D.

Basic concept of tolerance

E. Interaction/ relationships

Symbiotic relationship = One benefiting and intimate

1. Mutualism (+, +) close relationship where both parties benefit. Both species will benefit from the relationship
and many of these relationships are ling-lasting.
Example: Cleaning symbiosis
In the ocean, certain species, like shrimps and gobies, will clean fish. They remove parasites, dead
tissue, and mucous.
Example: Dogs and humans have enjoyed a mutualistic symbiosis for centuries.
The dogs supply protection and companionship and the humans provide food and shelter.
2. Commensalism (+, 0) one of the organisms benefits greatly from the symbiosis. The other is not helped but
is not harmed or damaged from the relationship. In other words, this is a one-sided symbiotic relationship.
Example: The relationship between cattle egrets and cattle.
The cattle egret will eat insects that have been disturbed when the cattle forage.
The organism that is reaping the benefit will use the other for protection or transportation.
Example: A hermit crab taking up residence in an empty seashell.
Example: A spider building a web on a tree.
This is in contrast with mutualism, in which both organisms benefit from each other, amensalism, where one is
harmed while the other is unaffected, and parasitism, where one benefits while the other is harmed.
3. Phoresy - the act of 'hitching a lift' on another organism. As invertebrates are small and not all have wings
many travel comparatively long distances by using other, more mobile, organisms. For example, flower mites are
wingless and so use foraging bees to travel to new flowers.
An association between two species in which one transports the other, for example when a mite attaches
to a beetle and is carried to anew food source.

Trophic relationship
1. Herbivory - Herbivory is the eating of plant material for energy and can assist the plants
with seed distribution.
- The prey does not necessarily have to be an animal, but can also be a plant. When prey is a
plant, the relationship would be called anherbivore plant relationship.
A perfect example of this would be, Galapagos tortoises e cactus plants that grow on the Galapagos
Islands. (Bar-Yam, 2011).
Example are the koalas. They have a special digestive system that allows them to break down tough
eucalyptus leaves and remain unharmed by its poison (National Geographic).
Finally, a squirrel is the herbivore (predator) and the nuts he eats are the plant (prey).

2. Parasitism (+, - ) one organism benefits from the relationship but at the expense of the other. The
organism may live inside the others body or on its surface. In some of these parasitic relationships the host
dies and in others, it is important that the host remain alive.
Example: Fleas and mosquitoes feed on blood from other organisms.
In this type of parasitic relationship, the host needs to stay alive and it is not damaged greatly.
Example: Barnacles that attach to the bodies of whales.
The whale is not harmed greatly, but may have some pain or itching.
Example: Tapeworms
Tapeworms do more damage to their hosts because they eat partially digested food and that deprives the
host of
some food and nourishment.
Example: Aphids
Aphids eat sap from plants.

3. Predation (+, -) is a biological interaction where a predator (an organism that is hunting) feeds on
its prey (the organism that is attacked). Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but
the act of predation often results in the death of its prey and the eventual absorption of the prey's tissue
through consumption. Thus predation is often, though not always, carnivory.
Behavioral Relationships
1. Competition - is the conflict between organisms for a limited essential resource. The idea of a limited resource
is key here, so don't forget it! If resources are unlimited or plentiful, then competition will not occur because
organisms will not waste time or energy in a pointless fight.
- negative interaction that occurs among organisms whenever two or more organisms require the
same limited resource.
2. Cooperation - process where groups of organisms work or act together for common or mutual benefits. It is
commonly defined as any adaptation that has evolved, at least in part, to increase the reproductive success of the
actor's social partners.
Trophic level
1. Producers ( autotroph ) makes its own food
2. Consumers ( heterotroph ) must consume its energy from other source
3. Decomposers ( detritivore/ saprotroph ) break down dead or decaying organisms, and in doing so, carry
out the natural process of decomposition
F. Spheres

Lithosphere - is the solid, rocky crust covering entire planet. This crust is inorganic and is composed of minerals.
It covers the entire surface of the earth from the top of Mount Everest to the bottom of the Mariana Trench.

Hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or near the earth.

The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds our planet. Most of our atmosphere is located close to the
earth's surface where it is most dense. The air of our planet is 78% nitrogen and just under 21% oxygen; the small
amount remaining is composed of carbon dioxide and other gasses.

Biosphere- is all of the portions of the earth inhabited by life, including ecosystems on land, water and air

G. Energy and nutrient relations

Autotrophs produce own food

Heterotrophs not capable of producing own food

H. Population growth and regulation

a. Characteristics of population
1. Natality birth rate fecundity
2. Mortality death rate
Type 1 curve
Type 2 curve
Type 3 curve
3. Density number of individuals per unit area
Counts
Sample size estimate
Indirect indication
Mark recapture
4. Age structure - relative number of individuals of each age
Pre-reproductive
Reproductive sustains pre and post
Post-reproductive
5. Dispersion/distribution- pattern of spacing in the area
Random no formal distribution, no effect with each other
Clumped- grouping/ patchy aggregation
- Resource = large clumping
Uniform- even spacing
- compete with nutrients (maganda)
6. Migration mass movement as opposed to DISPERSAL=movement of individuals

b. Types of population growth

1. Exponential growth (k-selected) If a population has a constant birth rate through time and is never
limited by food or disease, it has what is known as exponential growth. With exponential growth the birth
rate alone controls how fast (or slow) the population grows.

1. Logistics growth(r-selected) In a population showing exponential growth the individuals are not limited
by food or disease. However, in most real populations both food and disease become important as
conditions become crowded. There is an upper limit to the number of individuals the environment can
support. Ecologists refer to this as the "carrying capacity" of the environment. Populations in this kind of
environment show what is known as logistic growth.

I. Community
a. Characteristics
Species diversity can be measured

Species richness as the number of species

Species evenness as the relative abundance of species

J. Succession - observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological communityover time. The time
scale can be decades (for example, after a wildfire), or even millions of years after a mass extinction.
Primary succession is initiated when a new area that has never previously supported an ecological community is
colonized by plants and animals. This could be on newly exposed rock surfaces from landslides or lava flows.
Secondary succession occurs when an area that has previously had an ecological community is so disturbed or
changed that the original community was destroyed and a new community moves in. This is more common than primary
succession, and is often the result of natural disasters such as fires, floods, and winds, as well as human interference
logging and clear cutting
H. Environmental problems

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse
change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the
components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.

Red tide is a phenomenon caused by algal blooms (Wikipedia definition) during which algae become so
numerous that they discolor coastal waters (hence the name "red tide"). The algal bloom may also deplete
oxygen in the waters and/or release toxins that may cause illness in humans and other animals

Flooding is a common natural disaster, and also very common in many places where rains fall.

Desertification the process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or
inappropriate agriculture.

Deforestation is the clearing of trees, transforming a forest into cleared land

slash-and-burn with no return to forest, and farmers in all areas attributed deforestation to kaingin rather than to
commercial logging. Farmers had responded to deforestation by planting or regenerating trees on their lands.

Smog-fog or haze combined with smoke and other atmospheric pollutants.

Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it possesses elevated
levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and infrastructure.

Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline
of about 4% in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime
decrease in stratospheric ozonearound Earth's polar regions.

Global warming is the term used to describe a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth's
atmosphere and its oceans, a change that is believed to be permanently changing the Earth's climate.

Scarcity of resources