Basic Concepts and Definition

1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1

1-1
(Thermal power plant)

(combustion gas power plant)

(internal combustion gas engine)
(gas turbine power plant)
(jet power plant)

(steam power plant)

(working substance; working medium)

:
1
2
3
4

5
6
3

(heat source; heat reservoir)

heat source
heat sink
(constant heat reservoir)

1-2

(thermodynamic system, system)

(surrounding )

(boundary)


1
2
3
a
b
c


1.

(one component system;pure substance system)

(multicomponent system)

(homogeneous system)
(heterogeneous system)

1
2

10

2.
closed system
CM

open system
CV

11

3.
adiabatic system
;
isolated system

4. simple compressible system

1
2
3

12


1-B

13

?
14

AB

A
A+B

15

1-3

state of thermodynamic system

state properties

p, V , T , U , H , S
16

dx 0

1b2

dx dx
1a2

3
extensive property
intensive property

V
v
m

17

18

temperature and temperature scale

(zeroth law of thermodynamics)

(thermodynamics scale; Kelvin

scale;absolute temperature scale and
internal Celsius temperature scale)

t C T K

273.15
19

{T} R={t} +459.67

{t} =5/9[{t} -32]

{t} =9/5{t} +32

20

(pressure)

p1-2.swf

p(absolute pressure)
pepg(gauge pressure;
manometer pressure)
pv(vacuum; vacuum pressure)
pb(local atmospheric pressure)

p pb pe ( p pb )
p pb p v ( p pb )

21

N
1Pa 1 2 1MPa 1106 Pa
m
1bar 1 105 Pa

1kPa 1103 Pa

1atm 101325Pa 760mmHg

1mmHg 133.32Pa
1mmH 2 O 9.80665Pa
A4001441
A4002771
22


(specific volume)
v

V
m

(density)

m 3 /k g
kg/m 3

m

V

23

1-4
thermodynamic equilibrium state
1
thermal equilibrium

mechanical equilibrium

24

25


pure substance state equation

f p, v, T 0

1
ideal-gas equation; Clapeyrons equation

p v R gT

pV nRT

pV mRgT

p Pa N/m2 v m3/kg

T K

Rg gas constant J/(kg K)

R 8.3145J/(mol K)
R
universal(molargas constant )

R MRg
27

 parametric coordinates

p
p1

T2

v1

v O

s2

p3

s O

T3

T
30

p-v-T

31

p-v-T

32

1-5
(quasi-static process;
quasi-equilibrium process)

p, T

33

( reversible process)

34

pb

pA F cos f pb A

(nonequilibrium process)

pA F cos f pb A

pA F cos pb A ( f 0)

35


1.=+
2.

3.
4.
5.

36

1-6
(work)
1
2

3
2

W W
1

pAdx pdV
1

p-v
v

37

4
+
-
5

kJ

J /s W
k J /s k W

1k W h 3 6 0 0 k J
38

6
(useful work)

Wu W Wl W p

pb
f

: W(compression/expansion work)
Wl
Wp
A7001331

39

2
1

p d V

W p 0 AH p 0 V

?
40

heat
1

2+
-
3 J
kJ
4
T-s
2

Q TdS
1

Q TdS

42


1.
2.
3.

4.

43

44

1-7

dx 0

(reversible cycle and

irreversible cycle )

45

power cycle; direct cycle

pvTs

46

(reverse cycle)
(refrigeration
(heat-pump

cycle)

cycle)

47

(thermal efficiency)

(coefficient of performance
for the refrigeration cycle)
(coefficient of performance
for the heat-pump cycle)

wnet
t
1
q1

q2

or 1
wnet
q1

1
wnet
'

48


First law of thermodynamics
21
2-2
23
24
25

21

22
(internal energy)
Uch

Unu

Uk

Uth

Up

f 2 T , v

f 1 T

U U (T , v)

(total stored energy of system)

E UEk Ep

e uek ep

dU 0

U
U
dU
dT
dV cV dT T
p dV
T V
V T
T V

pVT

kJ
4

23
=

mi ei

Q
Q

m j e j

m e

i i

E+dE

d
W

m e
j

dE
5

mi ei

m j e j

E+dE

Q dE ej mj eimi Wtot
Q E ej mj eimi Wtot
1
2

dE

ej qmj ei qmi Ptot

d

24

Q E ej mj eimi Wtot
1
2

mi 0

mj 0

UkUp

Q U W
q u w

E U

Q dU W
q du w

Q U W
q u w

1
2

Q dU W
q du w

Q dU pdV

Q dU W Q

net

Wnet

3W
+

Q0

U 0

W ? 0

U1 U 2

A4302661
A4303771


1;
2;
3

10

25
(flow work; flow energy)
(flow work; flow energy)

p
1

p1
o

v1

pAH pv
11

p2 v2 p1v1 ( [ pv])
p-v

12

 (enthalpy)
H=U+pV

h=u+pv

JkJ

J/kgkJ/kg

V
dH c p dT V T
dp
T p

13

(steady-flow energy equation)

1
2ECV = 0 SCV = 0 mCV = 0

14

cf12
qQ qm1 u1 p1v1 gz1
2

1 2

Ps qm 2 u2 p2 v2 cf2 gz2
2

: ECV

ECV=0 qm1=qm2=qm; h=u+pv

cf22 cf12
qQ H 2 H1 qm qm g z2 z1 PS
2
2

( A)

1 2
q h2 h1 cf2 cf21 g z2 z1 ws
2

( B)
15

 cf22 cf21
qQ H 2 H1 qm
qm g z2 z1 PS
2
2
1
q h2 h1 cf22 cf21 g z2 z1 ws
2

( A)
( B)

1BC

1 2
q u ws p2 v2 p1v1 cf 2 cf21 g z2 z1 C
2

16

2(technical work)

wt

1 2
wt ws cf g z
2

1 2
q u ws p2 v2 p1v1 cf 2 cf21 g z2 z1
2

q u wt p2v2 p1v1 (D)

wt w p2v2 p1v1

wt w d pv

wt pdv d pv vdp

17

1
wt ws cf2 g z
2

3)

1 2
q h2 h1 cf 2 cf21 g z2 z1 ws
2

q h wt
q dh wt

( B)
2

q h vdp
1

q dh vdp

q dh vdp d u pv vdp
du pdv du w

1)

w = q u

2)

18

1.
(steam turbinegas turbine)

u1 p1v1 h1

u2 p2 v2 h2 , ws
0

h1 h2 ws wt

19

2. (compressorpump)

cf21

h1 , gz1 , ws
2

cf22

h2 ,
gz2 , q
2

wC wt h2 h1 q

20

3.
(heat exchanger: boilerheater etc.)

21

1 2
1 2

qm1 h1 cf 1 gz1 qm2 h3 cf 3 gz3

2
2

1 2
1 2

qm1 h2 cf 2 gz2 qm2 h4 cf 4 gz4

2
2

h4 h3

qm1
qm2

h1 h2
22

4.

1 2
u1 cf 1 gz1 p1v1
2

1 2
u2 cf 2 gz2 p2 v2
2

1 2
p
u cf gz 0

23

A4312661
A4322661
A4332771
A4333771

24


1
2

3A4333771

4A4333771

25


Properties of gas and vapor
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
1

3-1
(perfect gas or ideal gas)

u u (T )

(ideal-gas equation)
kg

pV mRgT
Pa m3

pv RgT

1kg

pV nRT

n mol

p0V0 RT0

1mol

,J/(kgK)

R=MRg=8.314 5 J/(molK)


vRg=287.06 J/(kgK)
m3 /kg

v / m /kg %

T/K

p/atm

300

0.84992

0.84925

0.02

300

10

0.084992

0.08477

0.26

300

100

0.0084992

0.00845

0.58

200

100

0.005666

0.0046

23.18

90

0.25498

0.24758

2.99

v/

287.06 300
v

0.84992m3 / kg
p
101325
RgT

v v 0.84992 0.84925

0.02%
=
0.84925
v

1;
2
;
3

A411133

32
(specific heat)
c

q
q

c lim
T 0 T
dT

c J/(kgK)
(specific heat capacity per unit of mass)

C' J/Nm3K
(volumetric specific heat capacity)

Cm J/molK
(mole specific heat capacity)

Cm Mc
0.0224C '

Nm3m3

(constant pressure specific heat

capacity per unit of mass)

(constant volume specific heat

capacity per unit of mass)

C p ,m , C p'

cp

cV

'
V

CV ,m , C

1.

q du w du pdv
c

dT
dT
dT dT
u u T , v

( A)

u
u
du
dT dv
T v
v T

dv
u u
c
p
T v v T
dT

2. cV
dv=0

u
cV

T v

u u(T)

du
u du
cV du cVdT
dT
T v dT

cV cV (T )

3. cp

dv
u
dv
u u
cp
cV p
p
T v v T
dT
v T
dT

0
v T

u f T

dp 0

dv du pdv d h pv pdv dh vdp

cp cV p

dT dT dT
dT
dT
dh
cp

dT

dh c dT
p

cp

c p c p (T )
8

4. cp- cV

dh du d u pv du
c p cV

dT
dT
d u RgT du

Rg
dT

c p cV Rg

Mayers formula

5.
1) cpcV,cpcVRg
9

2) ()cpcV

a
b ; a
c
v

10

q v u ab wab
q p uac wac

u ac p vc va

bc(T+1)K

uab uac
vc va

p vc va 0

q p

qv

q p c p Tc Ta c p T 1 T c p
qv cV Tb Ta cV T 1 T cV
c p cV

11

c)Rg

c p cV q p qv wp Rg
Rg1 kg1 K

(specific heat ratioratio of specific heat capacity)

cp
Rg
f (T )
cp
1
c c R
p
V
g
cV
1
cV
Rg
1
(adiabatic
exponent; isentropic exponent)
A902355

12

q
c
dT
q cdT
q

T2

T1

cn dT

cn:

13

1.(true specific heat capacity)

T2

q cn dT amnba
T1

4
2.(mean
specific heat capacity)
T2

q cn dT cn tt12 (t 2 t1 )
T1

t2

t2

cn t

cn dt

q
t

1
t2 t1 t2 t1
T2

T1, T2,

T1

q cn dT cn dT =amoda-bnodb
0
0

14


T
n 0

cn dT

T 0
T2

T2
n T1

T1

cn dT cn dT
q

0
0

T2 T1
T

cn

T2
0

T2 cn

T1
0 1

T2 T1

15

y ' y1
x x1

y2 y1 x2 x1
x x1
y2 y1
y ' y1
x2 x1
x1 x2

y' y

16

3.
cn = a + bt,
t2

t2

t1

t1

q cn dt (a bt )dT

a (t 2 t1 ) t 2 t1
2

t2
n t1

b
a t 2 t1
2

t1 t 2

6
:

t2
n t1

a bt

1) t 2
2) t t1+t2

17

4. (invariable specific heat capacity)

i
(i
CV ,m R
2
i2
C p ,m
R
2
i2

18


i=3

CV ,m J /(mol K)
C p ,m J /(mol K)

C p ,m
CV ,m

i=5

i=6

3
R
2

5
R
2

R
7
2

5
R
2

7
R
2

R
9
2

1.67

1 . 40

1 . 29

19

33

1.
1)

u uk u T
2)

du cV dT

h u pv u RgT
h h T

dh c p d T

20

Tb Tc Td
uab uac uad
hab hac had
0

uab wab qa b
uab cV (Tb Ta ) uac uad

hac wt

0
a c

qa c

hac c p (Tc Ta ) hab had

21

uab ? cV Tb Ta u ac , u ad
hac ?
c p (Tc Ta ) hab , had

?
?

uh,
cV Tcp T;
uhT ,
u = cVT,h = cp T
2.
,, 0 K

u u T u T0 u T cV T0 T
h hT hT0 hT c p T0 T
22

q u w
qv u u2 u1 u T2 u T1
q h wt

q p h h2 h1 h T2 h T1
7
A413277
A411197
23

 (entropy)
1.

q
ds
T

J/(kg K)

J /(mol K)

2.

q
du pdv
dT p
dT
dv
ds
cV dv cV Rg
T
T T
T
T
v

d u cV dT

p Rg
pv RgT
T
v
24

s ds
1

v2
dT
cV
Rg ln
T
v1
p2
dT
cp
Rg ln
T
p1
2
dv
dp
cp
cV
1
v
p

v2
T2
cV ln
R g ln
T1
v1

p2
T2
c p ln R g ln
T1
p1
p2
v2
c p ln
cV ln
p1
v1

25

3.:
A9101331
4.

p2
dT
cp
Rg ln
T
p1

dT
s 0 T
cp
T

dT
s 0 T2 s 0 T1 s20 s10
cp
T
p2
s s s Rg ln
p1
0
2

0
1

A4111551
A4111552

26

34
(vaporization and liquefaction)

27

(Saturated state)
=

ts(Ts)
(Saturated temperature)
ps
Saturated pressure
t'

pps'

Ts ps

ts
ps

100

t s f ps

ps atm

ts C

28

t/
p/ MPa

0
0.0 006 112

20

50

100

0.0 023 385 0.0 123 446 0.1 013 325

120

150

0. 198 483

0.47 571
29


(saturated liquid) t = ts
(dry-saturated vapor; dry vapor )
t = ts
(unsaturated liquid)
t < ts
(superheated vapor)
t > ts, t ts = d
(degree of superheat)
(wet-saturated vapor; wet vapor )
t = ts

t, p

t t s p pt

p ps t tp
30

dryness
w x

m
m m

y =1x

0
x

31


1.

kf

n = k f + 2
k =1
F =1n =1-1+2
k = 1f = 2
n =1
k =1f = 3 n = 0

(triple pint)

ptri 611.6Pa
ttri 0.01 C

vtri ? 0.00100022m3 /kg

32

2.

dp
dT
dp
dT
dp
dT

Ts v '' v '

T vl vs

T vv vs

(heat of vaporization)

(heat of fusion)(heat of sublimation)

1+T+

2
33

35

t < ts

t = ts

t = ts

t = ts

t >ts
34

p-vT-s

pcr 22.12MPa
tcr 374.15 C

v 0.00317m3 /kg
cr

Critical point

35

36

36

37

u '273.16 0

s '273.16 0

v '273.16 0.00100021m3 /kg

h ' u ' pv '
0 611.6 0.00100021
0.612J

38

tp

ht c pt

T
st c p ln
273.16

(psts)

pt

cp

39


tspsx

vx xv '' 1 x v ' v ' x v '' v ' xv ''

' x
hx xh' '1 xh' h

sx xs' '1 xs' s'xs' 's' s' x

u x hx p s v x
0 x 1

Ts

v v'

v ' v v ''

v v ''

40

37

1.

41

2.
p

0.001 MPa

0.005 MPa

0.01 MPa

ts=6.949
v=0.001 000 1, v=129.185
h=29.21, h=2513.3
s=0.105 6, s =8.9735

ts=32.879
v=0.001 005 3, v=28.191
h=137.72, h=2 560.6
s=0.4761, s=8.3930

ts=45.799
v=0.001 010 3, v=14.673
h=191.76, h=2583.7
s=0. 649 0, s=8.1481

m3/kg

kJ/kg

kJ/(kg
K)

m3/kg

kJ/kg

kJ/(kg
K)

m3/kg

kJ/kg

kJ/(kgK)

-0.0002

0.0010002
0.0010003

-0.05

-0.0002

0.0010002

42.01

0.1510

0.0010003

42.01

0.1510

0.0010002 -0.05

-0.04

-0.0002

10

130.598

2519.0

8.9938

20

135.226

2537.7

9.0588

0.0010018

83.87

0.2963

0.0010018

83.87

0.2963

40

144.475

2575.2

9.1823

28.854

2574.0

8.4366

0.001009

167.51

0.5723

50

149.096

2593.9

9.2412

29.783

2592.9

8.4961

14.869

2591.8

8.1732

60

153.717

2612.7

9.2984

30.712

2611.8

8.5537

15.336

2610.8

8.2313

80

162.956

2650.3

9.4080

32.566

2649.7

8.6639

16.268

2648.9

8.3422

100

172.192

2688.0

9.5120

34.418

2687.5

8.7682

17. 196

2686.9

8.4471

120

181.426

2725.9

9.6109

36.269

2725.5

8.8674

18.124

2725.1

8.5466
42

 h - s
t s

43

h

s n

dh Tds vdp
h
p
T v
s n
s n
44

45

p
h
T v
s n
s n
0

h
T
s p
T = Ts
T

46

p
h
T v
s T
s T

dp 0

h
Ts
s T

1
h
T
V
s T
1 v

V
v T p

47

p
h
T v
s v
s v

p
0
s v

h h

s v s p

4
48

38
IFC273.16~1 073.15 K
0~100 MPa6

49

1997,IAPWSIAPWS-IF97
273.15 K
T 1 073.15 Kp 100 MPa1 073.15 K T 2 273.15 K
p 10 MPaIAPWS-IF975
1234
5

50

A122233
A8221552
A422155
A4221661

51

Basic thermodynamic process

4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
1

41
(fundamental thermodynamic process)

log p-logV log p=-nlnV+c

pv
n

n0

(isobaric process; constant pressure process)

n 1

pv

(isothermal process; constant temperature process)

pv

(isentropic process; reversible adiabatic process)

(isometric process; constant volume process)

pv

(polytropic process)
3

p-vT-s

u c

t2
V t1

w pdv
1

q Tds
1

h c

t2
p t1

p2
s s s Rg ln
p1
0
2

0
1

wt vdp
1

q u w

q h wt

42

v=

v1

RgT1
p1

v2

RgT2

n0

p=

p1

RgT1
v1

p2

p2

RgT2
v2

v1 v2
p1 p2

T1 T2

p1 p2
v1 v2

T1 T2
6

p1v1
T1
Rg

n 1

T1 T2

p2 v2
T2
Rg

p1 v1 p2 v2

p v T s

pv
n

p

v n

s n

dp
dv
n 0
p
v

Tds q cn dT

p
p
n
v
v n

T
T

s n cn

T
T

s n cn
n

n0
n 1

p
p

v
v

p

v v

p
0
v p
p
p

v
v T

T
T

s v cV

T
T

s v c p
T
T
0

s T c T

cV

Rg

cp

cT

Rg

u hs

u c

T2
V T1

T2 T1

h c

T2
dT
cV
s cV ln
T
T1

T2
p T1

T2 T1
9

u cV

T2
T1

T2 T1

h c p

T2
T1

T2 T1

T2
dT
cp
s c p ln
T
T1

u 0
s

h 0
v2
v2
dT
cV
Rg ln s Rg ln
T
v1
v1
10

w, wt q

w pdv 0 wt vdp v p1 p2
1
1

qv u w u c

T2
V T1

T2 T1 1 Tds

w pv2 v1

wt 0

q p h wt h c

T2
p T1

T2 T1 1 Tds
11

v2
pv
w pdv
dv RgT1 ln
1
1 v
v1
2
2 vp
p2
dv RgT1 ln
wt vdp
1
1 p
p1
2

q u w h wt

q w wt

12

43

Tds q dh vdp 0 vdp dh cpdT

( A)

Tds q du pdv 0 pdv du cVdT

(B)

A B

v dp
dp
dv

0
p dv
p
v

p1v1 p2 v2
1

T1v1

T2 v2

ln p ln v c pv c
1

p1v1v1

T1 p1

p 2 v2 v2

T2 p2

13

p v T - s

cp p
p
p

v
cV v
v

T
T

s cs

14

p
p
n
v
v n

(n 0)

(n 1)

T
cp

(n )

T T

p s
cn
n

T
cV
15

cs 0
u , h, s

u c

T2
V T1

h c p
s 2 s1

T2
T1

T2 T1 u T2 u T1
T2 T1 hT2 hT1
s 0

16

wwtq
2

w pdv
1

pv

d
v
p
v

1 1

w q u
0

RgT1 p2

v dv
1
1 p1

RgT1 T2
u u1 u2
T1 T2
1
1
1 T1
1

RgT1 p2

1
1 p1

Rg

17

wt q h h h1 h2
0

Rg T1 T2 w

1.

2.

w u1 u2

wt h1 h2
m
a)

b)

cp

t2
t1

cV

t2
t1

1 2
2

c p1
cV 1

cp2
cV 2

18

p2
dT
s c p
Rg ln
0
1
T
p1
T1
T
p2
1 T2 dT
dT 0
dT

c
ln
s cp
p
T0 p

T
T0
0
p1 Rg
T
T
T
p2
1 0 0
ln

s2 s1
A
p1 Rg
2

3.

s0
ln pr
Rg
pr 2
1 0 0
ln

s2 s1

pr1 Rg

AB

pr f T

pr 2
p2 p1
pr1

( B)

19

44

p1v1 p2 v2
n

T1 v1

n 1

T2 v2

n 1

n1

n
1

T1 p

T2 p2

n1
n

p-vT-s

p
p
n
v
v n

T
T
T

s n cn n cV
n 1

20

u, hs

u c

t2
V t1

h c p

t2
t1

T2 T1
T 2 T1

p2
s s s Rg ln
p1
T2
p2

s c p ln
Rg ln
T1
p1
T2
v2
cV ln
R g ln
T1
v1
p2
v2
cV ln
c p ln
p1
v1
0
2

0
1

21

wwtq
n 1

n
2
RgT1 p2 Rg
1
w p dv
T1 T2

1
n 1 p1 n 1

n 1

n
2
nRgT1 p2
1
wt vdp
nw
1
n 1 p1

22

Rg
Rg
u w cV T2 T1

T1 T2
T2 T1
n 1
1 n 1
Rg

q=

n
cV T2 T1

n 1

cn T2 T1

T ds

n
q u w
cV T2 T1 c n T2 T1
n 1
23

n
cn
cV
n 1

n0

c p cV

n 1

cT

nk

cs 0

cV

p1v1 n p2 v2 n ln p1 n ln v1 ln p2 n ln v2

ln p2 / p1
n
ln v1 / v2
cn c p
n

cV n
cn
n 1
cn cV

24

w / q

Rg
n 1

T1 T2

1
n 1

n
q
cV T2 T1
n 1

cV T1 T2

w 1

q n

1
0
n

w
0 ,
q

1
0
n

w
0 ,
q
25

T-sp-v
1. p-v T s
T-s p v

T1 T4

q uw
0

p1 p4

v4 v1

T4 T1

T4 T1

s4 s1 q 0 v4 v1

26

27

2. T-suh
aT-sq
bqp=hqv=u
ha - hb?

Tc Tb
c

hc hb
a

q p ha hc amnca

ha hb amnca

28

A510144
A401155
A412155
A410266
A313277

29

45

q u w

q h wt

qV u2 u1

q p h2 h1

w p dv
1

wt vdp
1

q T ds
1

30

q p h h
ql h1 h0

h2 h1
qsup h3 h2
q p h3 h0

p/MPa

/(kJ/kg)

0.001

0.01

2 485.0 2 392.9

0.1

10

22.12

2 257.9

2 013.6

1 319.7

31

wt h1 h2

w u1 u2 h1 p1v1 h2 p2v2

pv

cp
cv

1.3

1.135

1.035 0.1x

p1
ln
p2

v2
ln
v1

T1v1 ?T2v2

32

qV u h pv

x
v<vcx
v>vcx

33

A423155
A423277
A424265

34


The second law of thermodynamics
5-1
5-2
53
54
5-5
5-6
1

51

Q
Q'

?
Q'Q
2

1
2

T T0

q1 q2 wnet

q2

T1
T2

q2

T2
T1

wnet q1 q2


1.

2.-

3.
T1 Q1 Q2
T2
Wnet= Q1 Q2

QT W Wt
??
A344155

52

1.

1
2

2
3

3
4

4
1

2.

wnet
t
q1
wnet w1 2 w23 w3 4 w41

w1 2

RgT1 p2

1
1 p1

w23

v3
RgT2 ln
v2

?
9

q2 q q41 TL s1 s4

q1 q q23 TH s3 s2

qnet q1 q2
TH TL s23 wnet
TH TL s23

TL
1
c
TH s23

TH

10

c f TH , TL TH , TL c

TL 0, TH

wnet q1

c 1

TL
c 1
TH

q2

TL TH ,c 0

4
a
b
cwnet

11

Tc s23
Tc
qc
qc

wnet q0 qc T0 Tc s23 T0 Tc

c1

Tc
T-Tc

c
12

TR s41
TR
q1
q1

wnet q1 q2 TR T0 s41 TR T0
'
c

c ' 1

TR
TR-T0

c
'
13


1.
2.

q2 1mn 2 TL s12
q1 34op3 TH s34
wnet q1 q2
q2
t

1
q1
q1
q1
TL s12
TL
1
1
TH s34
TH

14

2T1T2

1T1T2
2
A440155
15


1.
2

q Tds Tm s2 s1
1

Tm

Tds

s2 s1

1Tm
2)

T1 T2
Tm
2

2.

q2
1B 2mn1
t 1 1
1A2mn1
q1
TmL
TL
qrmnq
1
1
1
opmno
TmH
TH

16

wnet
q2
t
1
q1
q1

Tm
1
Tm
TL
1
TH

17

53

1.

1-21-aa-b-cc-2
1-a1-a-b-c-2

B D F

w12 C E D
w1 a A

wa c B A C E G

wc 2 F G

18

w1 a c 2 w1 a wa c wc 2
A (B A C E G) (F G)

BC EF DF C EF
D C E w1 2

u12 u1ac 2

q12 u12 w1 2 q1 a c 2
u1ac 2 w1 a c 2

19

2.

q2i
t,i 1
1
q1i
TH,i
q2 i q1i

TL,i
TH,i
TL,i

q1i
TH,i

q2 i
TL,i

qi
0
0
Tr ,i

0
Tr
0

20

q
Tr 0

q
ds
T

T 0

1
2ss12=s2-s1
3

q
0 Tr
Tr

21

q
0
Tr

q2,i

q2,i
q1,i

q1,i

TL,i
TH,i

q
Tr

TL,i
TH,i

q1,i
TH,i

q2,i
TL,i

0
22

q
q
0
0

Tr
Tr

Tr 0

=
<

1Tr
2 q
A443233
23

q
q
q
Tr 0 1A2 Tr 2 B1 Tr 0
q
q
q
q

1A2 T
2 B1 T
1A2 T
1B 2 T
r
r
r
r

q
q

1A2 T
1B 2 T
r
2

s12 ds
1

s2 s1

q
Tr

q
ds
Tr
q
0
Tr
24

s2 s1

q
Tr

q
ds
Tr

q
Tr 0

1)
2

25

s2 s1

3)

a)

q
s12, R s12, IR
Tr

q
s12
Tr

b) qR qIR
s2'>s2

T2
v2
s cV ln Rg ln Rg ln 2
T1
v1

q Ts 0
s Rg ln 2
q=0
26

q
q
1A2 Tr 2B1 Tr 0
IR
R
q
q

0
2 A1 T
2 B1 T
r IR
r R
q
q

2 B1 T
2 A1 T
r R
r

IR

q
s1 s2
2 A1 T
r

IR

27


s1 A 2 s1B 2 s13 s32
s14 s 42

28

54

1.

q
q
ds
ds
sg sf sg
Tr
Tr

sf

Tr

s sf sg

29

 +
sg
0

TA = TBA

S A

Sf

Q
TA

TA

2 Q
Q
Q
Q

1
Tr
TB
TB
TA

Sg 0
30

S B

Sf

Q
TB

TB

2 Q
Q
Q Q

1 T
Tr
TA TB
A

Sg 0
TA>TBA

S A

Sf

Q
TA

TA

2 Q
Q
Q

1 T
Tr
TB
B

1 1
Q Q
Sg S Sf Q 0
TA TB
TB TA

31

A4221441
A4412553
A442265
2.

-+=

32

m s

m s

i i

Ql

rl

Ql
mi si T
r,l
Sg

m s

dS

Ql
mi si mj s j T Sg dS
r,l

( si mi s j m j ) Sf ,l Sg
33

( si mi s j m j ) Sf ,l Sg

mi 0

m j 0

s sf sg

q0

s sg 0

=
>

34

( si mi s j m j ) Sf ,l Sg

m1 m2 m

dSCV 0

s1 s2 m Sf Sg 0
s2 s1 sf sg

sf 0
s2 s1 sg 0
SCV 0
s2 s1 0

A140155

A444277

?
35

mi 0

dSiso Sg 0

s m s m S
i

m j 0

Sg

Ql 0

Sf 0

=
>

36


1Siso=Sg 0

2
3

Siso>0

37

a)

q1

q 2

q1
s
Tn
q2
s
TL

wnet

s 0

q1 q2
siso 0
TH TL
q1 q2
0
TH TL

R =
IR >

q
t , R t , IR
wnet, R wnet, IR
1

38


b)

A : q

B : q

q
s A
TA

q
s B
TB

1 1
siso q 0
TB TA

R =
IR >

TA>TB,AB

39

c)
WsQ=WsT1
T2v1=v2

S=0

Q
T

T2
mcV ln 0
T1

Siso S S S 0
100%
Siso>0
40

d)

v2
s Rg ln 0
v1

s 0

siso s 0

W 0

v2
Q RgT0 ln
v1
v2
s R g ln
v1

v2
Q

R g ln
T0
v1

siso 0

W Q

A340133

A440233

41

55

T0
qa 1
Tmh

q1

T0
q1
T0 s12
qun q1 qa
q1 T0
Tmh
Tmh
T0quns12

qa q1 T0 s12

42


1qa

2qun

4qaqa

43

T
qa 1 q
T0
T
1 qc qa
T0
T0

qa 1 qc
T

qa

2 q
T0
c
T

qc

q
1

0 1

c
T
T

q a T0 s12 q c

44

q a q1 T0 s12
q a T0 s12 q c

1
2

3T

45

12341

1
Q
12561

Ex,Q

Ex,Qc
Qc

12341

, , 1
12651

46

47

pTp0T0

q u w w q du
wu,1 q du p0 dv

wnet

q
T0
1 q T0
q
T
T

wu wu,1 wnet

q
q du p0 dv T0
q
T
du T0 ds p0 dv

wu, max u u0 T0 s s0 p0 v v0

48


1p0T0 wu,max
Ex,Uex,U
212

wu,max,1 2 ex,U1 ex,U 2 u1 u2 T0 s1 s2 p0 v1 v2

3p<p0,T<T0
= p0V
4

49

 q h w
t

ws q h q h0 h1
wc wc,net

T0

1 qi
T

T0
1 qi q T0 s0 s1
1
T
0

wu,max ws wc q h0 h1 q T0 s0 s1
wu,max h1 h0 T0 s1 s2
50


1 p0 T0wu,max
Ex,Hex,H
212

wu,max,1 2 ex, H1 ex, H 2 h1 h2 T0 s2 s1

3Exex

wu,max

1 2
ex h1 h0 T0 s1 s0 cf 1
2
51

4T-s

ex, H h1 h0 T0 s1 s0 q p , f 1 T0 s0 s1

1aomnf 1

52

* 5h-s

q Tds dh vdp

dh Tds vdp
h
T
s p

h
T0 tg

s p0 ,T0
ba obtg T0 s0 s1
1a 1b ba h1 h0 T0 s1 s 0
53


1.
1211091
=348103
qAa=16721
qAun=691076=T0(s1s2)
qBa=45734
qBun=581075=T0(s4s3)

I q Aa q Ba q A q Aun q B q Bun

q Bun q Aun T0 s 34 s 21

T0 siso T0 sg

55

12341
12341

2-3

I T0 s23' T0 siso T0 sg
56

2.

wu ,max du p0 dv T0 ds

wu' q du p0 dv
I wu ,max wu'

T0 ds q

q
T0 d s
T0

I T0 sg

T0 ds sf T0 sg
57

3.

wu,max dh T0 ds

wu' q dh

q h wt

I wu,max w

'
u

q
T0ds q T0 ds
T0

T0 ds sf T0 sg

I T0 sg

I T0 Sg T0 Siso
58

I Wlos

v2
w RgT1 ln
v1
w' 0

v2
I T0 Rg ln
v1

v2
sg s Rg ln
v1

wlos w w ' I
A4402551 A4402552 A944277
59

56

Ex,wex,w

Ex,Qex,Q

Ex,Q

ex ,U u u0 p0 (v v0 ) T0 ( s s0 )
ex ,H h h0 T0 s s0
ex ,Q q1 T0 ( s1 s2 )

T0sT0s 60

=
1.

Q Q0 U 2 U1 W

U 2 U1 WU p0 V2 V1
61

Ex,Q Wu Ex,l Ex,U 2 Ex,U1

Ex,l Ex,Q Wu Ex,U

Ex,l

Ex,l Ex,Q Wu Ex,U

T0
1 Q W p0 V2 V1 U 2 U1 T0 S 2 S1 p0 V2 V1
Tr
Q
Q W U 2 U1 T0 T0 S 2 S1 T0 S 2 S1 Sf T0 Sg
Tr

Ex,l I T0 Sg
62

2.

m 2 m 2
Q Q0 H 2 H1 cf 2 cf 1 Ws
2
2
m 2
cf 2 cf21 Wu Ex,l
Ex,Q Ex, H 2 Ex, H1

Ex 2 Ex1 Wu Ex,l

Ex,l Ex1 Ex 2 Ex,Q Ws

63

 T0
m 2 m 2
Ex,l H1 H2 T0 S1 S2 cf1 cf 2 Ws 1 Q
2
2
Tr

Q
H T0 S1 S2 Wt Q T0 T0S T0Sf
Tr
T0 Sg I

T0Sg=T0Siso
Ex,iso Ex,l 0

64

e
x

Ex
Ex

Ws
ex
Ex,1

Ws Ex,2

Ex,1

Ws
ex
Ex,1 Ex,2
A440277

A440299
65

Behavior of real gases and generalized

thermodynamic relationships
6-1
6-2 R-K
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-6
6-7
6-8
6-9 -
6-10

61

pv RgT

pv
1
RgT

pv ZRT
g

(compressibility factor) Z

pv
Z
RgT
pv
v
v

Z
RgT RgT vi
p

>1
=1
<1

r r0

f 2 f 1

r r0

f 0 r0

4 3
V0 r0 4 1030 m3
3
r r

f 0 r

p = 1273.15 K

Vm 22.4 103 m3 /mol

6.02 1023

V 6.02 1023 4 1030 2.4 106 m3 /mol

V
1.07 104
Vm

62 R-K

a
p 2 Vm b RT
Vm

a,b

a
Vm2

20,1.05108Pa
Vm
4


1
p-v-T
2

N2
100 MPa

CO2
5MPa
4%100MPa
35%
3
5

ab
1pvT ;
2 cr :

RTcr
a
pcr
2
pvT
Vm,cr b Vm,cr
RTcr
2a
p
p
3 0
0
2
Vm,cr
v Tcr
v Tcr
Vm,cr b

2p
2 0
v Tcr

2p
2 RTc
6a
4 0
2
3
v Tcr Vm,cr b Vm,cr

27 R 2Tcr2
a
64 pcr

1 RTcr
b
8 pcr

8 pcrVm,cr
R
3 Tcr
6

6-1 ab

Tcr

pcr Vm,cr 103

12

MPa

m /mol

132.5
133
425.2
384.7
191.1
126.2
305.5
370
430.7

3.77
3.50
3.80
4.01
4.64
3.39
4.88
4.26
7.88

0.088 3
0.093 0
0.254 7
0.217 9
0.099 3
0.089 9
0.148 0
0.199 8
0.121 7

pcrVm,cr
Z cr

RT
cr

m 6 Pa mol2 m3 mol1

0.302
0.294
0.274
0.273
0.290
0.291
0.284
0.277
0.268

0.135 8
0.146 3
1.380
1.078
0.228 5
0.136 1
0.557 5
0.931 5
0.683 7

0.036 4
0.039 4
0.119 6
0.099 8
0.042 7
0.038 5
0.065 0
0.090 0
0.056 8
7

/ /MPa /
m3/kg

374.14

22.09

0.003 155

31.05

7.39

0.002 143

-118.35

5.08

0.002 438

-239.85

1.30

0.003 219 2

R-K

RT
a
p
0.5
Vm b T Vm Vm b
a,b
1pvT
2

0.427480 R 2Tcr2.5
a
pcr

0.08664 RTcr
b
pcr


1. B-W-R

C0 1
RT
1 a
B0 RT A0 2 2 bRT a 3 6
p
Vm
T Vm
Vm Vm

c 1 2
Vm

T2

1
e
3
Vm

Vm2

B0A0C0bac
B-W-R
9

2. M-H

T
T
A2 B2T C2 exp A3 B3T C3 exp
Tcr
Tcr
RT

p
2
3
Vm b

V
b
V
b
m
m
T
A5 B5T C5 exp
Tcr
A4

4
5

V
b
V
b
m
m

5.475A2 , A3 , A4 , A5 , B2 , B3 , B5 , b, C2 , C3 , C5 11

10

63
pv
B C D
Z
1 2 3
RgT
v v v

pv
Z
1 B ' p C ' p 2 D ' p 3
RgT

1
2

3
11

64
(principle of corresponding states)
(reduced properties)

p
pr
pcr

T
Tr
Tcr

pr

Vmr

Tr

27 R 2Tcr2
a
64 pcr

a
p 2 Vm b RT
Vm

3
pr 2
Vm,r

Vm
Vm,r
Vm,cr

RTcr
b
8 pcr

8 pcrVm,cr
R
3 Tcr

3Vm,r 1 8Tr

12


1
2
pT v
prTrvr

f (pr,Tr,vr)=0
3
Vm'

Vm
V
Vm,i,cr
'
m

Vm,i,cr

13


1.

pVm ZRT
2.

pVm / RT
Z

Z cr pcrVm,cr / RTcr

prVm,r
Tr

Z f1 pr , Tr ,Vm,r , Z cr
Zcr

f1' pr , Tr , Z cr

Z f2 pr ,Tr

14

15

16

17

18

19

65

du cV dT

du ?
dh ?
ds ?

dh c p dT
dT
dv
Rg
ds cV
T
v

uhs
Uhs

21

(total differential)
1.

Z Z x, y

dZ Mdx Ndy

Z
Z
M

,N
x

M
2Z
2 Z N

y
x
y
y
x
x

x
2.
dz = 0
z
x z y
z
dx dy 0
1
x y
y x
y z x y Z x
22

3.
xyzw

x y z
1
y w z w x w

(Helmholtz function)
(Glibbsian function)
1. F f
aF = U TSf = u Ts
bUTSF
c J kJ
d

q du w Tds du pdv du Tds pdv

df du Tds sdT sdT pdv
23

f p d v
1

2. Gg
aG = H TS g = h Ts
bHTSG
c J kJ
d

q dh wt dh Tds vdp
dg dh Tds sdT sdT vdp
2

g 1 vdp

24

u = u (s,v) h = h (s, p)f = f (T,v) g = g (p,T)

u u s, v

u
u
du ds dv
s v
v s

d u T d s pd v
u
T
s v

u
p
v s
25

h u pv
f u Ts
g h Ts

u
h u v
v s
u
f u s
s v
u
u
g u v s
s v
v s

26


z = z (x, y)

du Tds pdv

d h Tds vdp
df sdT pdv

dg sdT vdp

z
z
dz dx dy
x y
y x

u
u
T, p
s v
v s
h
h
T, v
s p
p s

2 z
2 z

xy yx

T
p

v s
s v

T v

p s s p
f
f

s, p p s
T v
v T
T v v T

g
g

s, v
T p
p T

s
v

T p
p T

(Maxwell relations)

27

s p

v T T v

p s

T v v T

T
p

v s
s v

T v

p s s p

pvTs

s p

v T T v

v
28

 u
T
s v

u
h

p
T

v s
s p

f
p
v T

s
T v

h
v
p s

g
g
v T s

s
p T

pvTs
uh f gpvTs
90
h

T
p

v s s v

u
T

v
f

A322343 A320254

29


1.
(
(the volumetric expansion coefficient)

1 v
V
v T p

1 v
T
v p T

1/ K

1/ Pa

(the isothermal coefficient of compressibility)

2.

1 p

p T v

1/ K

V p T
30

3.
(coefficient of adiabatic compressibility)

1 v
s
v p s
-(the Joule-Thomson coefficient)
p,v,T

A422265
A420275
A3223733
31

66
(generalized entropy relations)
s= s (v,T)

s p
T
v T v
h
p

u
T

s
s
ds dv
dT
v T
T v

v cV

1 T u T

v
T v u v s v

s v

cV
p
d s dT
dv
T
T v

v
f

ds(the first Tds equation)

32

v
d s dT
dp
T
T p
cp

cp
cV T
ds
dp
T p v
T

ds

dv
v p

ds

pv RgT

p
1
p

Rg
v
T v T

dp dv dT

p v
T

dT
dv
ds cV
Rg
T
v

2cpds

33


(generalized internal energy relations)
ds

cV
p
ds dT
dv
T
T v

du Tds pdv

du cV dT T
p dv
T v

du

v
v
v
du c p p
dT T
p dp
T p

T p
p T
du
34

pv RgT

dp dv dT

p
v
T

RgT
p
p0
T
p
v
T v
uvT

p Rg
p

v
T v T
u
0
v T

(generalized enthalpy relations)

dsdh = Tds + vdp

dh c p dT T
v dp
T p

p
p
p
dh cV v
dT T
v dv
T v
v T

T v

35

67

1suhcpcV
2cpcV
3cp
pv

c p
2v

T 2 A
p T
T p

cV
2 p
p
cV
d s dT
T 2 B
dv

T
T v
v T
T v

v
ds dT
dp
T
T p
cp

37


1f (p,v,T)=0
cpApcp
A

2v
c p c p0 T 2 dp
p0 T

p
p

p0cp 0
cp

c p
2cp= f (T, p)
p

,T
T

pvTf ( p,v,T)= 0
3AB

38

 cp- cV
ds
ds

cV
p
dT
dv
T
T v

p
Tds cV dT T
dv
T v

ds
ds

v
dT
dp
T
T p

cp

v
T d s c p dT T
dp
T p

v
p
T
T

T p

v
dT
dp
dv
c p cV
c p cV

T T ( p, v )

T
T
dT
dp
dv
v p
p v

v p
c p cV T

T
T

p
v
39

V 2
v p
v p
c p cV T

T
Tv
T
T p T v
T p v T

1cpcV
2
T
,
v
,

2
T
v 0 c p cV

a ) 4 C

b) T 0 K

V 0

c p cV

c p cV

3vvcp=cV
A320309
A320377

40

*6-8

Generalized enthalpy chart(and generalized entropy

chart)
(departure enthalpy)(departure entropy)

*
mH m* H m S m* S m

12

41

 ( H m* H m )1 ( H m* H m ) 2 T2 *
H m2 H m1 RTcr

T1 C p ,m dT
RTcr
RTcr

12

( Sm* Sm )1 ( Sm* Sm ) 2 T2 *
p2
Sm2 Sm1 R

C p ,m dT R ln

T1
R
R
p1

12

A820277
42

*6-9

p-T

p-T

1875

F C p2
FCp

43

s s
dp

dT S v v

h
h

s s

Ts
TS

dp

d
T
T
(
v
v
)

S
s
-

44

ps
dp

dT S Ts vg Ts RgTs

dp

d
T
T
(
v
v
)

S
s

dps Ts2
d ln ps
Rg
Rg
ps dTs
1
d
Ts

B
ln ps
A A
RgTs
Ts
B / Rg A

45

 ln p s 1 / Ts
Ts p s

B
ln p s A
Ts C
ABC

46

*6-10

dsiso 0

(dG )T , p 0

47

F
F

(dF )T ,V 0

48

 U U ( S , V , n)
U
U
U
dU
dS
dV
dn
S V ,n
V S ,n
n V , S

dU TdS pdV
U

T
S V ,n

p
V S ,n

dU TdS pdV dn

49

HFG

dH TdS Vdp dn
dF SdT pdV dn

dG SdT Vdp dn
U
H
F
G

n V , S n p , S n V ,T n T , p

Gm

50


TTp p

dS C dS dS 0

1
p

dS dU dV dn
T
T
T

dU p

dS d V d n
T
T
T

dU p

d S dV d n
T
T
T

dU dU p
p

dSc dV dV dn dn 0
T
T
T
T
T
T
51

dU C dU dU 0

dVC dV dV 0

dnC dn dn 0
1
1
dS C
T
T

dU dU
dV dV

dn dn

dSC

p
p
dU dV dn 0
T
T

T
T

1
1

T
T

p p
0

T
T

52

T T

p p

53


Gas and Steam Flow
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
7-5


(nozzle, jet)(diffuser)
(throttle valve)

71


1. (continuity equation)

Ac
A2cf 2
1 f1
qm1
qm2
v1
v2

p1
T1
qm1
cf1

p2
T2
qm2
cf2

Acf
qm
v

dv dA dcf

v
A cf

dA dcf

0
A cf

2.

p1v1 p2 v2 pv

dp
dv

0
p
v

cp
cV

T1v1

T2 v 2

3.(steady-flow energy equation)

1 2
q h cf gz ws
gz q 0 ws 0
2
1 2
1 2
2
dh cf dcf 0
h1 cf1 h2 cf 2 h cf
5
2
2

(stagnation)

cf 0, h hmax

1 2
h1 cf 1 h0
2

cf21
T0 T1
2c p

T0
p0 p1
T1

v0

RgT0
p0

h0 T0 p r 0
T1 p r1

pr 0
p0 p1
pr1
6

1 2
h0 h1 cf 1
2
s0 s1

20
Ma = 2t0= 182.6
4.

p
2 p
c v
v s
s

p
p

v
v s

dp
dv

0
p
v

c pv
R g T
7

1
0 C

c 1.4 287 273.15 331.2m/s

20 C

c 318.93m/s

20 C

c 343m/s

c pv RgT and

cp
cV

Ma 1
subsonic velocity

cf

3 Ma
c (Mach number)

Ma 1
sonic velocity

Ma 1
supersonic velocity8

72

dcf dp
~

c
p
f

q dh vdp

dex, H dh T0 ds dh vdp

dh cf dcf
2
cf2
p
cf
dcf
dp
vdp dcf
vdp cf d cf

p pv cf
cf
p

dp
dp cf2 dcf
2 dcf
Ma

2
p
cf
p c
cf

dp
2 dcf

Ma
p
cf

1 0

dcf
cf

Ma 2 0

dp
p

2 cf dc f vdp

cf p
p cf

1 2
cf
cf
2

10

dcf dA
~

c
A
f

dp
2 dcf

Ma
p
cf

dp
dv

p
v

dcf dv
Ma

cf
v

dcf dA
Ma 1 c A
f
2

dA dcf dv

A cf
v

11

dcf dA
Ma 1 c A
f

1cfAMa

a ) Ma 1 cf c

dcf dAcf A

dcf dv
Ma 1 Ma 1, Ma

cf
v
2

dc f
cf

dv
dA dv dcf
,

0
v
A
v
cf
convergent nozzle
12

dcf dA
Ma 1 c A
f
2

b) Ma 1 cf c dcf dA, cf A
dv
2 dcf
2

Ma 1 Ma 1 Ma
cf
v
dcf dv
dA dv dcf

0
cf
v
A
v
cf

c) Ma 1 cf c

cf dA 0

Ma=1cf=c(minimum cross-sectional area)

[(throat)](velocity of
sound)

cf c pcr vcr RgTcr

pcr Tcr vcr (critical pressure)

13

a(convergent nozzle)
cf2,max=c2
b(divergent nozzle)

c
(convergent- divergent nozzle)
(Laval nozzle)

14

3(back pressure)pb
p2
pbp2 pb

4(diffuser) pcf

a ) Ma 1

Ma 2 1 0 dcf 0 dA 0

b) Ma 1

Ma 2 1 0 dcf 0 dA 0

15

2
3
4

cfcr pcr vcr RgTcr

5pbp2
16

73

1.

cf 2 h0 h 2 h1 h cf21

a
bhJ/kgcfm/s
hkJ/kg
2.

17

cf 2 h0 h
cf 2 2 h0 h2
cp

2c p T0 T2

Rg

Rg
2
T0 T2
1

T0 p0 1
pv RgT

p0 v0
T p
2
1

p2
1
p0

cf f1 , p0 , v0 , p2 p0 , p0 , v0p1v1T1

cf f 2 , p1 , v1 , p2 p1
p1v1cf 2 p2 p0 p2 p1
18

a) p2 /p0 1 p2 p0
p 0 cf 2 0
b) p2 /p0 0 , cf 2 cf ,max

cf ,max 2

p0v0 2

RgT0

cfmax
p2
10
c)
p0

cf cfcr

p0 v0 pcr
1
2

1
p0

p2 0 v2
A2

19

pcrp0cr
(critical pressure ratio; throat-to-stagnation of pressure)

pcr 2
cr

p0 1

2
cr

c p / cV or m C pm / CVm

c p / cV

cr f

cr 0.528

cr 0.546

cr 0.577

20

pcr cr p0

dcf dA
Ma 1 c A
f
2

dA= 0

cf,cr

1
2
p0 v0 1 ( cr )
1

2 p v 2 R T
p0 v0 1
2

1
1 0 0
1 g 0

ccr RgTcr

21

3.pb
a.

pb pcr

p2 pb

cf 2 c2

Ma2 1

pb pcr

p2 pcr

cf 2 c2

Ma2 1

b.

pb pcr

pb pcr
p2 pb p pcr

cf, ccr cf 2 c2
Ma 1 Ma2 1

22


1.

Acf
Acf
qm
v

qm kg/s; A m 2 ; cf m/s; v m3 /kg

23

2.

A2 cf 2
qm
v2

q m A2

p2

cf 2 2
p0 v0 1
p1
1

p0
v2 v0
p2

1
1

p 0 p 2 p 2

2
1 v0 p 0 p 0

a q f A , , p , v , p / p
m
2
0
0
2
0

24

A2 , , p1 , v1

qm f A2 , , p0 , v0 , p2 / p0

qm f p2 / p0
q m A2

p2 / p0 1

cf 2 0, qm 0

cr p2 / p0 1
p2 / p0 cr
p2 / p0 cr

1
1

p 0 p 2 p 2

2

1 v0 p0 p0

p2 / p0 , cf 2 , qm

p2 pcr , cf 2 c2 , qm 2 qm ,max

cf 2 c2 , qm 2 qm ,max

25

ab

bc

p2
qm

26


p1v1T1

pb
P

1.
pcrpb

27

28

2.

A1

qm v2
A2
cf 2
qm vcr
A
cfcr
d 2 d min
l

2tg
2

d c f / d l (eddy)

29

1.
pb'
p2'

pb ' pb p 2 ' pb '

pb ' pcr

pb ' pb p2 ' pb '

pb ' pcr
p2 ' pcr

30

2.
1pb<pb
(under expansion)

(free expasion)

2 pb>pb
(over expansion)
(shock wave)

31

A4511661
A451266
A451377

32

74

cf 2 2 h0 h2 2 h0 h2 s cf 2 S
(velocity coefficient of nozzle)

cf 2

cf 2S

0.92~0.98
33

cf22 s cf22

cf22 s

1 2

h0 h2
cf22
N 2
2
cf 2 s h0 h2 s

1 N

1 2
2
I
cf 2s cf 2
2

34


p2A2

cf 2 cf 2 s

Acf
qn
v

T2 T2 s

v2 v2 s

qm qms

A4512871

35

75
(adiabatic throttling)

1) p2<p1
2) s2>s1,I=T0sg
3) h1=h2

4) T2T1
T2= T1

36


1. -Joule-Thomson coefficient

dh c p dT T
v dp
T p
v
T
v
T
T p
J
dh 0
cp
p h
-

dp 0

v
dT T
v
T p

37

 v
T
v 0
T p

J 0, dT 0

v
T
v 0
T p

J 0, dT 0

v
T
v 0
T p

J 0, dT 0

dp dv dT

p v
T
T2 T1

v
v

T p T

v
T
v 0
T p
38

2. (inversion temperature)

(inversion
curve)

2a b
a

T
1
p 2 v b RgT J i Rg b v
v

RgTi b RgTi b
a
1
p 2 1
3

b
a
2a
2

39

p=0

Ti ,max

2a

Rg b

Ti ,min

2a

9 Rg b

3.
T
Tp
T>Ti,maxT<Ti,minT

H2
Ti ,max 80 C
TT2>T1
He
Ti ,max 236 C

Ti ,max 630K
N2

Ti ,min 100K
p0 40MPa

T
40


1
2 h1 h1 '

h1 h2 h1 'h2 ' h2 'h2

I
h2 'h2

I T0 sg T0 s1 ' s1

41

A452177

A652266

42


Processes in Compressor
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
8-5

81

0.01MPa
0.1~0.3MPa
0.3MPa

(Roots blower),

82

0-1p1v1
2

1-2

w1 2 pdv
1

2-3p2v2

WC p1V1 pdV p2V2

1

Vdp Wt
1

wC vdp

p2
p1

wC
1.

wC, s

1
h2 s h1
RgT1 1
1

2.

wC,T RgT1 ln
3.
n1

n
n
wC,n
p1v1 1
n 1

wC,s wC,n wC,T

T2s T2n T2T

v2s v2n v2T

b, 1<n<

wCn
T2 n
v2 n

0.25 MPa
7

83
clearance volume

Vc=V3
() Vh(=V1V3)
cylinder displacement; stroke volume;
piston displacement; piston swept volume
Ves=V1V4
(clearance-to-piston displacement ratio)
=Vc/Vh


1-2 m1p1p2

V2 V3
m1

V2
V3
3-4 m1
p2 p1
V2
V1 V4
4-1 m1

V1
V1 V4
() m m1
V1
2-3


volumetric efficiency

Vcs V1 V4
V3 V4
V
1
1
Vh V1 V3
V1 V3 V3
1n
Vc 1n
1 1 1 1
Vh

a ) VcVh
V m

b)

Vc Vcs V m

10


WC Wt1 2 Wt3 4
nn1
nn1
n
n

p1V1 1
p4V4 1
n 1

n 1

nn1
n
p1 V1 V4 1

n 1

n 1

n
n

Ves p1 1
n 1

nn1
n
v1 p1 1
n 1

11

 nn1
WC
n

wC
v1 p1 1
m n 1

1
2

12

84

p
T V

T2 T2,max

V V ,min

multistage compression
intervening cooling
13

1 kg

wC wC,l wC,h

n 1
n 1

n
n

p
p
n
n
wC
RgT1 a 1
RgT3 2 1
pa

p1
n 1
n 1

n 1
n 1

n
n
p2
pa
n

RgT1 2
p1

n 1
pa

wC
0
pa

pa

p1 p2

pa p2
l

h
p1 pa 14

wC wC,min

m
m

1 i

p2
p1

1 2 m

p2
wC wC,min
p1

n 1

n
n
wC,i
RgT1 i 1
a.
n 1

wC mwC,i

n 1
n
i

T T1
b.

c.

n
qi
cV T
n 1

qi c p T

15

d.
e. v
2m

2-4
3(isothermal efficiency)

C,T

wC,T
wC

4(vacuum pump)

A655355*
A455155

16

85

axial-flow compressor

centrifugal compressor

(turbo-compressor)

17

wC h2 ' h2 s mn 2 ' 2 s m

CS

wCs h2 s h1

wC ' h2 ' h1

wC,s h2s h1

(adiabatic internal efficiency)

T2s T1
T2s T1
T2 ' T1
Cs
T2 ' T1
Cs

wC ' h2 'h1

18

A451177
A453257*

19


Gas power cycles
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
9-6
9-7
9-8

91

1.

2.


1.

2.

i(internal thermal efficiency )

i
wnet
t
q1
T

wnet,act
wnet

wnet,act
q1

T wnet
q1

T t

(internal engine efficiency)

(the air-standard hypothesis)

92
(internal combustion engine)
1
(gas engine)
(gasoline engine; petrol engine)
(diesel engine)
(spark ignition engine)
(compression ignition engine)
(two-stroke )
(four-stroke )
5


(open cycle)

(mean effective pressure)

pMEP

Wnet

Vh

93

dual combustion cycle

01
12
23
34
45
50

2-3+3-4
5-1
1-24-5

1. p-vT-s
12 23
34 45
51

(compression ratio)

v1

v2

(pressure ratio)

p3

p2

(cutoff ratio)

v4

v3
10

2.

wnet
t
q1
wnet w1 2 w23 w3 4 w45 w51
w1 2 w3 4 w45
1
1

Rg
Rg
p2
p5

p3 v4 v3
T1 1
T4 1

p1
1
1 p4

wnet qnet q1 q2

q1 q23 q3 4 cV T3 T2 c p T4 T3
q2 q51 cV T5 T1

11

T5 T1
q2
t 1 1
q1
T3 T2 T4 T3
t

1 2

v1
T2 T1
v2

23

p3
T3 T2
T1 1
p2

34

v4
T4 T3 T1 1
v3

5 1

p5
T5 T1
p1

T1 1

12

p5
p1

p1v1 p2 v2 p5 v5 p4 v4

p4 p3 v1 v5 v2 v3

p5 p4 v4
p3 v4

p1 p2 v3
p2 v3
p5
T5 T1
T5 T1
p1
T2T3T4T5

T5 T1
t 1
T3 T2 T4 T3

1
t 1 1
1 1
13

a) t
b) t
c) t

a.

b.T-s
c.q1q2T1mT2m
14

(Diesel cycle)

v1

v2
v3

v2
q2
t 1
q1

q2 cV T4 T1

q1 c p T3 T2

T4 T1
t 1
T3 T2
1
t 1 1
1 1
1
1 t 1 1
1

15

a) t wnet

b) t wnet

c) q1

16

(Otto cycle)

v1

v2

p3

p2
17

v1

v2
p3

p2
q1 cV T3 T2

q2 cV T4 T1

q2
T4 T1
t 1 1
q1
T3 T2

1
1
1 t 1 1
1 1

1 1

18

 a )

b) ; t wnet
c ) q1

19

94

q1v q1m q1 p
q2 v q2 m q2 p

tv tm tp

T 2v T 2 m T 2 p
T 1v T 1m T 1 p
20

pmaxTmax

q2 p q2 m q2 v
q1 p q2 m q2v

t,p t,m t,v

T 2 p T 2 m T 2v
T 1 p T 1m T 1v
A470299
A447277
21

9-5
(gas turbine)

22


23

24

25

26


(compressor)
(combustion chamber)
(gas turbine)

1.(open cycle)
2.
3.
4.

(specific weight of engine)

(peak-load set) 27


constant-pressure combustion
cycle Brayton cycle
1-2

p2
p1

pressure ratio
2-3

T3

T2

temperature ratio
3-4
4-1
28


1.t

q1 h3 h2 c pm

t3
t2

q2 h4 h1 c pm

T3 T2 c p T3 T2
t4
t1

T4 T1 c p T4 T1

q2
T4 T1
t 1 1
q1
T3 T2
p4
T4 T3
p3
p1
T1 T2
p2

p 4 p1

T4 T1
T4 T1 T1

p3 p 2
T3 T2
T3 T2 T2

T1
1
t 1 1
T2
1

T1T2

29

2.

T1
1
t 1 1
T2
1

a) t t T3

b) q1 wnet t

30

c) wnet wmax

wnet q1 q2
c p T3 T2 T4 T1
1

c pT1
1

wnet
0
d

2 1

wnet wnet,max
31

d ) wnet
c) wnet

1
c pT1 1 1 1

1
wwnet,max
2T3
wnet,max t
T3 wnet,max t

32

96

1-2
2-3
3-4
4-1

33

(adiabatic compressor efficiency)

(adiabatic turbine efficiency)
wC,s h2s h1
C,s

wC
h2 h1
1
1
h2 h1
h2s h1
wC h2s h1
C,s
C,s

wt,T
wt,T

h3 h4

h3 h4s

T h3 h4s
wt,T

h4 h3 T h3 h4s

34


(internal thermal efficiency)i

wnet
i
q1

wt,T
wC T h3 h4s
wnet

q1 h3 h2 h3 h1

h3 h1

Cs

Cs

T h3 h4

2s

Cs

Cs

2s

h1

2s

h1

h2s h1
h1

Cs
1

Cs

35

T h3 h4
s

h3 h1

Cs

Cs

2s

2s

h1

h1

Cs
1

Cs

a) iCsT
T Cs i
T 0.85 ~ 0.92Cs 0.85 ~ 0.90

b) ,i

c) , i
wneti

36

97
regeneration

1) q1 c p T3 T7

q 2 c p T8 T1
q2
T2
t, 1
1
t
q1
T1

q 1 c p T3 T5

q 2 c p T6 T1

37

3(regenerator effectiveness)

h7 h2 h4 h8

h5 h2 h4 h6

h7 h2 h7 h2

h5 h2 h4 h6

38

multistage compression

intervening cooling
t
12341 t 1

12341
1567341

67256
67256 t 1

t1567341 t12341

1
1

39

wnet,1567341 wnet,12341
q1,1567341 q1,12341
t,1567341 t,12341

40


12389101= 127101-37983

t,12341 t,127101
t,2389101 t,127101
t,2389101 t,12341

1238910112341
T1mT2m

t,12389101 t,12341
41

42

43

wnet
q2
t
1
q1
q1

T2
1
T1

TL
1
Th

T-s
T-s
t= f (x, y, z )
A474299
A470389
44

98
(jet engine)

45


Vapor power cycles
10-1 -
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5 -

10-1

(steam power plant)

119

275%78%

3
4

 (Rankine cycle)
1.

2x

3
3

2.
1

2p-vT-sh-s

wnet
q2
t
1
q1
q1
wnet wt,T wt,P

wt,T h1 h2 ?
c p T1 T2
wt,P h4 h3
wnet h1 h2 h4 h3

q2 h2 h3 ? c p T2 T3

?Ts s3 s2
wnet
q2 h1 h2 h4 h3
1
q1 h1 h4 t
q1
q1
h1 h4

wt,P wt,T

wnet wt,T

h4h3

h1 h2 h1 h2

t
h1 h3 h1 h2'
4(steam rate)
(ideal steam rate) d0

1
d0
h1 h2

kg/J,kg/ kW h

D0 d 0 P0

P0 ,W


1. t1

T 1 T 2 t
1t2t3561t
=123561+11t2t21

t11 2 21 t123561
t t

t
7

2. p1

T 1 , T 2 t

x2 p

3. p2

T 1 , T 2 t

p2 6kPa, ts 36.17 C; p2 4kPa, t s 28.95 C

x2

A466167

A466167


1. T-sh-s

q1 h1 h3
q2 h2act h2'

10

2.
aT

wt,Tact
wt,T

h1 h2act

h1 h2

T 0.92
h2act
p2 x2 hx= x2h+ (1-x2)h
T

h2act h1 T h1 h2
h2 1 T h1 h2

h1h2ideal enthalpy drop;

isentropic enthalpy drop

11

binternal thermal efficiency

wnet,act
q1

wt,Tact
q1

h1 h2act T h1 h2

Tt
h1 h2'
h1 h2'

ce

Pe
e Tm t
q1

Pe m

3.diDi
di

d
h h
1
1
1 2
0
h1 h2act h1 h2act h1 h2 T

Di di Pi

A466155
A460299

12

10-2

reheat cycle

T-s

13

wnet h1 h5 h6 h7
q1 h1 h3 h6 h5

wnet h1 h5 h6 h7

t
q1
h1 h3 h6 h5

x
d0

14

10-3 regenerative cycle

regenerative cycle with steam
extractionregenerative cycle with feed-water heater

15

16


1.

1 h4 h01 h01' 0

h4 h2 '

h01' h2'

h01 h2'

2. (regenerator)R

1 s2' s01 s01' Sf Sg

sCV 0
Sg s01' s01 1 s2'
I T0 Sg

17

3.

wnet h1 h01 1 h01 h2

wnet 1 h1 h2 h1 h01
q1 h1 h01'

q2 1 h2 h2 '

wnet h1 h01 1 h01 h2

t

q1
h1 h01'

1 h2 h2'

q2
t 1 1
q1
h1 h01'

1t
2t t =1

18

T
t 1
?
T
h1 h01'
h2 h2'
T
T
s1 s01'
s2 s2'
T 1 s2 s2' T
T S 2
Q2

1
t 1 1
T
Q1
T s1 s01'
T S1
2
3
t
19

A466266
A460200

20

10-4 power-and-heating plant cycle

T-s

21

T-s

22

>

23

10-5 -
-
combination steam turbine-gas turbine cycle

-
24

 t 1

Q fa Q51
Q23
25

26


Refrigeration cycle
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
11-5
11-6
1

11-1

(reverse cycle)

(heat-pump cycle)
Siso S0 Sc 0

Siso S0 Sc 0
2

qc

q0 qc

Tc
c
T0 Tc

<1
>1
COP

1 000 kg 0 C24 h0 C

1=3.86kJ/s1=3.517kJ/s
3

11-2
Gas-compression
refrigeration cycle

the coefficient of performance COP

qC
qC

wnet q1 qC

q1 h2 h3

qC h1 h4

wnet h2 h1 h3 h4 h2 h3 h1 h4

qC
h1 h4
T1 T4

wnet h2 h3 h1 h4 T2 T3 T1 T4
1

T2 T1
T3 T4

T1

T2 T1

invariable specific

heat capacity
5


1T 0TC
2

A361255

TC
T1

T0 TC T2 T1

qC


qC
Qc


12nm1=45gk4
qc=1mg61
q1=34kn3=35gm3

A461277

11-3
The vapor-compression cycle
T-s


qC h1 h5 h1 h4

q1 h2 h4

wnet h2 h1

qC
h1 h4 T1 T4

wnet h2 h1 T2 T1

1. T-slogp-h

10

11

A466166

12

11-4 (Refrigerants)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6. T-s

13


1.
2.
3.

CHCC
HCHC
R134a

14

11-5
(absorption refrigeration)
QC
QC
COP

QH WP QH

T0
wP QH t QH 1
TH

QC,max wP
T0 TL
QH 1

T
T
T

H 0
L

A466255

COPmax

QC,max
QH

TH T0 TL

TH T0 TL15

(steam jet refrigeration)

1.

673456
6812456

kgq2 = q7-3 = h3-h7

kg
q= q5-6= h6-h5
kg
q1= q8-1= h1-h8

16

2.

Q2 m1 h3 h7

Q m2 h1 h8

A446255

17

11-6 (heat pump)

wnet q2
q2
'
1
1
wnet
wnet

B 0.7

t 0.35

' 3

Q QaB 0.7Qa

Q Qa t ' 1.05Qa
18


30 3.4 109 kJ/h ,
1m2
100

1.'TR-T0'
2.
3.

19


Gas mixtures and moist air
12-1
12-2
12-3
12-4 -
12-5

121

pV m RgT

M Rg R
3

( Mv)0 22.4 10 m / mol

n ni

n M ni M i

RgM 2


1. (Dalton law of partial pressure)

pV nRT

p1V n1 RT

piV ni RT

p mV nm RT

Vpi RT ni nRT

p pi

2. (law of partial volume)

pV nRT

pV1 n1 RT

pVi ni RT

pVm nm RT

pVi RT ni nRT

V Vi


1. (mass fraction of a mixture)

mi
wi
m

mi 1
m
wi mi 1
m m
m

2. (volume fraction of a mixture)

Vi
i
V

i 1

3. (mole fraction of a mixture)

ni
xi
n

xi 1

4.

a ) xi i
b) wi

Rg
Rgi

Vi
i
V

ni Mv i

n Mv

ni

xi
n

Mi
xi
xi
M

Rg
pVi / Rg iT
Rg
mi
Vi Rg
wi

i
xi
m pV / RgT V Rg i
Rg i
Rg i
R / M
Mi
xi
xi

R / Mi
M
6

5.

pi xi p

ni
piV / RT pi
xi

n pV / RT
p
6. MRg
1)

Rg wi Rg i
wi

Rg
Rg i

xi

R
M
Rg

wi Rgi Rg xi Rg xi Rg
7

2)

M M i xi
n M ni M i

Rg
ni M i
n

ni

M i xi M i
n

A711143
A411143

xi ci
1. c wi ci c

Cm xi Cmi

Cmp CmV R

2. U U i
3.

U mi ui
( wi ui )
u
m
m

H Hi Ui pV
i Ui V pi U pV H
H H i mi hi
h

( wi hi )
m
m
m

4.

S Si mi si

1 kg

s wi si
9

A,B, p,
pApB T ,

s wA s A p A , T wB s B pB , T

10

()
dT
dpi
wi c pi
Rgi

w
d
s

d
s

w
s

i
i
1 kg
i i

T
pi

1 mol

dpi
dT
wi c pi
wi Rgi
T
pi

pi ,2
T2
s wi c pi ln wi Rgi ln
T1
pi ,1
dSm xi C pm,i

Sm

dpi
dT
xi R
T
pi

pi ,2
T2
xi C pm,i ln Rxi ln
T1
pi ,1

11

A4412551
A4412552

12

122

O2

32.000

0.209 5

N2

28.016

0.780 9

Ar

39.944

0.009 3

CO2

44.01

0.000 3

13

=(dry air)+
(water vapor)

p pa pv
R
Rg
M

(unsaturated air)
(saturated air)
t ts pv

t ts pv

tpv

14

t / C

10

20

30

ps / kPa 0.6556 1.2279 2.3385 4.2451

20 C pv ps

pv 0.655 6 kPa

1 C

pv ps

t pv pv = ps(t)
Pv t t = ts (pv)

15

dew point
pv td=ts(pv)

A4221442
16

12-3
(absolute humidity) v
kg/m3
1

v pv

pv
1
1
v
pv vv RgvT v
vv RgvT
vv

pv pv,max ps v s v,max ''

3v pv =
0 .656 6 kPa1 pv = ps10pv < ps

17

humidity

s
1.

pv

ps

pv
1
v
vv RgvT
ps
1
s
vs RgsT

pv ps

2.

0 1

=0

0 < < 1
=1

t > tsp1atmt > 100

ps > p

pv,max p ps

pv
pv,max

pv

18

d (humidity; humidity ratio)

mv
d
ma

1 kg
pvV
Rg,vT
pv
v
pv
vV
0.622

0.622
d
paV
pa
a
aV
p pv
Rg,aT

pv
p s
0.622
0.622
kg/kg kg/kgDA
p
p p s

ap

d pv

b) p t ps d
A922133

A422244

19

 t (dry-bulb temperature) tw
(wet-bulb temperature)t ad(adiabaticsaturation temperature)
1. (wet-and-dry-bulb thermometer;
psychrometer)

20

pv ( ps ) pv,

td

tw

t t w td
d 0.622

pv
pv
p
0.622
0.622 v
pa
p pv
p

d d
21

22

12-4 -(psychrometric chart)

H ma ha mvhv
h
ha dhv kJ/kg kJ/kgDA
ma
ma

hkJ/kgDA 1005t C d kg/kgDA 2501 1.86 t C

hv 2501 1.8903t
hv 2501 1.842t
hv 2501 1.964t
hv 2501 1.850t 0.00021t 2

2
h

1.002
t

0.00005
t
a

A422177

24


1 kgd kg

h-d
1.

p s
d 0.622
p p s

h 1.005t d 2501 1.86t

h-d pb
26

2.
1d

td =100%
d

2 h
3 t
h=1.005t+(2501+1.86t)d
t = h d t
tt
t
27

4 tw
h tw (
tw')h =100%

ps
d 0.622
p ps

p = f (d, t )

h-d p
p 100

= pv/p
d 0.622
1
d t = 100
d
28

=0d = 0

6v
7pv = f (d)

pv
pv
d 0.622 0.622
pa
p pv

pd
pv
0.622 d

d << 0.622pvdd
pv =100%pv
kPa
29

3. h-d
1

p1 0.1MPa, t1 20 C, 1 65%

h-d
1

h1 44.0 kJ/kg
d1 9.3g/kg

16.8
C

100%
h1
w

1 100% td 13.5 C

pv pv 1.3kPa

30

p1 0.1MPa, t1 30 C, tw1 25 C
:.
h-d
100%
1

h 76.0kJ/kg 67%
d 18.2g/kg td 23 C
pv 2.8kPa
:

31

12-5

1.
2. h-d
3.
4.
5. h-d
6.

32

(dehumidification)

Qc ma h2 h1 d 2 d1 hw

mw ma d1 d 2

33

QH ma h3 h2

QH ma ha 3 ha 2 d 2 hv3 hv2

ha kJ/kg 1.005t C hv kJ/kg 2501 1.86 t C

34

mw mv2 mv1 ma d 2 d1

ma ha1 d1hv1 mw hw
ma ha 2 d 2 hv2

ma h1 ma d 2 d1 hw ma h2

hw hv
d 2d1

h1 h2
35

mw mv3 mv1 ma d3 d1

ma h1 Q mw hw ma h3
36

ma1 ma 2 ma3
mv1 mv2 mv3

ma1d1 ma 2 d 2 ma3 d3
ma1 d3 d1 ma 2 d 2 d3
ma1 d 2 d3
m d d
a2
3
1

ma1h1 ma 2 h2 ma3 h3
ma1 h3 h1 ma 2 h2 h3

ma1 h2 h3 d 2 d3

ma 2 h3 h1 d3 d1

37

ma1 h2 h3 d 2 d3

ma 2 h3 h1 d3 d1
38

A4221663
A4221662
A422299*
A423288*

39


Introduction of chemical therdynamics
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
13-5
13-6
1

13-1

1.

2.
(heat of reaction)

2H 2 +O 2 =2H 2O

2C+H 2 =C2 H 2

3
stoichiometric coefficients

Wtot W Wu

3.

4.

13-2

Q U 2 U1 Wtot

Q U 2 U1 Wu W

Q dU Wu W

Q U 2 U1 Wu ,V

Q dU Wu ,V

Q U 2 U1 Wu , p p (V2 V1 )

Q H 2 H1 Wu, p

Q dH Wu, p

(thermal effect)
(enthalpy of reaction)
1.

QV

Qp

QV U 2 U 1
Q p H 2 H1

--
H

2QVQp

Q p QV ( H 2 H 1 ) (U 2 U 1 ) p (V2 V1 ) RTn
n > 0 Q p QV
n < 0 Q p QV
n = 0 Q p QV

n n2 n1

Q p QV
3

standard thermal effect

p = 101 325 Pat =298.15 K

0
Q
V

0
Q
p

heating value; caloric value

Hc 1 mol
QW
QGW (higher hating value )H 2O
QDW (lowerhating value ) H2O

QGW QDW M

10

(thermal effect of formation)

1mol
Hf (enthal of formation)
1mol
1 mol

standard enthalpy of combustion

H c0

standard enthalpy of formation

H f0
11

Hm=H0f+H

12

(Hess law)
1

C+ O 2 =CO+Q2
2
CO2

C+O 2 =CO 2 Q1
1
CO2 CO O2 Q3
2

1
C+ O2 =CO+Q2
2

Q1 Q3 Q2
13

C+O 2 =CO 2 Q1 Q1 39 3791 J/mol

1
CO+ O 2 =CO2 Q3
2
Q1 Q2 Q3

Q3 283 190 J/mol

Q2 Q1 Q3
393791J/mol (283190J/mol) 110601J/mol

Q p H Pr H Re

14


0
Qp0 H Pr0 H Re
H 0 ( nk H f0,k )Pr ( n j H f0, j )Re
k

A4931441

15

Kirchhof law
T QT

QT H T H d H c H Pr,T H Re,T

QT ( H d H b ) ( H b H a ) ( H a H c )

QT H 0 ( H d H b ) ( H c H a )

16

QT H 0 ( H d H b ) ( H c H a )
QT H 0

0
(
H

H
k
m ,k
m ,k )

n ( H
j

Pr

m, j

H m0 , j )

Re

Q T Q 0 n k C m k

T
T0

n j C m j

( T T 0 )
T
T0

Pr

( T T 0 )

Re

17

Q T ' Q T n k C m k

T '
T

n j C m j

( T ' T )
Pr
T '
T

( T ' T )
Re

T (T 'T )

dQT
nk Cmk Pr n jCmj CPr CRe
Re
dT

A4931442

18

13-3 adiabatic-flame
temperature, adiabatic-combustion temperature
2179
1mol3.76mol4.76mol

(theoretical air,stoichiometric air)

(excess air)
(percentage of excess air,percentage
of theoretical air)

19

(oxidizer)

CH 4 +2O 2 +2(3.76N 2 ) CO 2 +2H 2 O+7.52N 2

CH 4 2( )O 2 2(3.76)( )N 2
CO 2 +2H 2O 2( 1)O 2 2( )(3.76)N 2
A4932771

Tad
20

Tad
A H ad Tad
1

H ad H1 0 ( H ad H b ) H 0 ( H1 H a )

( H ad H b ) ( H 1 H a )

T1Tad
A4932071
21

13-4
(chemical equilibrium and equilibrium constant)

n
C
V

mol
m3

bB dD gG rR
BDGR

22

bB dD gG rR
BDGR

BDGD

dC
w
d

23

KC

bB dD gG rR
w1 w2
w1 >> w2
w1 w2 w1 = w2

CBCDCRCG

24

bB dD gG rR

w1 k1C C
b
B

d
D

w 2 k 2 C Gg C Rr

k
w1=w2,

k1 C Gg C Rr
Kc
b d
k2 CBCD

T
w1>>w2Kc
BD
25
w1<<w2Kc

bB dD gG rR

Kp

Kp

pGg p Rr
Kp b d
pB pD
KC Kp

n
C
V

piV ni RT
ni
pi

Ci
V RT

C Gg C Rr
pGg p Rr
K c b d b d ( RT ) ( g r b d ) K p ( RT ) n
CBCD
pB pD
n g r b d

n = 0Kc = Kp

26

ni
p i xi p p
n

i
g
G
b
B

p p
Kp
p p

r
R
d
D

n n p
Kp

n n n
g
G
b
B

r
R
d
D

g r b d

2 C+CO 2 2CO

A4942771

C CO
Kc
C CO 2

27

13-5
(dissociation)(degree of dissociation)

<1

1
CO+ O2 CO2
2
CO2COO2
CO2 CO
O2(1- )

T
28

p
(n

1.

2CO+O 2 2 CO 2 n = -1

CO2 1 mol CO2

2CO+O 2 2 CO 2

2 mol CO2

2 mol CO
mol O2

2(1-) mol CO2

(2+ )

xCO 2

2(1 )

xCO

xO 2

29

pCO 2

2(1 )
p

pCO

2
p

pO 2

Kp

2
pCO
2
2
pCO
pO2

(1 ) 2 (2 )

3p

2
(1

)
(2 )
n
RT
K c K p ( RT )
3
p

n = -1
T

30

2.

2C+O 2 2CO

CO

2C+O 2 2CO

2 mol CO

n >1
2 mol C
mol O2

2(1-) mol CO
(2-)

2(1-) mol CO
mol O2(2-) mol

pCO

2(1 )
p
xCO p
2

pO2 xO2 p

p
31

p
4(1 ) p K K ( RT ) n

Kp
c
p
pO2
(2 )
2
CO

4(1 ) 2 p

(2 ) RT

n >1TKcKp
<1

3.

C+O 2 CO 2 n = 0

Kc K p

pCO2
pO2

n = 0T

32


,CO

Q
1
CO+ O2 CO2
Q'
2

3 000 CO275
2 000 CO210
1 000 CO2
33

A4942661

34

13-6

dSiso 0

Q
dS
T

dU Wtot
dS
T

TdS dU Wtot

d(TS U ) d Wtot

d(U TS ) Wtot

dF Wtot

35

F1 F2 Wtot

F1 F2 WuV

=
>

-W=0Wtot =W u,V
-

F1 F2 WuV ,max

(U1 TS1 ) (U 2 TS 2 ) WuV ,max

F
F dF 0 -
F dF 0

36

dF 0
d F 0
2

WuV,max

-
-
Wtot Wup W Wup pdV Wup d( pV )

Wtot Wup p2V2 p1V1

F1 F2 (U1 T1S1 ) (U2 T2S2 ) Wtot

F1 F2 (U1 p1V1 T1S1 ) (U 2 p2V2 T2 S 2 ) Wup

37

F1 F2 (U1 p1V1 T1S1 ) (U 2 p2V2 T2 S 2 ) Wup

d( H TS ) d Wup

dG Wup

G1 G2 Wup

G1 G2 Wup ,max

- G

G1 G2 Wup ,max 0

dG 0

38

 -G
(G1-G2) -
G -

dG 0

d G0
2

(standard free enthalpy of

formation )

39

 1298.15K1

mol

Gf0

1mol

-
Tp

Gm (T , p) Gf0 Gm

40

Gm (T , p) G Gm
0
f

Gm ( H m H m0 ) (TS m 298.15S m0 )

Wup ,max

H f0

0
0
GRe GPr (nGf ) (nGf )
Pr
Re

n H m H m0 (TS m 298.15S m0 )
Re

n H m H m0 (TSm 298.15Sm0 )
Pr

A4941441

41

Chemical potential

G F

G G (T , p, n1 , n2 ,, nr )
F F (T , p, n1 , n2 , , nr )

r
G
G
G
dG
dni

dp
dT
T p ,ni
i 1 ni T , p , n
p T ,ni
j ( j i )

r
F
F
F
dF
dni

dT
dV
T V ,ni
V T ,ni
i 1 ni T ,V , n
j ( j i )

42

r
G
G
G
dG
dni

dp
dT
T p ,ni
i 1 ni T , p , n
p T ,ni
j ( j i )

h
p

u
T

v
f

s
T p

g
v
p T

G
d G S d T V dp
dni

i 1 ni T , p , n
j ( j i )
r

r
F
F
F
dF
dni

dT
dV
T V ,ni
V T ,ni
i 1 ni T ,V , n
j ( j i )

s
T v

f
p
v T

F
dF Sd T pd V
dni

i 1 ni T , p , n
j ( j i )
r

43

 G H TS (U TS) pV F pV

dG dF pdV Vdp

F
dF S d T p d V
dni

i 1 ni T , p , n
j ( j i )

F
dG SdT Vdp
dni

i 1 ni T ,V , n
j ( j i )

G
d G S d T Vd p
dni

i 1 ni T , p , n
j ( j i )
r

G
F

n
n
i T , p ,n j ( ji ) i T ,V ,n j ( ji )

G
F
i

ni T , p ,n j ( j i ) ni T ,V , n j ( ji )

1 mol i G
1 mol i F
44

dG SdT Vdp i dni

i 1

dF SdT pdV i dni

i 1

dG i dni 0
i 1

dn
i 1

dF i dni 0
i 1

45

a Aa b Ab c Ac d Ad
()

dna

dnb

dnc

dnd

dn
i 1

dni i d

ii d 0
i 1

i 1

i i

0
46

i 1

i i
Pr

i i
Re

Pr

Re

47

Pr

Pr

Pr

<

>

Re

Re

Re

48


49