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Section 3: Waves
a) Units
b) Properties of waves
c) The electromagnetic spectrum
d) Light and sound

a) Units
3.1 use the following units: degree (o), herts (Hz), meter (m), meter/second (m/s), second (s).

S.
No

Quantity

unit

Symb
ol

Frequency
Definition:

Number of vibrations in a second.

OR

number of cycles in a second

Hertz

or

Hz

Cycles/sec
ond

OR

Total number of waves passing through a single point/mark in a

second.

Meter

Wavelength

Definition: distance between two consecutive crest or trough.

S.
No

Quantity

Speed of waves

unit

Symb
ol

Meter/seco
nd

m/s

continue on next page

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S.N
o

Quantity

unit

Symbol

Meter

Amplitude

Definition:
Maximum displacement of particle/atom/molecule or any
object from mean position.

S.N
o

Quantity

unit

Symbol

Second

Time period or Period

Definition:

Time taken to complete one vibration.

OR
5
Time taken for a wave to pass through a single point.

The definition of time period and frequency look similar

because they are inversely related to each other.

f = 1/T or T = 1/f

Note: It is discussed in section 3.3

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General Wave Properties

(a) describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibrations in ropes and springs and by experiments
using a ripple tank.
What is a wave?
The motion of ropes and springs and experiments by ripple tank shows that energy is trasported from one place to another while
matter is only temporarily disturbed.

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(b) state what is meant by the term wavefront.

A wave is graphically represented by sine or cosine curve as shown below

If we draw vertical lines through each crest then these lines are called wavefront as shown below

The wavefronts are then straight parallel lines as shown below

Wavefronts are easier way of representing waves than sine and cosine curve.
The distance between two consecutive wavefronts is called one wavelength.

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(c) define the terms speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude and do calculations using velocity =
frequency wavelength.

Definitions are given in chart shown above.

Definitions are given in section 3.1. Graphical representation as shown below.

Amplitude of the waves contains energy. Higher the amplitude higher the amount of energy that waves contains.
Learn following equation by heart.
wave speed = frequency wavelength
v=f
Learn following equation by heart.
wave speed = frequency wavelength
v=f
Q- Calculate the frequency of the wave having wavelenght= 1 x 10-7 m and speed = 3 x 105 km/s ?
Solution:
Apply

v = f x formula and then plug the values and play. But first convert kilometer/second into meter/second as meter is

standard unit not kilometer.

Therefore, v would become 3 x 108 m/s
Hence,
3 x 108 = f x 1 x 10-7 m
so, f = 3 x 1015 Hz

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(d) describe transverse and longitudinal waves in such a way as to illustrate the differences between them.

Wave is a travelling disturbance that carries energy and information from one place to another without carrying matter.

There are two types of waves i- longitudinal waves ii- trasnverse waves

Longitudinal Wave:
Such a wave motion in which particles vibrate parallel to the direction of wave motion.
As you can see in the video, disturbance is occuring in the same direction as the lenght of the spring--both horizontal.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aguCWnbRETU
Longitudinal wave has two major parts
i) Compression: where particles (atoms or molecules) are compressed, it's a high pressure region.
ii) Rarefaction: Where particles (atoms or molecules in real situations) are expanded. It is an expansion region where pressure
is low.

The distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions is called wavelength of the longitudinal wave.

The movement of longitudinal wave can be seen as the movement of compression and rarefaction.

Examples of Longitudinal waves: Sound waves, Seismic P-waves & wave in spring are some naturally occuring waves.

Transverse waves:

Such a wave in which particles disturbed/vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave motion.

Common example water wave, light waves, waves in ropes, stadium waves and all electromagnetic waves.
These waves can be shown on ropes and springs. Tie one end and wiggle from the other. Rope or Spring would move up and down
while you would observe motion going forward.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UHcse1jJAto
Atoms of the robe are moving at 900 to the direction of wave motion. As shown below

Graphical Comparison Of Longitudinal And Transverse Waves.

Key difference stems out from their definitions i.e. in longitudinal wave, particles move parallel while in transverse waves
particles move perpendicular to the direction of wave motion.
In transverse waves there are regions of crest and trough while in longitudinal waves there are regions of compression and
rarefaction.
In graphical way these regions can be related to each other in this fashion

watch the following video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rbuhdo0AZDU

Some Important Stuff about WAVES:

How movement of wave is shown?

It is difficult to draw many longitudinal and transverse wave to shown the movement of the waves. Instead we draw Rays
(arrows to show direction of the travel); also we draw wavefronts (lines perpendicular to the to the rays). Wavefronts could
be spherical or linear but they always intersect at 900 to the rays. The distance between two consecutive wavefronts is called
wavelength.
wavefronts and rays. Look at the following video
http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/dripvideo.htm
The video shows the production of waves by a single droplet. The waves produced spread out in all directions in a circular
fashion. The circular parts are called the crest of the wave.
We use two diagrams one to show the increasingly outward moving cirular rings (crest of waves)--- called wavefronts and a
diagram to show the direction of movement of these waves-- rays.

Circular wavefronts are drawn to show for all directions. Some time drawing of circular wavefronts is not suitable we just
need to draw Plane wavefront for one direction only.

The distance between two consecutive wavefronts is called one wavelength. You will encounter wavefront in reflection,
refraction and diffraction of waves. Look at the following video if you are more curious.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3si4bE4hDLA

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(e) describe the use of a ripple tank to show

(1) reflection at a plane surface,
(2) refraction due to a change of speed at constant frequency.

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(f) describe simple experiments to show the reflection and refraction of sound waves.

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(a) define the terms used in reflection including normal, angle of incidence and angle of reflection.

Law of reflection: Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.

This law is always valid for on irregular surfaces as well.

In terms of wavefronts

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(b) describe an experiment to illustrate the law of reflection.

http://edexcel-cie.com/cie-o-level-section-4-waves.html?start=9 download

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(c) describe an experiment to find the position and characteristics of an optical image formed by a plane mirror.
Look at the following animations
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/optics/ifpm.cfm
http://reflection-plane-mirrors.wikispaces.com/
http://stwww.weizmann.ac.il/lasers/laserweb/Java/MirrImge/Imageme1.htm
http://www.physicstutorials.org/home/optics/reflection-of-light/plane-mirrors-and-image-formation-in-plane-mirrors
http://dev.physicslab.org/Document.aspx?doctype=3&;filename=GeometricOptics_PlaneMirrors.xml
http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=206.0

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(d) state that for reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection and use this in
constructions, measurements and calculations.

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(e) define the terms used in refraction including angle of incidence, angle of refraction and refractive index.

Angle of Incidence: The angle measured from the normal with which a ray hits the boundary between two mediums of different
density.
Angle of Refraction: The angle measured from the normal with which a ray enters a medium of different density.
Refractive Index: Property of the medium/substance by which it can bring change in speed and direction of light waves.

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(f) describe experiments to show refraction of light through glass blocks.

Define refraction:
When light passes from a medium of different densities then light's speed and direction changes. This change in direction and speed
of light is called refration.
This is due to refration of light that a pencil half dipped in water glass would appear distorted like the one shown below.

When light enters from less denser medium to more denser medium as shown below from air to glass.

In terms of wavefront bending can be shown as

In this condition, from air to glass-less denser medium to more denser medium, light will bend towards the normal. Normal line is the
reference line from which all angles are measured. It's essential line.
However, when light moves from more denser to less denser medium then it will bend away from normal.

In above diagram, light ray is going away from normal in glass.

Higher refractive index means larger bending.

Apparatus: Rectangular glass block with one face frosted, two ray boxes, piece of paper.
Procedure:
o
o
o
o

Place the glass block on a piece of paper with the frosted side down.
Send two narrow rays of light through the glass block as shown in fig.
Observe the paths of the two rays of light.
Vary the angle of incidence " i " and measure the angle of refraction " r ".

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(g) do calculations using the equation sin i /sin r = constant.

Where " i " is the angle of incidence and " r " is the angle of refraction. " n " is refractive index of the material.

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(h) define the terms critical angle and total internal reflection.

Critical Angle:
Critical angle and total internal reflection is only possible when light is travelling from denser to less denser medium. For example:
from glass to air, glass to water, water to air etc.

Look at the figure above, light rays are coming from denser medium i.e. water and going into air-less dense medium. As you can see
that as the angle of incident is increased the refracted rays' angle would also increase and rays would start to bend towards the
surface. Look at the pink rays , the left one is refracted at 90 0 to the surface. The angle of incidence at which this happens is called
critical angle.
Definition of Critical Angle:
Critical angle is defined as the angle of incidence(in denser medium) for which the angle of refraction (in less dense
medium) is 900
Definition of Total Internal Reflection:

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(i) describe experiments to show total internal reflection.

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(j) describe the use of optical fibres in telecommunications and state the advantages of their use.

Optical Fibers
Optical fibers are communication cables which carry information in the form of visible light waves. There are two parts of fiber optics
the inner part or centre which is called core and outer part called is cladding. These two parts have different refractive index and are
made of glass fibers which are easily bendable.
Refractive of inner part(core) is greater than outer part(cladding). This is done so that light waves do not go out of the cable and can
totally internally reflected till it reaches its destination.
Why light waves, why not sound waves are used to carry information?
Light waves can carry more information than sound because of their high frequency. If you were using sound waves to open YouTube
then you have to wait for your hair to grey.
Several optical fiber cables are bundled together to make a single cable.

Principle working of Optical Fiber:

It works on the principle of Total Internal Reflection.

How does it work?

Light is injected into the inner core of fiber at a certain angle where it bents towards the normal. This angle is chosen in such a way
that it could make critical angle inside. Then when it reaches cladding(outer part) which has smaller refractive index then instead of
going out of the fiber optics it totally internally reflects.

Inside view or cross sectional view is shown below

Uses of Optical Fiber

1.

Illuminating models or road signs using only one bulb

2.

Endoscopy - seeing down inside a patients body

3.

Communications sending information along a light beam. Useful for telephone, television, radio, computer networks, stereo

links, control in aircraft

4.

Security fencing very difficult to bypass

5.

Fibre optic lamp

Advantages of fibre optics over copper wire

1.

Cheap glass is made from silica, the basic constituent of sand

2.

Light in weight useful in aircraft

3.

Light beam can carry a huge amount of information

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(k) describe the action of thin lenses (both converging and diverging) on a beam of light.
What are lenses?
Lenses are thin transparent material made up of glass, plastic etc.
When light passes through them they refract the light either to a single point or away from the single point.
Types of Lenses:
There are two simple types of lenses
i- Convex lense

ii- Concave lense

Convex Lense: This lense is thicker at the centre than at the edges.

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(l) define the term focal length.

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(m) *draw ray diagrams to illustrate the formation of real and virtual images of an object by a lens.

The images formed by both lenses are at sometimes quite funny.

However, you need to understand few principles to understand the formation of images.
i- There are two things 1- Object: the real thing that we try to look through lense 2- Image: The thing that is appeared to us when we
use lense to see it.
ii- The image has a nature, it could be
1- Real

= Real Image is always formed behind the lense or opposite side to the position of the Object

2- Virtual = Virtual Image is always apparently formed infront of lense or to the same side of the Object.
3- Same sized as that of Object = Image would have the same size i.e. height and width as that of the object.
4- Magnified = Is larger than the size of the object
5- Upright/Erect = If the object's head is up then Image head would also be up.
6- Inverted/upside down = If the object's head is down then Image head would also be down.
7- Diminished = Size of the image is smaller than the size of the object.

iii- The position & the nature of the image is affected by the the position of the object and the thickness of the lense.
A thick lense is a strong lense, and its focal length is reduced. While, a thin lense is a weak lense with a long focal length.
Note: Ignore the thickness byte as this is not a part of the course.

(n) define the term linear magnification and *draw scale diagrams to determine the focal length needed for
particular values of magnification (converging lens only).