EE212-Electronics

Dr Mohsin Jamil
mohsin@smme.nust.edu.pk

Semiconductor

Semiconductors are materials

whose electrical properties lie
between Conductors and
Insulators.
Ex : Silicon and Germanium

Atomic Structure

Elements are made of atoms

110 Elements; each has an atomic
structure
Today, quarks and leptons, and their
antiparticles, are candidates for being the
fundamental building blocks from which
all else is made!

Bohr Model
Atoms have planetary structure
Atoms are made of nucleus (Protons (+)
& Neutrons) and electrons (-)

Atomic Structure

Atoms go around the nucleolus in their orbits

discrete distances
Each orbit has some energy level
The closer the orbit to the nucleus the less energy it
has
Group of orbits called shell
Electrons on the same shell have similar energy level
Valence shell is the outmost shell
Valence shell has valence electrons ready to be
freed
Number of electrons (Ne) on each shell (n)

Ne = 2n2

First shell has 2 electrons

Second shell has 8 electrons (not shown here)

Valence Shell

Atoms are made of valence shell

and core
Core includes nucleus and other
inner shells
For a Carbon atom the atomic
number is 6
Core charge = 6 P + 2 e = (+6)+(2)=(+4)
Remember the first shell has 2
electrons

Elements

Basic categories
Conductors

Free electrons

Examples: Copper, silver

One valence electron , the e can
easily be freed

Always free
electrons

Insulators

Valence electrons are tightly

bounded to the atom

Semiconductors

Silicon, germanium (single

element)
Gallium arsenide, indium
phosphide (compounds)
They can act as conductors or
insulators

Conduction band is where

the electron leaves the
valence shell and becomes
free
Valence band is where the
outmost shell is

Semiconductors

Remember the further away from the

nucleus the less energy is required to
free the electrons
Germanium is less stable
Less energy is required to make the
electron to jump to the conduction band

When atoms combine to form a solid,

they arrange themselves in a
symmetrical patterns
Semiconductor atoms (silicon) form
crystals
Intrinsic crystals have no impurities

Conduction Electrons and Holes

Electrons exist only within prescribed

energy bands
These bands are separated by energy
gaps
When an electron jumps to the
conduction band it causes a hole
When electron falls back to its initial
valence recombination occurs
Consequently there are two different
types of currents

Hole current (electrons are the

minority carriers)
Electron current (holes are the
minority carriers)

Remember: We are interested in electrical current!

Doping

By adding impurities to the intrinsic

semiconductor we can change the conductivity
of the material this is called doping

N-type: pentavalent (atom with 5 valence

electrons) impurity atoms are added

N-type doping
P-type doping

[Sb(Antimony) + Si]
Negative charges (electrons) are generated
N-type has lots of free electrons

P-type: trivalent (atom with 3 valence

electrons) impurity atoms are added

[B(Boron) + Si]
Positive charges (holes) are generated
P-type has lots of holes

Diodes

N region has lots of free electrons

P region has lots of holes
At equilibrium: total number positive and negative
charges is the same (@ room temp)
At the pn junction the electrons and holes with different
charges form an electric field
In order to move electrons through the electric field
(generate current) we need some force (voltage)
This potential difference is called barrier voltage
When enough voltage is applied such that electrons are
moved then we are biasing the diode
Two layers of positive and negative charges for depletion
region the region near the pn-junction is depleted of
charge carriers)

Biasing Types of a Diode

Forward bias
Connected to the
negative side of
the battery

Bias voltage VBias > barrier voltage VBar

Reduction in + and ions smaller
depletion region
VBar Depends on material, doping, temp,
etc. (e.g., for silicon it is 0.7 V)

Reverse bias
Essentially a condition that prevents
electrons to pass through the diode
Very small reverse break down current
Larger depletion region is generated

Connected to the
positive side of
the battery

A
Anode
p region

K
Cathode
n region

Electronics
Umar Ansari
ansari@smme.nust.edu.pk

I-V Characteristics of Idea Diode

If the voltage across anode and cathode is greater than zero, the resistance
of an ideal diode is zero and current becomes infinite. However, if the voltage
is less than zero, the resistance becomes infinite and current is zero.

Diode first approximation

This models the diode as being ideal.
The first approximation ignores leakage current, barrier
potential and bulk resistance.
When an ideal diode is forward biased, the model is a
closed switch.
When an ideal diode is reverse biased, the model is an
open switch.

Diode first approximation

The Ideal Diode Model
Example: Assume the diode in the circuit below is ideal. Determine the value
of ID if a) VA= 5 volts (forward bias) and b) VA= 5 volts (reverse bias)

Diode second approximation

This model assumes that no diode current flows until

the forward bias across the diode reaches 0.7 volts.
This model ignores the exact shape of the knee.
This model ignores the diodes bulk resistance.

Diode second approximation

The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential
Example: To be more accurate than just using the ideal diode model include
the barrier potential. Assume V= 0.3 volts (typical for a germanium diode)
Determine the value of ID if VA= 5 volts (forward bias).

Diode third approximation

This model assumes that no diode current flows until

the forward bias across the diode reaches 0.7 volts.
This model ignores the exact shape of the knee.
This model does account for the diodes bulk
resistance.

Diode third approximation

Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential and Linear Forward Resistance
Example: Assume the diode is a lowpower diode with a forward resistance
value of 5 ohms. The barrier potential voltage is still: V= 0.3 volts (typical for
a germanium diode) Determine the value of ID if VA= 5 volts.

Diode third approximation

IdealDiodeModel

100mA

IdealDiodeModel
withBarrierPotential
Voltage

IdealDiodeModel
withBarrierPotential
andLinearForward
Resistance

94mA

85.5mA

Thesearethevaluesfoundintheexamplesonprevious
slideswheretheappliedvoltagewas5volts,thebarrier
potentialwas0.3voltsandthelinearforwardresistance
valuewasassumedtobe5ohms.

Diode resistance

Bulkresistance
Forwardresistance
DCorstaticresistance
ACordynamicresistance
Averageresistance

Bulk resistance

Withforwardbias,diodecurrentincreasesrapidly
beyondthekneevoltage.
Smallincreasesinvoltagecauselargeincreasesin
current.
Theohmicresistance ofthepandnmaterialiscalled
thebulkresistance.
ThebulkresistanceisoftenlessthanoneOhm.

Bulk resistance

Forward resistance

DC resistance

AC resistance

Average AC resistance

V-I Curve

V-I Curve

V-I Curve

Electronics
Umar Ansari
ansari@smme.nust.edu.pk

Load Line

Q point of diode

Power Supply design

Diode Rectifier

Diode Rectifier

Diode Rectifier
Halfwaverectifiersignals
Thedcvalueoftheoutputistheaverage
value.
Vdc=VP/
fout=fin
Secondapproximation:
VP(out)=VP(in)0.7V

Transformer
Whentheturnsratio(N1/N2)isgreaterthan
1,theprimaryvoltageissteppeddown.
Whentheturnsratioislessthan1,the
primaryvoltageissteppedup.
Dottedendshavethesameinstantaneous
phase.
Fullwaverectifiersrequireawindingwitha
centertap.

Center Tap Transformer

Full wave Rectifier

Diode Rectifier
Fullwaverectifier
Thedcvalueoftheoutputisthe
averagevalue.
Vdc=2VP/
fout=2fhalfwave
Secondapproximation:
VP(out)=VP(in)0.7V

Bridge Rectifier

Diode
Rectifier
Full wave
Rectifier
Bridgerectifier
Vdc=2VP/
fout=2fhalfwave
Secondapproximation:
VP(out)=VP(in)1.4V

Filtration

Capacitor-input Filter
Most widely used in power supplies
The peak value of the rectified signal passes
to the load resistor
With a large capacitor, ripple is small

Capacitor-input Filter

Power Supply design

Capacitor-input Filter

Capacitor-input Filter

Capacitor-input Filter

Power Supply Block Diagram

Electronics
Umar Ansari
ansari@smme.nust.edu.pk

Regulator
The regulator is a circuit that helps maintain
a fixed or constant output voltage.
Changes in the load or the AC line voltage
will cause the output voltage to vary.
Most electronic circuits cannot withstand the
variations since they are designed to work
properly with a fixed voltage.
The regulator fixes the output voltage to the
desired level then maintains that value
despite any output or input variations.

The ripple created by the rectifier can be

unacceptable to sensitive load; therefore, a regulator is
required to obtain a very stable output.
Three diodes operate as a primitive regulator

Zener As Regulator

Zener I-V Characteristic

Voltage Regulator

Zener diode is a voltage regulator device

because it is able to fix the output voltage at a
constant value (DC voltage).
R1 is to limit the zener current, IZ so that it is
less than the maximum current, IZM(to avoid
the zener diode from broken).

Other Applications of diodes

Clipper circuits
Clamper circuits

Clipper Circuit
Clipper circuits have the ability to clip
off a portion of the input signal without
distorting the remaining part of the
alternating waveform.

10

Clipper Circuit

Clamper Circuit
The clamping network clamp a signal to different dc
level without altering the wave-shape.
The network will have a capacitor, a diode and a resistive
element.

The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such that the

time constant t = RC is large enough to ensure that the
voltage across the capacitor does not discharge
significantly during the interval the diode is nonconducting

12

Diode :- Clamper
Positive Clamper

The circuit for a positive

clamper is shown in the
figure. During the negative
half cycle of the input signal,
the diode conducts and acts
like a short circuit. The output
voltage Vo 0 volts . The
capacitor is charged to the
peak value of input voltage
Vm. and it behaves like a
battery. During the positive
half of the input signal, the
diode does not conduct and
acts as an open circuit. Hence
the output voltage Vo Vm+ Vm
This gives a positively
clamped voltage.

Vo Vm+ Vm = 2 Vm

Diode :- Clamper
Positive Clamper

Diode :- Clamper
Negative Clamper
During the positive half
cycle the diode conducts
and acts like a short circuit.
The capacitor charges to
peak value of input voltage
Vm. During this interval the
output Vo which is taken
across the short circuit will
be zero During the negative
half cycle, the diode is open.

Vo -Vm- Vm = -2 Vm

Diode :- Clamper
Negative Clamper

Electronics
Umar Ansari
ansari@smme.nust.edu.pk

INTRODUCTION - BJT
Three terminal device

Basic Principle
Voltage between two terminals controls current flowing in the third
terminal.

Device is used in discrete and integrated circuits and can act as :

Amplifier
Logic Gates
Memory Circuits
Switches

Invented in 1948 at Bell Telephone Industries

INTRODUCTION
MOSFET has taken over BJT since 1970s for designing of
integrated circuits but still BJT performance under sever
environment is much better than MOSFET e.g. Automotive
Electronics

BJT is used in
Very high frequency applications (Wireless Comm)
Very high speed digital logics circuit (Emitter Coupled Logic)

Innovative circuit combine MOSFET being high-input

resistance and low power operating devices with BJT merits
of being high current handling capacity and very high
frequency operation known as BiMOS or BiCMOS

INTRODUCTION
Study would include
Physical operation of BJT
Terminal Characteristics
Circuit Models
Analysis and design of transistor circuits

A simplified structure of the npn transistor.

Device Structure & Physical Operation

npn & pnp Transistor
Three terminal ---- Emitter, Base, Collector
Consists of two pn junctions
np-pn -------- npn
pn-np -------- pnp

Modes
Cutoff, Active, Saturation, Reverse Active

Junctions
Emitter Base Junction (EBJ)
Collector-Base Junction (CBJ)

TWO EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT SHAPES OF TRANSISTOR

A simplified structure of the pnp transistor.

Current flow in an npn transistor biased to operate in the active mode.

Common parameters
npn & pnp BJT

1
iB iE
iE

iE iB 1iB

Electronics
Umar Ansari
ansari@smme.nust.edu.pk

Electronics

Umar Ansari
ansari@smme.nust.edu.pk

Analog vs Digital System

Real world (lab) is analog

V
t
Computer (binary) is digital

V
t
D/A Conversion

A/D Conversion

Computer

DAC

DAC

Electronics
Umar Ansari
ansari@smme.nust.edu.pk

Binary Adder

Electronics
Umar Ansari
ansari@smme.nust.edu.pk

What are Karnaugh maps?

Karnaugh maps provide an alternative way of simplifying
logic circuits.
Instead of using Boolean algebra simplification
techniques, you can transfer logic values from a Boolean
statement or a truth table into a Karnaugh map.
The arrangement of 0's and 1's within the map helps
you to visualise the logic relationships between the
variables and leads directly to a simplified Boolean
statement.

1Named

for the American electrical engineer Maurice Karnaugh.

Karnaugh maps
Karnaugh maps, or K-maps, are often used to simplify logic problems with 2, 3
or 4 variables.
Cell = 2n ,where n is a number of variables
For the case of 2 variables, we form a map consisting of 22=4 cells
as shown in Figure
A
B

A
B

A B A B

00

A B A B

01

Maxterm

0
1

10
11

2
3

0
1

AB
A B AB
AB

Minterm

Karnaugh maps
3 variables Karnaugh map
Cell = 23=8

AB
C

00

01
0

10
6

A B C A BC ABC AB C
1

11

A B C A BC ABC AB C

Karnaugh maps
4 variables Karnaugh map
AB

CD

00

01

11

10

12

13

15

11

14

10

00
01
11
10

Karnaugh maps
The Karnaugh map is completed by entering a '1(or
0) in each of the appropriate cells.
Within the map, adjacent cells containing 1's (or 0s)
are grouped together in twos, fours, or eights.

Example
2-variable Karnaugh maps are trivial but can be used to introduce
the methods you need to learn. The map for a 2-input OR gate
looks like this:
A
0
1
B
A
1
Y
0
B

1
B

A+B

Example
AC
A

AB

00

1
B

01

11

10

1
1

B AC

Design of a 2/1 Mux

2/1 mux Block Diagram
D0

D1

Truth Table
S D1 D0
0 0 0

O
0

0 0 1
0 1 0

1
0

0
1
1
1
1

1
0
0
1
1

1 1
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

Design of 2/1 Mux Continued

K-Map
B

SA 00

01

O = SA + SB

11

10

4/1 Mux
Circuit

Uses of Multiplexers
Used in data communications for several
computers to communicate over 1 line
Used in radio to select one channel from many
Used to route data within a computer
Used for function generation

What is Demultiplexer (DEMUX)

Typical Applications of a DEMUX

1 to 2 Demultiplexer
Truth Table
S D

01 O0

0 0

0 1

1 0

1 1

Circuit

Encoder and Decoder

Binary decoders
Converts an n-bit code to a single active output
Can be developed using AND/OR gates
Can be used to implement logic circuits.

Binary encoders
Converts one of 2n inputs to an n-bit output
Useful for compressing data
Can be developed using AND/OR gates

Both encoders and decoders are extensively used in digital

systems

Binary Decoder
Black box with n input lines and 2n output
lines
Only one output is a 1 for any given input
n
inputs

Binary
Decoder

2n outputs

Encoders
If the a decoder's output code has fewer bits
than the input code, the device is usually
called an encoder.
e.g. 2n-to-n
The simplest encoder is a 2n-to-n binary
encoder
One of 2n inputs = 1
Output is an n-bit binary number

2n
inputs

.
.
.

Binary
encoder

.
.
.

n
outputs