CROP INSURANCE

Crop Insurance in India

INTRODUCTION
Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on rainfall which largely occurs during monsoon
season of about two and half months. The abnormal behaviour of monsoon may cause natural
disasters such as scarcity conditions or drought, floods, cyclones, etc. Nearly two thirds of the
cropped acreage is vulnerable to drought in different degrees. On an average 12 million hectares
of crop area is affected annually by these calamities severely impacting the yields and total
agricultural production (1).
About two thirds of the cultivated area has no irrigation. Even large part of irrigated area does
not get adequate water supply for intensive cropping (double cropping). In rainfed areas sowing
of kharif crops commences with the onset of monsoons and the delay in the onset of monsoons
delays sowing with its adverse impact on yield. Further the growth of crops and realization of
output are determined by the quantum of rainfall and its distribution during the monsoon season.
Even sowing of rabi crops is determined by the soil moisture retained from the rains especially
during the later part of the monsoon season. Rainfall pattern affects the irrigated crops also.
Rainfall during flowering period washes the pollens adversely affecting the crop yield. Excess
rainfall may adversely affect the yield realization. Heavy rains may submerge the growing crops
in the early stages and may cause lodging in the later stages of crop growth. In the catchments
heavy rains may cause floods in the plains. The floods disrupt the sowing schedule and damage
the standing crops resulting in reduced yield or even total loss of crops and farm income in
addition to loss of property. Other weather variables that affect yield include sunlight,
temperature, wind, hails. In fact since time immemorial weather has been the major adversary
that the farmers are not able to control. It has been established that 50 per cent of the variations
in crop yield is due to variations in rainfall (2).
In any climatic zone crop yield among the farms varies with the soil, topography, tillage
operations and use of four complementary inputs, namely, seed, fertilizer, pesticides and
irrigation (soil moisture). Seed is the index of productivity which may be realized with the proper
tillage practices, irrigation and fertilizer use. Pesticides use avoids the loss in yield because of

pests and diseases. Not only quantum of these inputs but also their quality, and timings and
method of use affect the yield realization. These four dimensions of complementary inputs vary
for the individual farms in a year and for a farm over the years. In IIMA INDIA Research and
Publications W.P. No. 2010-06-01 Page No. 4 other words given the soil and topography two sets
of factors that effect yield on farms are climatic and managerial. Managerial factors are in the
control of farmers climatic factors are not.
The loss of crop yield affects the farmer and farming in more than one ways. Their inputs
including labour get lost. The low yield of major crops means reduced income and difficulty in
arranging the necessities of life as well as inputs for the next season. The repayment of
outstanding loans becomes irregular some times resulting in default. Though conversion of loans
or their rescheduling helps the farmers for eligibility for fresh loans from formal sources it may
not solve their liquidity problems completely. In some cases the farmers are compelled to divest
and dispose off some assets created over past years. Some times, they have to resort to costly
borrowing from informal sources.
The capacity of agriculture to hedge itself from vagaries of nature is considered crucial for
development and growth of the sector in particular and economy in general. The natural
calamities can slow the pace and process of development by reducing the food supplies and raw
materials in the short run. Successive failure of crops results in indebtedness of farmers with its
adverse impact on farming and farm economy and consequently the economy in general.
Uncertainty refers to an event the outcome of which is not certain i.e. the outcome may be one of
the many possible outcomes. As such it can not be measured. But certain probability may be
attached to individual outcome. Risk on the other hand refers to the impact of the uncertain
outcome on the quantity or value of some economic variable. The value of the economic variable
may be on either side of the mean value. Repeated events would result different outcomes having
a range of values. Thus risk refers to the variations in value of an economic variable resulting
from the influence of an uncertain event. Since the variations in the value are measurable risk
can be measured.

Agricultural production is an outcome of biological activity which is highly sensitive to changes

in weather. Important weather variables such as temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind etc.
influence the biological process directly or indirectly. For instance, low soil moisture due to poor
precipitation in the pre-sowing period adversely affects seed germination resulting in reduced
plant population. The poor precipitation during growth period results in stunted plant growth.
Heavy rainfall during early growth period causes IIMA INDIA Research and Publications W.P.
No. 2010-06-01 Page No. 5 submersion of plants. Similarly hailstorms, wind and cyclones
damage the standing crops by lodging and uprooting especially the perennials (trees and shrubs).
High humidity may cause outbreak of pests and diseases. All these result in partial loss in yield
and sometimes complete crop failure and hence reduced income to farmers. In other words,
deviations in the weather variables from the normal adversely affect the crop yields and hence
production and income on individual farms. As variations in weather are more a regular
phenomenon crop yields are not stable. As if all this is not enough the sword of uncertain
agricultural prices always hangs on the farmers fate. As a consequence farm incomes fluctuate
violently from year to year. These variations in income are referred to as risk. The variations in
income due to changes in yield are production risk and due to changes in price marketing risk. As
such risk (variations) may be measured in terms of standard deviation or coefficient of variations
for yield, prices and income.
In business risk is treated as a cost. Once in the business one has to bear this cost. Since, risk is
associated with the activity it cannot be eliminated so long the activity is carried out. It, however,
can be managed i.e., can be reduced or minimized but at a certain cost. Risk management,
therefore, implies minimization of income loss either by reducing variations in output or
ensuring certain minimum price or guaranteeing certain level of income. It is a process of
appraising and reducing risk. The ways devised to do so are referred to as risk management
alternatives. These are discussed under the following heads.
a. Avoiding Risk Some of the production risks can simply be avoided. For instance, eliminating
more risky enterprises would minimize risk but at the cost of decreased total production
(returns). Laggards always try to avoid risk. They opt for assured though low income enterprises.

b. Preventing Risk Many a time some risks could be prevented by taking advance action. For
instance, risk of loss in crop yield due to pest attack could be prevented by following preventive
pest control. The cost of this risk management alternative is the cost of preventive pest control.
c. Sharing Risk This alternative of risk management is quite common in India. Important
example of risk sharing is the share lease of land to tenants. The production risks are shared
between the landlord and the tenant in the ratio they share some inputs and the output. The cost
of this alternative to the landowner would be equal to the difference between the net income
tenant earns less the cash rent he would have paid for rental lease.
d. Transferring Risk Risk may be transferred from one entity to another. For instance, marketing
risk could be transferred to buyers by way of forward contract. It guarantees to pay an agreed
price for the produce to be realized in future. The cost of this alternative is the difference in value
of output at post harvest/market price less the value realized at the agreed price. Crop insurance
is another example of transferring production risk to another entity i.e., insurance company. In
case the crop prospects are reduced below certain minimum, proportionate indemnity is paid for
the expenditure incurred. The cost of this alternative is the premium paid by the farmer.
e. Spreading Risk Risk may be spread over a number of enterprises with varying degree of risk
and of course with varying level of net income. This is known as diversification. Diversification
could be in terms of mixed farming, diversified farming or even mixed cropping. The idea is not
to put all eggs in one basket. It would ensure some income realization from enterprises/crops
even in the event of adverse weather conditions etc. As net returns from combination of different
enterprises/crops would be less than the net returns from the most paying crop (pure) the
difference between the two would be the cost of this alternative.
f. Taking Risk Taking risk could be one of the alternatives to manage risk where the management
cost is nil because no attempt is made to reduce risk. The idea is to plan for maximum returns
even at high risk. Innovators and early adopters are the two categories of people who always are
willing to take risk. They go for high return enterprises exposing themselves to high risk.

Need for Crop Insurance

Crop insurance is one alternative to manage risk in yield loss by the farmers. It is the mechanism
to reduce the impact of income loss on the farmer (family and farming). Crop insurance is a
means of protecting farmers against the variations in yield resulting from uncertainty of
practically all natural factors beyond their control such as rainfall (drought or excess rainfall),
flood, hails, other weather variables (temperature, sunlight, wind), pest infestation, etc. (1 & 3).
Crop insurance is a financial mechanism to minimize the impact of loss in farm income by
factoring in a large number of uncertainties which affect the crop yields. As such it is a risk
management alternative where production risk is transferred to another party at a cost called
premium. The weather based crop insurance uses weather IIMA

INDIA Research and

Publications W.P. No. 2010-06-01 Page No. 7 parameters as proxy for crop yield in
compensating the cultivators for deemed crop losses (4). It provides a good alternative both to
farmers and government. Farmers get on actuarially fair insurance with swift payments at little
administrative costs to the government (5). Rainfall insurance is a specific form of weather
insurance. As such weather insurance is not yield insurance while crop insurance is. In both the
cases cultivators pass risk in yield to another party for a premium.
The insurance need for agriculture, therefore, can not be over emphasized as it is a highly risky
economic activity because of its dependence on weather conditions. To design and implement an
appropriate insurance programme for agriculture is therefore very complex and challenging task.
There are two approaches to crop insurance, namely, individual approach where yield loss on
individual farms forms the basis for indemnity payment, and homogeneous area approach where
a homogeneous crop area is taken as a unit for assessment of yield and payment of indemnity. In
both the cases reliable and dependable yield data for past 8-10 years are needed for fixing
premium on actuarially sound basis. Homogeneous area approach has the advantage of
availability of data on yield variations.

OBJECTIVE

Insurance is a technique where losses suffered by few are met from funds accumulated through
small contributions made by many who are exposed to similar risk. Crop insurance is a means to
protecting the cultivators against financial loss on account of anticipated crop-loss arising out of
practically all natural factors beyond their control such as natural fire, weather, floods, pests,
diseases etc.
The sum insured could be the total expenditure or a multiple of it or a proportion of expected
income from crop(s) for which premium is paid. The indemnity (claims payable against the paid
out of pocket expenses) is payable on the basis of shortfall in average yield from the guaranteed
yield (threshold yield).
The claims are paid after the loss in yield is ascertained. Weather based crop insurance is another
avenue for transferring production risk to the insurer. It aims to mitigate the hardship of the
insured farmer against the likelihood of financial loss on account of anticipated crop loss
resulting from incidence of adverse conditions of weather parameters like rainfall, temperature,
frost, humidity etc.
While crop insurance specifically indemnifies the cultivator against shortfall in crop yield,
weather insurance is based on the fact that weather conditions affect crop yield even when a
cultivator has taken all the care to ensure good harvest.
Studies of historical correlation of crop yield with weather parameters help us in developing
weather IIMA INDIA Research and Publications W.P. No. 2010-06-01 Page No. 8 thresholds
(triggers) beyond which crop starts getting affected adversely.
Payout structure may be developed using the weather triggers to compensate cultivators to the
extent of losses deemed to have been suffered by them. Actual loss in yield or income is not
ascertained for eligibility for claims. In other words, weather insurance uses weather parameters
as proxy for crop yields in compensating the cultivators for deemed crop losses due to
reduction in yield.

Evolution of Crop Insurance in India

The question of introduction of crop insurance in India was taken up for examination soon after
independence in 1947. A special study to work out modalities of crop insurance was
commissioned in 1947-48 following an assurance given by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture
to introduce crop and cattle insurance in the country. The first aspect regarding the modalities of
crop insurance considered was whether it should be on Individual Approach or Homogenous
Area Approach. The individual approach seeks to indemnify the farmer to the full extent of the
losses and the premium to be paid by him is determined with reference to his own past yield and
loss experience. As such it necessitates reliable and accurate data of crop yields of individual
farmers for a sufficiently long period for fixation of premium on actuarially sound basis. The
homogenous area approach envisages that in the absence of reliable data of individual farmers
and in view of the moral hazards involved in the individual approach, a homogenous area would
form the basic unit, instead of an individual farmer. The homogeneous area would comprise of
villages that are homogenous from the point of view of crop production and whose annual
variability of crop productivity would be similar. The study favoured homogenous area approach.
Various agro-climatically homogenous areas to be treated as units and the individual farmers in
those area units would pay the same rate of premium and receive the same benefits, irrespective
of differential loss in individual yields. The ministry circulated the scheme for adoption by the
state governments but the states did not accept. In 1965, the Central Government introduced a
Crop Insurance Bill and circulated a model scheme of crop insurance on compulsory basis to
constituent state governments for their views. The bill provided for the Central Government
framing a reinsurance scheme to cover indemnity obligations of the states. However because of
very high financial obligations none of the states accepted the scheme. On receiving the
responses of state governments, the subject was considered in detail by an Expert Committee
headed by the then Chairman, IIMA INDIA Research and Publications W.P. No. 2010-06-01
Page No. 9 Agricultural Price Commission set up in July 1970 for full examination of the
economic, administrative, financial and actuarial implications of the subject. Different
experiments on crop insurance on a limited, ad hoc and scattered scale started in 1972-73. By
now we have the experience of a number of products including some of weather insurance. In
what follows is a brief on the past experience and availability of different products at present.
Though, agricultural insurance is largely in the public domain some private efforts especially in
weather insurance have also been there for some time. Their experience is not all that

discouraging. The real challenge is to scale up the distribution and ensure fast claim settlement
(10). India, thus, has a publicly administered crop insurance scheme since 1972. All the variants
of the scheme introduced from time to time had flaws. Nevertheless India is not alone where
public crop insurance has not been successful. In both developed and developing countries such
insurance schemes have incurred losses without offering an effective product (11). Public crop
insurance schemes are available to cultivators as means of reducing the cost associated with crop
failure. The schemes, however, suffers from moral hazards and adverse selection and are very
costly as payment eligibility is determined by crop damage assessment for each individual
farmer. There is a feeling that it is not profitable proposition at all (12).
Changes and Challenges
An evaluation of the crop insurance programme in India through the multi-peril yieldbased
National Agricultural Insurance Scheme reveals that while it has done well on equity grounds,
the coverage and indemnity payments are biased towards a few regions and crops, and there are
delays in settlement of claims. And while the emergence of weather-based insurance as an
alternative has addressed several limitations of traditional insurance, it is faced by challenges of
a different kind. Both these forms of insurance must thus be looked upon as complementary to
each other in order to evolve an efficient mechanism for dealing with natural disaster risks in
agriculture.
An Emerging Alternative
The reason for the failure of multi-peril crop insurance worldwide is the sheer complexity of risk
and lack of adequate risk modelling technology to understand these risks. These complexities
have largely been responsible for the non-entry of private insurers in the field of yield insurance
in the country
Crop insurance in India was, till recently, confined to compensating yield loss. The recent years
have seen a change in this trend with the emergence and rising popularity of weather-based
insurance products. Weather insurance pays indemnities based not on the actual losses
experienced by the insured, rather on the realisation of a weather index that is highly correlated
with actual losses. The index measures a specific weather variable (e g, rainfall, temperature,

relative humidity, wind speed, etc) rather than the extent of loss (in crop yield). In other words,
the product proxies the loss that farmers face owing to the adverse weather incidence.
The weather insurance product is designed after a critical study of the weather parameters
affecting crop growth in its three critical phases sowing, growth and flowering, and yield
formation to harvest. During each period, the trigger (level below which weather parameter
must fall for a farmer to begin receiving the payouts) and exit levels (level below which the
weather parameter must drop for a farmer to receive the maximum payout) are defined. No
additional indemnity is paid for realised values of the index that exceed the exit level.
Weather insurance has clearly expanded the domain of crop insurance programme in the country
as insurance can now also be provided for crops with no historical yield data as also for
horticultural crops where age group-wise yield estimates are not available. Index-based insurance
is less susceptible to some of the problems intrinsic in traditional multi-peril crop insurance and
benefits both the insured and the insurer. For the insured, the most important advantage over the
traditional scheme is the prospect of receiving timely indemnity payouts given that payouts for
indexed contracts are automatically triggered once the weather parameter reaches the prespecified level.
The biggest disadvantage of the yield insurance scheme is the delayed claim settlement
procedure (that takes at least a year), denying the insured the benefit of insurance when it matters
most, and in the process negating the very objective of insurance. The delay is the result of the
time taken for the crop cutting experiments (CCE) data to be collated and the inability of the
state and central governments to expeditiously contribute their share towards claim settlements.
The popularity of weather index products also owes it to the transparency as the weather data can
be uploaded almost immediately so that the insured is aware of weather performance vis--vis
the given trigger. The product also provides the insured with the incentive to put in additional
efforts or cost to save the crop as the claim is payable irrespective of the yield.

Weather insurance products are easier to administer and significantly reduce costs by eliminating
the need for yield estimation and field visits. Unlike the traditional scheme, the insured is not
likely to have better information than the insurer about the underlying index; neither would he be
in a position to influence the realisation of the index. The problems of adverse selection and
moral hazard thus stand significantly reduced provided the sales closing dates are set well in
advance. More importantly, the product can be reinsured in the international markets, a prospect
that the NAIS finds almost impossible owing to seemingly unsustainable claim ratios
Complements, Not Substitutes
The experience with weather index insurance in India is both limited and too recent to draw
broad conclusions. The actual experience of settlement of indemnity reveals that though these
products fare better than the traditional scheme, the data gaps and timely non-receipt of weather
data do result in significant delays. Apart from the technical challenges discussed above, it needs
to be understood that weather insurance has the limitation of covering only the parametric
weather events and thereby do not provide protection to all risks. Thus, it would be too early to
over-promote the index-based weather insurance as the solution to the problems of the yield
insurance scheme.
In any case, index insurance and traditional insurance are certainly not mutually exclusive, and
these different forms of insurance, each having its own merits and demerits should ideally blend
and complement and not replace one another. For all its inherent drawbacks, the traditional yield
guarantee scheme is a multi-peril scheme covering a wide variety of crops on a national scale,
and achieving such substantial coverage does not seem possible under single peril covers. An
analysis of the indemnity payouts also reveals significant benefits accrued by the small and
marginal farmers implying the satisfactory performance of the programme from the equity point
of view.

The committees set up by the government to suggest measures to reform the scheme have put
forth comprehensive recommendations broadly including steps like lowering the insurance unit
to village panchayat, provision for mid-season on account payment of claims, coverage to
perennial crops, covers for pre-sowing and postharvest losses, more appealing guaranteed yields,
transition to actuarial regime with varying levels of premium subsidy, etc. A restructuring of the
yield insurance scheme on these lines is likely to improve its prospects and meet the reasonable
aspirations of the farmers. The need of the hour is to address the challenges faced by both the
area yield and weather insurance schemes so that they can emerge as effective and efficient
mechanisms for transferring natural disaster risks that have a negative impact on the livelihood
of our farming community.