gulfs of Kutch and Cambayappear
misfit with respectto their valleys. Farther north, many tributaries of the Indus river start near the Indus river mouth but flow

northward for a few hundred kilometers before rejoining the

Indus (Figure 11). As can be seenin Figure 11, the axis of disrupteddrainagepatternsis generallyparallel to the coastlineand
coincides with the position of our predicted flexural bulge.
Further,relative uplift of the area to the northwestof the Gulf of
Cambay is evidenced by the presenceof marine terracesthat
consistof late Cretaceousto Pliocene sediments(Figure 2). We
suggestthat the entire southernmarginof the Saurastrapeninsula,
with its exposedMiocene and Pliocene marine sedimentsand

13,806

WHITING ET AL.: SUBSIDENCEOF THE WEST INDIAN CONTINENTAL MARGIN

56

64

72

8O

24

16

o
Figure 9. (continued)

emergentcoastline,is the onshorecomponent

of the flexural
bulgeassociated
with Indusfan and marginsedimentloading.
However,it is importantto notethatsouthof theGulf of Cambay
(Figures1b and11), theriverdrainagenetworksmaynotbe controlledby the flexuralbulge,but ratherby modificationor creationof drainagesystems
duringtherift-stagedevelopment
of the
margin.

Summary and Conclusions

The resultsof thisstudymaybe summarized
asfollows:
1. A long-livedincreasein subsidence
ratebeginning
at 24 +5
Ma is notedfor mostof the wells in the studyarea. This ratein-

bution of excess subsidence with theoretical estimates for the de-

flectionof a passivemarginwhensubjectedto a largecompressionalin-planeforce. Furthermore,

maximumin-planecompressionwithinthe Indo-Australianplate,whichwasaccompanied
by

regionaldeformation
of thecrust,wasachieved
at -7.5 Ma. This
ageis significantly
laterthanthe -24 Ma onsetof excesssubsidenceobservedalongthewestIndiancontinental
margin.
3. Flexural modeling of the effects of Indus fan loading on
margin stratigraphy(Figure 9) showsthat the distributionand
magnitudeof the predictedfan-inducedflexural deformationis
inconsistent with the observed excess subsidence on the shelf.

4. We suggestthat marginprogradation
andaggradation
since

creaseis notexplained
by simplethermalmodelsof passive-mar- the late Oligocenehas resultedin the depositionof a sediment
ginsubsidence.
In orderto quantifythisrateincrease,
wedefine load of 4000 to 5000 m on the outer shelf and slope. The size
excesssubsidence
as the departureof pos.t-24Ma subsidence anddistributionof this load are consistentwith gravityas well as
froma leastsquares
exponential
fit to subsidence
between
60 and seismic reflection and refraction evidence. The calculated deflec24 Ma. The distributionof excesssubsidence
(Figure7) parallels

themargin,
witha seaward
increase
in magnitude
to>2000m.
2. We conclude that flexural deformation induced by litho-

tion due to theseNeogene sedimentpackagesis in agreement

with the overall distributionand magnitudeof the calculatedexcesssubsidence
(compareFigures7 and 10b).

sphericin-p!aneforcevariations
is subordinate
to otherprocesses 5. The flexuraleffectsinducedby fan loading,in combination
sediment
loading,
areanimportant
modifier
of
in modifyingthe stratigraphy
of the westIndianmargin.This withouter-margin
of thenorthern
IndianandPakistani
margins.
conclusion
is basedon a comparison
of themagnitude
anddistri- thegeomorphology

13,807

,._,oho

13,808

WHITINGETAL.: SUBSIDENCE
OFTHEWESTINDIANCONTINENTAL
MARGIN

64

68

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76

80
28

24

20

16

-2000

12

Figure
11.Total
lithospheric
deflection
duetoboth
thesediment
load
engendered
bytheearly
Miocene
to
Present
progradation
and
aggradation
ofthewest
Indian
margin
and
thedeflection
due
totheIndus
fansediment
load
(Figure
9b).Contouring
issimilar
toFigure
10b.
Thestippling
highlights
theposition
ofthepredicted
flexural
bulge
inrelation
toonshore
drainage
patterns.
Major
river
systems
intheregion
and
flow
directions
arealso
shown.
Open
circles
indicate
ponding
ofrivers;
note
that
nomajor
river
reaches
theGulf
ofKutch
(Figure
lb)
fromtheAravalli
range
(Figure
lb)Notethatsouth
oftheGulfofCambay
(22N),fluvial
drainage
patterns

probably
reflect
earlier
deformation
associated
with
passive-margin
formation
(i.e.,
formation
oftheWestern
Ghats,Figure lb).

The distributionof the flexural bulgepredictedfrom the combineddeflectionsdueto the Indusfan andmarginloadingis spa-

largeportions
oftheshelfandtomodify
existing
drainage
net-

Kutch andCambay,respectively.

prograding
sediment
loading.Thispotential
tectonic
feedback

6. The flexuralbulgedueto theIndusfan andmarginloads

mayhavebeencapable
of terminating
sedimentation
withinthe
Gulf of Kutchregion,isolating
thedrainage
systems
withinthe
Gulfof Cambay,
andupliftinga section
of theBombay
margin
whilegenerating
accommodation
space
fartherseaward.

change
relative
sealevelwithout
invoking
glacial
eustasy.
The
efficiency
of thisfeedback
is dependent
ontheflexuralwavelength
andthusthestrength
ofthelithosphere
atthetimeofload-

works.Asnoted,
topographic
maps
of theregion
indicate
thata
drainage
divide
is
spatially
consistent
with
the
flexural
bulge
pretiallycoincident
withthedistribution
of exposed
marineterraces
byourflexural
modeling
of theIndus
FanandMiocene
anddrainage
dividesin the regionssurrounding
the gulfsof dicted
mechanism
is significant
because
it provides
a viablewayto

ing.

7. The flexural deformationdueto sedimentloadingprovidesa

potential
tectonic
feedback
mechanism
thataffects
coastal
and
fluvialdepositional
processes.
Whileregions
in closeproximity
to theloadaredepressed,
regions
fartherfromtheloadexperienceuplift(i.e.,theperipheral
bulge)of approximately
70 to 80
m (Figure11),whichis sufficient
tocause
subaerial
exposure
of

Acknowledgments.
It iswithpleasure
thatweacknowledge
ourdiscussionswithNick Christie-Blick
concerning
thepotentialroleof late-stage

margin
slumping
along
theBombay
margin.
C.W.Poag
veryhelpfully
provided
an interpretation
of paleobathymetry
basedon listsof
foraminiferal
assemblages.
Whiting
wishes
toacknowledge
support
from

WHITING

ET AL.: SUBSIDENCE

OF THE WEST INDIAN

CONTINENTAL

MARGIN

13,809

a Universityof North CarolinaDissertationFellowshipand from the Cochran,J.R., Gravity and magneticinvestigationsin the Guianabasin,
western Equatorial Atlantic, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 84, 3249-3268,
Department
of Geological
Sciences
attheUniversity
of Kentucky,
aswell
1973.
ashelpfulreviewsof anearlier(andnowprobablyunrecognizable)
verCochran,J.R., Himalayan uplift, sealevel, and the Recordof BengalFan
sionof this manuscript
by ChristinePowell,Kevin Stewart,JohnJ.W.
sedimentation
at ODP Leg 166 sites,Proc. OceanDrill. Program,Sci.
Rogers,GeoffFeiss,andMichaelFolio. Karneracknowledges
support
from National Science Foundation contract OCE-89-18035.

We are

gratefulto D. L. Harry,T.L. Davies,andananonymous

reviewerfortheir
helpfulreviews,whichsignificantly
improved
thismanuscript.
Jeffrey
Weisselhelpedto shapethepresentversionof themanuscript.
LamontDohertyEarthObservatory
contribution
5186.

Results, 116, 377-396, 1990.

Copeland, P., T.M. Harrison, W.S.F. Kidd, Xu Ronghua, and Zhang

Yuquan, Rapid early Miocene accelerationof uplift in the Gangdese
Belt, Xizang, southernTibet, and its bearing on accommodation
mechanismsof the India-Eurasia collision, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 86,
240-253, 1987.

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B.M. Whiting,Department
of GeologicalSciences,
Universityof
Kentucky,101 SloneBuilding,Lexington,KY 40506-0053.(e-mail:
bmw@lithos.gly.uky.edu)

(ReceivedJune9, 1993; revisedJanuary21, 1994;

acceptedFebruary17, 1994.)