c

1. What are the sensory „
 
 æ The sensory nerves for taste
are cranial nerves: the 
 (7th) and  
„  (9th). P. 372

2. What are the layers of the alimentary tubeæ Alimentary tube has 4
layers: the    
„  



c3. What kind of epithelium lines the esophagusæ In the esophagus the
epithelium is 



 
P.376

4. What kind of epithelium lines the stomach and intestinesæ In the stomach
and intestines it is 
   „

 
P.376

5. What kind of serosacdo we have for the esophagus above and below the
diaphragmæ

Above the diaphragm, for the esophagus, the 
the outermostlayer

is 

 „„ 
 
 . Below the diaphragm, the serosa is the
  „
 or 



„  a serous membraneÊcP.376

6. 


„of fats happens in what part of the GI tractæ

The digestive function of the bile is accomplished by the 

  which
emulsify fats
„ 
„ 
„ ÊcP. 379

7. Where do  

„
 receive blood fromæ P.379

The capillaries of a lobule are sinusoids, large and very permeable vessels
between the rows of liver cells. The sinusoids receive blood from both the
 


 and 

„. The hepatic artery brings oxygenated
blood, & the portal vein brings blood from the digestive organs and spleen.

8. What is the „

 
 „ 
„ 



The only digestive function of the liver is the production of 

  Bile enters
the small bile ducts, called bile „

 on the liver cells, which unite to
form larger ducts and finally merge to form the  
 , which takes
bile out of the liver. The hepatic duct unites with the 
  of the
gallbladder to form the „
  , which takes bile to the
duodenum. P. 379

9. What is the 

„ 

„
 æ

Bile is mostly water and has an 

„ 

„ in that it carries




„ and    
 to the intestines for elimination in feces.
P. 379

10. 


„

„
 
„

Emulsification means that large fat globules are broken into smaller
globules. This is  „
, not chemical digestion; the fat is still fat but
now has more surface area to facilitate chemical digestion. P. 379

11. What are the different

„ 
„ „ æ

 
  - convert peptides to amino acids.


 - converts sucrose to glucose and fructose.

 - converts maltose to glucose.

!  - converts lactose to glucose and galactose. P. 374 Table 16-1

12. What are 




 and where are they locatedæ





 is the circular folds of the mucosa and submucosa of the
small intestine; increase the surface area for absorption. P. 577

Most absorption of the end products of digestion takes place in the small
intestine. The process of absorption requires a large surface area, which is
provided by several structural modifications of the small intestine such as:






„









 or circular folds are macroscopic folds of the mucosa and
submucosa, somewhat like accordion pleats. The mucosa is further folded
into projections called 

, which give the inner surface of the intestine
velvet like appearance.



are the brush border. These folds greatly
increase the surface area of the intestinal lining, for absorption of nutrients
that take place from the lumen of the intestine into the vessels within the
villi. P. 383

13. How many  „

and„„"  „

„
 do we haveæ

#$ „„"  „
 
„ 
 that can be synthesized by the liver; this
chemical process is called 
„
„
„of amino group (%&$'.

( „
 
„
 that cannot be synthesized by the liver and must
be obtain from proteins in the diet.

Of the 20 different amino acids needed for the production of human

proteins, the liver is able to synthesize #$, called the „„"  „

„
acids (meaning that the amino acids do not have to be supplied in our food
because the liver can make them.) The other ( amino acids, which the liver
cannot synthesize, are called the  „

„
. Essential means
that the amino acids must be supplied by our food, because the liver
cannot manufacture them. P. 388

14. What are the )„ 

„ 

æ

1. *

  
 - liver regulates the blood     .
Excess glucose is converted to   „+  „ 
) when blood
glucose level is high (controlled by
„
„ & 

l h.). During
  
or stress, glycogen is converted to glucose (glycogenolysis)
to raise the blood glucose level (controlled by
„ 

„ &  „ h.).

2. ,
„
 
-liver regulates blood levels of aminoacids
based on tissue needs for protein synthesis. .
„
„
„ process is to
form 12 nonessential amino acids. / 
„
„ ± conversion of amino
acids to simple carbohydrate or fat. Excess a. a. are utilized for energy.

3!

 
± liver forms 


„ (molecules of lipids &
proteins) to transport of fats in the blood to other tissues; „ 
 
 
& if excess excretes it into bile to be eliminated in feces; 0 "


„ process ± for source of energy & cell respiration 
are
broken down to smaller molecules.

4. „ 
 

„± liver synthesize 
„ to help
maintain blood volume; produce 
„ 
 for blood clotting
(prothrombin, fibrogen, & Factor 8); synthesize alpha & beta 
„ as
carrier molecules such as fats, in the blood..

5. 1

„



„± old RBCs are phagocytized, & bilirubin is
formed from the heme portion of hemoglobin and put into bile to be
eliminated in feces.

6.  
2 
  (the fixed macrophages or stellate
reticuloendothelial cells of the liver) ± phagocytize & destroy 30* and
 

, especially bacteria absorbed by the colon removing them from
the blood before blood returns to the heart.

7. 
 of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, and the water-soluble

vitamin B12, minerals iron and copper.

8. / 


„- liver enzymes change potential poisons to less harmful
substances, such as alcohol, medications, & ammonia absorbed by the
colon. P. 388, 392

#4. * 
 are proteins that contain either

„
 
are
foundin the
 „

 P.403

16. !  „  are small masses of  

 
 found just
beneath the epithelium of all   
„ .

17. Examples of lymph nodules: those of the 

„ 
„ are called
 
5   ; those of the 
„ are called „
 (palatine,
 „
 (pharyngeal tonsil), lingual).
Nodes and Nodules differ in size and location. Nodes are larger, 10 to 20
mm in length, and are „   ; „  range from a fraction of a
millimeter to several millimeters in length and  „     .
P.324

18. Where are produced T cellsæ The thymus produces T lymphocytes or

T cells. (pg 326)

The thymus has stem cells that produce a significant portion of the .
   
. (help recognize foreign antigens and may directly
destroy some foreign antigens by disrupting cell membranes). .  

„

± attacking antigens. (pg 326)
19. * " 
 
„
6the mechanism of adaptive immunity that
 „
„ „

 
„, but rather the destruction of
foreign antigens by the activities of . „
  
/  „

„  
 
„  „

 but is effective against
intracellular pathogens (such as viruses), fungi, malignant cells, and grafts
of foreign tissue. (pg330)
&

„
 (,2, ,„
" 
 
„
): is the
mechanism of adaptive immunity that
„  „

 
„ and
the destruction of foreign antigens by the activities of 0 , T cells, and
macrophages. Read P. 330

20. !
„ is made of 7 pieces of cartilage „„    

 „
(p.346)
21. .
   contains #8  $9 C-shaped pieces of cartilage, which keep
the trachea open.

22! „$  ± Superior lobe & Inferior lobe.

3
„:  ± Superior, Middle & Inferior.

23. 
„



„: is the exchange of gases between the air in the
alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries. In this case ³external´
means the exchange that involves air from the external environment,
though the  „    

„ „.

;„
„



„: is the exchange of gases between the blood in the
systematic capillaries and the tissue fluid (cells) of the body. P.354

24. What is 


„5!

The force of contraction of cardiac muscle fibers is determined by the

length of the fibers; the more cardiac muscle fibers are 
  , the more

  „
 . P. 583

Heart rate (pulse) increases during exercise, and so does stroke volume.
The
„
 
„ 
   
  
  

„5    
 
, which states that the more the cardiac muscle fibers are stretched,
the more forcefully they contract. P. 283

During exercise, more blood returns to the heart; this is called  „


„. Increased venous return stretches the myocardium of the
ventricles, which contract more forcefully and pump more blood, thereby
increasing stroke volume (Starling¶s Law). P.288, 307

25. What makes up the

„
„ „  
„ 
vs. the 
„ „
 
„ 
æ
The
„
„ anal sphincter is made of    . As part of the
reflex, the sphincter relaxes, permitting defecation to take place.
The 
„ anal sphincter is made of      and surrounds
the internal anal sphincter. If defecation must be delayed, the external
sphincter may be voluntarily contracted to close the anus. P.386

26. What kind of <$ „ *<$ is the 


„    
æ The air in the
alveoli has high PO2 and low PCO2. P.355

27. What kind of PO2 and PCO2 is in the 

„   „




æ The blood in the pulmonary capillaries has <$ „

*<$. p355

The blood in the pulmonary capillaries, which has just come from the body,
has a low PO2 and a high PCO2. Therefore, in external respiration, oxygen
diffuses from the air in the alveoli to the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses
from the blood to the air in the alveoli. The blood that returns to the heart
now has a high PO2 and a low PCO2 and is pumped by the left ventricle
into systemic circulation. P. 355

.  


  
    
 


 has 
 <$
and  *<$. The body cells and tissue fluid have low PO2 and high
PCO2 because cells continuously use oxygen in cell respiration (energy
production) and produce carbon dioxide in this process.

28. Where do you find the



 „
æ The respiratory centers
are in the  „ „.p363 Within the Pons are the two respiratory
centers that work with those in the medulla to produce a normal breathing
rhythm. P. 176

29. Impulses from the   are transmitted by what
„
„
 æ
The impulses from taste buds are transmitted by the 
 and
 
„  () and 7 cranial) nerves to the taste areas in the


"  
 = 
 .
30. What are the steps in 

„

„ 
„ 2
„ æ

The kidneys form urine from blood plasma. Blood flow through the kidneys
is a major factor in determining urinary output.c

Ý

 


„ is the 

  in urine formation. Glomerular
filtration-takes place from the gomerulus to Bowman¶s capsule. Filtration is
not selective in terms of usefulness of materials; it is selective only in terms
of size. High blood pressure in the glomeruli forces plasma, dissolved
materials, and small proteins into Bowman's capsules; the fluid is now
called renal filtrate.c

Filtration is selective only in terms of size; blood cells and large proteins
remain in the blood.c

GFR is 100 to 125 mL per minute. Increased blood flow to the kidney
increase GFR; decreased blood flow decreases GFR.c

.




„ is selective in terms of usefulness. Nutrients such
as glucose, amino acids, and vitamins are reabsorbed by  
 
„ 

and may have renal threshold levels. 

 
„ are reabsorbed by
 
 
„ 
 and „ 
 
„ are reabsorbed most often by 


„ 
 >
is reabsorbed by 
, and 

„ are
reabsorbed by
„ 
c

Reabsorption takes place from the filtrate in the renal tubules to the blood
in the peritubular capillaries.c

.


„ takes place from the blood in the peritubular capillaries
to the filtrate in the renal tubules and can ensure that wastes such as
creatinine or excess H+ ions are actively put into the filtrate to be excreted.
Secretion of H+ ions helps maintain pH of blood.c

Hormones such as aldosterone, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), antidiuretic

hormone (ANH), and parathyroid hormone influence the reabsorption of
water and help maintain normal volume and blood pressure. The secretion
of ADH determines whether concentrated or dilute urine will be formed.

. #("# &
„ „ 2

„ 6
&
„ 6 ,„



 
„  +,/&' in the (posterior pituitary) ±
increases reabsorption of water from the filtrate to the blood.




 
„  +.&' in the (parathyroid glands) ± increases
reabsorption of Ca+2 ions from filtrate to the blood and excretion of
phosphate ions into the filtrate.

,
„ - (adrenal cortex)

„
  reabsorption of %? ions from
the filtrate to the blood and excretion of K+ ions into the filtrate. Water is
reabsorbed following the reabsoption of sodium.

,

 „



 
  +,%) - (atria of the heart) ± 
 
reabsoption of %? ions, which remain in the filtrate. More sodium and
water are eliminated in urine.

Waste products remain in the renal filtrate and are excreted in urine. P.427-
428 &436; Table 18-1

31. What are the steps in >
„

„ æ

Hypothalamus contains osmoreceptors that detect changes in the

osmolarity (concentration of dissolved materials present) of body fluids.c

Dehydration raises the osmolarity of the blood (less water in proportion to

the amount of dissolved materials).c

Hypothalamus is also involved in water balance because of its production

of ADH which is stored in the posterior pituitary gland.c

During dehydration, hypothalamus stimulates the release of ADH which will

increase the reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules.c

Hormone 
„ from the adrenal cortex helps regulate water output
by increasing the reabsorption of Na+ ions by the kidney tubules and water
from the renal filtrate follows the Na+ ions back to the blood.c

Water intoxication (too much water in the body) by over-consumption of

fluids, symptoms include dizziness, abdominal cramps, nausea and
lethargy and possible convulsions. Handout Chapter 19
32. The 

    is the sequence of events in one heartbeat. The
purpose of the cardiac cycle is to effectively pump blood. The

  

(low pressure system) delivers deoxygenated blood to the lungs. Here
oxygen is picked up and carbon dioxide is breathed off. The   
 (high
pressure system) delivers oxygenated blood to the body (systematic
circulation).
The heart beats in two synchronized stages. First, the RA and LA contract
(systole) at the same time pumping blood into the RV and LV. Then the mitral
and tricuspid valves close. A split second later, the ventricles contract (beat)
simultaneously to pump blood out of the heart. Together, these coordinated
contractions produce the familiar ³lub-dub´ sound of a heart beat²slightly
faster than once a second. After contracting, the heart muscles momentarily
relax (diastole), allowing blood to refill the heart.

1. During atrial diastole, blood from the superior vena cavae and the coronary
sinus enters the RA right atrium.

2. RA right atrium fills and distends, pushing the tricuspid valve open and the
RV fills.

3. Same sequence occurs a split second earlier in the left side, LA receives
blood from the 4 pulmonary veins (2 from the right lung and 2 from the left),
leaflets of the mitral valve open as the left atrium (LA) fills and blood flows in
the LV left ventrivle.

Ventricles are 70% filled before the atrial contraction and an additional 30%
during atrial contraction.

4. Ventricular systole occurs as atrial diastole begins.

As ventricles contracts, blood is propelled through the systemic and

pulmonary circulation and toward the atria.

5. The SL semilunar valves close and the heart then begins a period of
ventricular diastole during which the ventricles begin to passively fill with blood
and both atria and ventricles are relaxed.

Semilunar valves: pulmonic and aortic valves prevent backlow of blood from
the aorta and pulmonary arteries into the ventricles during diastole.

As the heart
  dark red blood returning from the body flows into the
right atrium (RA). This blood is deoxygenated from the superior vena cava
(from the head and upper extremities), inferior vena cava (from the lower
body) and the coronary sinus (from the intracardiac circulation) and is laden
with carbon dioxide, which is produced by body tissues. When the RA
contracts, it propels oxygen-poor blood through the tricuspid valve into the
RV. In turn, the RV pumps blood into the pulmonary artery. From there, it
flows into the lungs where it picks up oxygen and returns to the   


+!,'+ „   blood from the lungs) via right and left „

„.
When it contracts, the LA pumps the now bright red oxygenated blood through
the mitral valve into the LV, which pumps it into the aorta, from which it is
distributed to other arteries to nourish cells, tissues, and organs. Then the
cycle begins again. P. 277,278, 279, Chapter 12 ± handout.

01
 & 


The circulation is driven by the movement of blood generated by the events

of the cardiac cycle.

1. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body tissues
2. The right ventricle then pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery
3. Oxygenated blood returns to the pulmonary veins.
4. The left ventricle then pumps a volume of blood into the aorta.

The system of blood vessels that carries blood to the lungs and back is
called the „



„. All other blood vessels in the body are
collectively known as the  



„. The 

 „



  ( 


„

 ) prevent backflow of blood during
ventricular „
 
„+ ). The 

and „
 valves open
during systole, then close during diastole to prevent backflow of blood. In
the following sequence, the heart fills with blood, excitation of the cardiac
muscle occurs and the ventricles contract to expel a single stroke volume
into the circulation.

%   


   
 - the atria continually receive
blood from the veins; as pressure within the atria increases, the AV valves
are opened. Two-thirds of the atrial blood flows passively into the
ventricles; atrial contraction pumps the remaining blood into the ventricles;
the atria then relax. The ventricles contract, which closes the AV valves
and opens the aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves. Ventricular
contraction pumps all blood into the arteries. The ventricles then relax.
Meanwhile, blood is filling the atria, and the cycle begins again. Systole
means contraction; diastole means relaxation. In the cardiac cycle, atrial
systole is followed by ventricular systole. When the ventricles are in
systole, the atria are in diastole. The mechanical events of the cardiac
cycle keep blood moving from the veins through the heart and into the
arteries. P. 287

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 c
::@@4 
 are the chemicals that dissolve in water and
dissociate into their positive and negative ions. Most electrolytes are the

„
„
, 
 and   found in all body fluids.

Electrolytes help create the 

 of body fluids and therefore, help
regulate the 
 of water between water compartments.

Some important electrolytes in the body are 

 (Na+ ), Potassium
(2?), *
 (Ca2+), „ 
 (Mg2+ ), *

 (Cl-),  
(HPO42-), 0

„ (HCO3-),  (SO4-)c 
„

 and


„. These electrolytes are dissolved in the body fluid. They serve
various important functions in the body.

Electrolytes are part of the food and beverages we consume, are absorbed
by the Ý;
  into the blood, & become part of body fluids (
„ ).

<  ± electrolytes lost in: 

„ (not reabsorbed by kidney tubules;
most Na+ ions),   (most are Na+ ions and Cl- ions),   (not
absorbed by small intestine or colon).
 
 
 0„
They keep the body's balance of 
 

   and
Help maintain normal functions, such as
à & 
rhythm,
à   contraction, and
à 0

„function.

 : Electrolytes play a critical role in almost every metabolic reaction
in the body. For example, they:

à Help control water balance and fluid distribution in the body.

à Create an electrical gradient across cell membranes that are
necessary for muscle contraction and nerve transmission.

à Regulate the acidity (pH) of the blood.

à Help regulate the level of oxygen in the blood.
à Are involved in moving nutrients into cells and waste products out of
cells.

The 
„  help maintain  
  „ „

„ by filtering
electrolytes from blood, returning some electrolytes, and excreting any
excess into the urine. Thus, the 
„ help maintain a „ between
daily consumption and excretion.
P. 425, 427, 428 „



„+
„ '6

#, 
 
„ 
 ± renal tubule use ATP to transport most of the useful
materials from 

   (glucose, AA, vitamins, & cations).

The reabsorption of *? ions is

„
  by +.&' parathyroid hormone.
The parathyroid glands secrete PTH when the  
  
decreases. The reabsorption of Ca+ ions by the kidneys is one of the
mechanisms by which the  
   is

 back to normal.

The hormone 
„ , secreted by adrenal cortex,

„
  the
reabsorption of %? ions & the 

„ of 2? ions. Water is reabsorbed
following the reabsorption of sodium; aldosterone also affects the volume of
the blood.

$
 
„ 
 ± many of the „
„ that are returned to the blood
are reabsorbed following reabsorption of 
„ because unlike charges
attract.

3.<
± reabsorption of H2O follows the reabsorption of minerals,
especially sodium Na+ ions.

Hormones such as aldosterone, ANP, and ADH influence the reabsorption

of water and help maintain normal blood volume & blood pressure.

P. 444 Electrolytes help create the 

 of body fluids and,
therefore, help regulate the 
 of H2O between water
compartments. <

 is the concentration of dissolved materials
present in a fluid.

@
„ 
 ± small proteins are too large to be reabsorbed by active
transport; they are engulfed by proximal tubule cells.

@@43 
6
„ 
  
 

Hormones regulate the extracellular fluid (*1' concentrations of some

electrolytes.
,
„
„
  the reabsorption of %? ions & the 

„ of
2? ions by the kidneys. The blood sodium Na+ level is thereby raised and
the blood potassium level is lowered. Increase blood volume and pressure.

,

„



 
 +,%) or ,%&
„
  the excretion of Na+
ions by the kidneys and lowers the blood sodium level. By increasing the
elimination of Na+ & H2O, ANP lowers blood volume and blood pressure.

.&and *
„
„ regulate the blood levels of 
+*) and
  +&<@"$'. .&
„
  the reabsorption of these minerals
from bones, & increases their absorption from food in the small intestine
(vitamin D is also necessary). *
„
„ promotes the
 of calcium
& phosphate from the  to form „ 

.

* 
#8,

„6 most of absorption of the end products of
digestion takes place in the 
„ 
„ . The absorption of nutrients
takes place from the  „ of the
„ 
„ into the   

„ 


. Water-soluble nutrients are absorbed into the blood in the capillary
networks. Water is absorbed by 
 following the absorption of
minerals, especially sodium (Na).

*„absorbs water, minerals, and vitamins together with positive and

negative ions (cations & anions). Everything absorbed by the colon
circulates first to the 

by way of portal circulation. !

stores vitamins
and minerals.

Please read chapters 16, 18(P. 425, 427, 428, Table 18-1, Figure 18-5);
19(P. 445, 446, Table 19-2; Box 19-2);

34. What are the factors that influence your  
 
„æ
& 
„   „

  



„

Heat production influence by: Chapter 17 Handout, P.396

# &
„ .@+.


„ '.:+.


„
„ '
„
 the
 
of cell respiration and heat production, T4 is regulated by the body¶s
rate of energy production, when metabolic rate decreases, T4 is
secreted more, which increases the rate of cell respiration.
 $ In 
 situations,
„ 

„  and „

„ 

„ are secreted
by the adrenal medulla ±   
stimulation more active,
increased ATP & heat production.
: , 
  
„ continuously produce heat. !

 provides approx
20% of the resting body heat;      produce 25% of the
total body heat at rest.
@ 1
„  increases activity of the 
 
  
 . Heat is
generated as the digestive organs produce ATP for


 & for
the synthesis of digestive enzymes ± increases heat production.
4 Changes in  

, higher temp increases metabolic rate
which increases heat production & elevates body temp further.

35. What is the difference between



„ and „ 
„
(temperature)æ

3

„ means that heat from the body is transferred to cooler objects
„ 
„ 
„; much as a radiator warms the contents of a room
(radiation starts to become less effective when the environmental
temperature rises above ((1).

*„ 
„ is the loss of heat to cooler air or objects, such as clothing,
that   
„. P. 397

36. The substances that may cause a fever are called 
 „.

 „ include bacteria, foreign proteins, and chemicals released during
inflammation (endogenous pyrogens). 
 „ chemically affect the
hypothalamus and A

    
„B of the hypothalamic thermostat; it
stimulate body to raise body temperature to this higher setting. P. 399

37. ,„
 is 

„  of body cells and substances from
nutrients. ,„
 means synthesis or ³

„B reactions, the
bonding together of smaller molecules to form larger ones (hemoglobin by
red bone marrow cells; synthesis of glycogen by liver cells). Such reactions



 „
, usually in the form ,. (adenosine triphosphate).

*
 is 

„ „ of body cells or substances, releasing
energy and carbon dioxide. Catabolism means   

„, the
breaking of bonds of larger molecules to form smaller molecules. Cell
respiration is a series of catabolic reactions that 
 „ food
molecules to CO2 & H2O. During catabolism, „
 is often
   and
used to synthesize ATP. The ATP formed during catabolism is then used
for energy-requiring anabolic reactions.

Most of anabolic and catabolic reactions are   „ 

38. Ý  breakdown involves 3 stages:  

+  ', 2






   , and  
 +
  
„) transport system.

Ý 
 is the first stage of the cell respiration of glucose, in which
glucose is broken down to two molecules of pyruvic acid and ATP is
formed; „

 +„ <$


'; takes place in the   of
cells. P.564

2
   is second stage of cell respiration comprising a series of

reactions in which pyruvic acid or acetyl CoA is broken down to carbon
dioxide and ATP is formed; 

 +


 <$'; takes place in the

 „

 of cells. P.568


:7 * „ is synthesized by whatæ 0 


„ * + 

 
) is
synthesis of  „, especially for wound healing. P. 409

40. What are the $

 that the 

 „„„ 
 æ

The liver can synthesize most of the fatty acids needed by the body. Two
exceptions are 
„
acid and 
„ „

, which are essential fatty
acids and must be obtained from the diet. P.408

41. C

„ are what kind of chemicals vs.
„
æ

C

„ are 
„
molecules needed in very small amounts for normal
body functioning. C

„is an 
„
molecule needed in small
amounts by the body for normal metabolism or growth. P.588

„
 are simple
„
„
chemicals and have a variety of functions.
P.408.
„
 is an
„
„
element or compound; many are
needed by the body for normal metabolism and growth. P.571
42. What is the metabolic activity of  
„ vs. the metabolic activity
of 
 „æ

Sex hormones ± . 
„  (stimulated by LH) increases metabolic

activity to a greater degree than does 
 „(stimulated by FSH', giving
 „a slightly 

 
rate than  „ Also,  „ tend to have

  , an active tissue, whereas  „ tend to have 
, a
relatively inactive tissue. P.412

43. Where are the 

„   æ The 2 kidneys are located in the
upper abdominal cavity on either side of the vertebral column, behind the
peritoneum (



„ ). The upper portions of the kidneys rest on the
lower surface of the diaphragm and are enclosed and protected by the
lower rib cage.

@@! 
„  

„„„ 
„ 
„6
3 „*
  is the outermost tissue layer of the kidney, it is made of renal
corpuscles and convoluted tubules (parts of nephron). P. 421

3 „  is the inner tissue layer of the kidney, which is made of

loops of Henle and collecting tubules (also parts of the nephron). The renal
medulla consists of wedge-shaped pieces called renal pyramids. P. 421

3 „ 

 ± The renal medulla consists of wedge-shaped pieces
(the triangular segments) called renal pyramids. The tip of each pyramid is
its apex or papilla. P 421

3 „
 ± The kidneys are embedded in adipose tissue that acts as a
cushion and is in turn covered by a fibrous connective tissue membrane
called the
„
, which helps hold the kidneys in place. P. 421

* 6 funnel shaped extensions of the renal pelvis, called  ;

enclose the papillae of the renal pyramids and collects urine. Urine flows
from the renal pyramids into the calyces, then to the renal pelvis and out
into the ureter. P. 421

0„5    (or 

capsule) is the expanded end of a

renal tubule; it encloses the glomerulus. The
„„
 
 of Bowman¶s
capsule is made of   ; the name means ³foot cells,´ and the ³feet´
of the podocytes are on the surface of the glomerular capillaries. The
arrangement of podocytes
  
, spaces between adjacent ³feet´,
which makes this layer 

  . The 
 
of Bowman¶s
capsule „ 
 and is not permeable.

The space between the inner and outer layers of Bowman¶s capsule
contains renal filtrate, the fluid that is formed from the blood in the
glomerulus and will eventually become urine. P 424

The pressure in Bowman¶s capsule is very low, and its inner, prodocyte
layer is very permeable, so that about 20% to 25% of the blood that enters
glomeruli becomes renal filtrate in Bowman¶s capsules.

0„5   is the expanded end of the renal tubule that encloses

a glomerulus; receives filtrate from the glomerulus. P.552

% 
„is the structural and functional unit of the kidney that forms urine;
consists of renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. P. 572

Each kidney contains approx 1 million nephrons. It is in the nephrons, with

their associated blood vessels, that urine is formed. Each nephron has 2
major portions: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. P. 421

3 „   - The renal tubule continues from Bowman¶s capsule and

consists of the following parts:

 „   (in the renal
cortex),    & „ (or loop of the nephron, in the renal medulla), and

 „    (in the renal cortex). The distal convoluted
tubules from several nephrons empty into a  
„  . Several
collecting tubules then unite to form a papillary duct that empties urine into
a calyx of the renal pelvis. All parts of the renal tubule are surrounded by
peritubular capillaries, which arise from the efferent arteriole. P. 424

3 „  is the part of a nephron that consists of a proximal

convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting
tubule; the site of tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion. P. 580




 


6 all parts of the renal tubule are surrounded by
peritubular capillaries which arise from the efferent arteriole. The
peritubular capillaries will receive the materials reabsorbed by the renal
tubules. P. 424
Ý13 - 




„
 is the amount of renal filtrate formed by
the kidneys in 1 minute, and averages 100 to 125 mL per minute. GFR
may be altered if the rate of blood flows through the kidney changes. If
blood flow increases, the GFR increases, and more filtrate is formed. If
blood flow decreases (as may happen following a severe hemorrhage), the
GFR decreases, less filtrate is formed, and urinary output decreases. P424
& 423

D 
„
 !. :8"4988"(46
:8 




„ :  

„           
  ; changes in the diameter of arteries have effects on blood
pressure. These vessels have to be slightly „

 
+ „


„) to maintain normal diastolic blood pressure. Greater
vasoconstriction will increase BP; vasodilation will decrease BP. P. 308

:) &  

  : a type of circulatory shock caused by a

 
„   . P.566 Often due to severe hemorrhage;

   
„ (heat stroke) or extreme   
through the
kidneys (


) or intestines (


 ). In these situations, the heart
simply does not have enough blood to pump, and cardiac output
decreases. ,„  
  , also in this category, is a massive



 
„ in which great amounts of 

„ increase capillary
permeability & vasodilation throughout the body. Much plasma is then lost
to tissue spaces, which 
     

 „


  P. 314

:( 
  is the result of  

, the presence of  


„
   The bacteria and damaged tissues release
„

 
 that cause vasodilation and extensive   
„

   .
:7!  is the name for 
 
 „
  


.
Similar to plasma, but more WBCs are present, and has less protein.
Lymph must be returned to the blood to maintain blood volume and blood
pressure. P.322, 338 ! : the water found within lymphatic vessels. P.
569

@9 ,„
 „ p.327 Are chemical markers that identify cells. Human cells
have their own antigens that identify all the cells in an individual as A B
+  &!,   >0*' When antigens are foreign or A„„" B they
may be recognized as such and destroyed.

Foreign antigens stimulate antibody production or other immune

responses, and include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and malignant
cells.

@# ,„

 AKA called
„  
„ +;' or  
„
are proteins shaped somewhat like the letter (Y). Antibodies do not
themselves destroy foreign antigens, but rather become attached to such
antigens to A B them for destruction. Each antibody produced is
specific for only one antigen. Antibodies bond to the foreign antigen to label
it for phagocytosis ( „

„). P.332

,„
: a protein molecule produced by plasma cells that is specific for
and will bond to a particular 

„„
 „. P.550

@$ ,
„
„ means clumping, and this is what happens when
antibodies bind to bacterial cells. The bacteria that are clumped together by
attached antibodies are more easily phagocytized by macrophages. p.334

,
„
„: clumping of blood cells or microorganisms; the result of an
antigen-antibody reaction. P.548

@: %   is the vertical plate made of bone and cartilage that
 
  „ 

. P.572

The 2 „ 

 are within the skull, separated by the „ ,
which is a bony plate made of the ethmoid bone and vomer. P. 344

@@ „
 
 „6 A lipoprotein secreted by the alveoli in the

lungs; reduces the surface tension within alveoli to permit inflation. P.578

For alveoli walls not to stick together because of the surface tension of
water (this problem) is overcome by „
 
 „, a lipoprotein
secreted by alveolar type II cells, also called   . Surfactant mixes
with the tissue fluid within the alveoli and 
 

  „
„,



„
„
„  
. p. 347

45. What is &

„   
„  
  æ P.351 AKA






 „
  +3/) of the newborn and most often affects
premature infants   „   „  
  

„
„

  „
 
 „ 


„
„     

Without surfactant, the surface tension of the tissue fluid lining the alveoli
causes the air sacs to collapse after each breath rather than remain
inflated. Each breath is difficult, and newborn must expend a great deal of
energy just to breathe.

46. What is the content of air we

„ æ The content of the air we inhale
(the earth¶s atmosphere) is approx $#E  „ and 99@E 
„


 . Although most ()(E) of the atmosphere is „

 „, this gas is
not physiologically available to us, and we simply exhale it. P.354

47. What is the content of the air we  æ The exhaled air contains
about #8E „ and @4E 
„

 and some nitrogen (78% of
the atmosphere is nitrogen). p354

48. What is 
  æ .
 C ²the amount of air involved in
one normal inhalation and exhalation. The average tidal volume is 500 mL,
but many people often have lower tidal volumes because of shallow
breathing. (Average 400-600 mL) P.353

49. What is 
„ 



 + 3C)æ 3C² „

„  „  

„ # 
„ . MRV is calculated by multiplying tidal
volume by the number of respirations per minute (average range: 12 to 20
per minute). If tidal volume is 500 mL and the respiratory rate is 12 breaths
per min, the MRV is 6000 mL, or 6 liters of air per minute, which is average.
P.353

50. What is the 

  
æ C
  
 is the sum of tidal volume,
inspiratory reserve, and expiratory reserve. Stated another way, 

 
 is the amount of air involved in the deepest inhalation followed by
the most forceful exhalation. Average range of vital capacity is 3500 to
5000 mL. P.353

88/ „
„P.372

Within the enamel is  „

„, which is very similar to bone and is produced
by cells, called „. Dentin also forms the roots of a tooth.

/ „
„ is the bone-like substance that forms the inner crown and the roots
of a tooth. P. 558
67.   
 P. 372

The innermost portion of a tooth is the   

, which contains blood
vessels and nerve endings of the 

 
„„
 +4
„
„
 ).

Erosion of the enamel and dentin layers by bacterial acids (dental caries or
cavities) may result in bacterial invasion of the pulp cavity and a very
painful toothache.

68. .„ P.372

The Tongue is made of      that is innervated by the

  „
  (12th cranial nerves). On the upper surface of the
tongue, are small projections called 
 , many of which contain taste
buds. The sensory nerves for taste are also cranial nerves: the facial (7th)
and glossophangeal (9th).

The sense of taste is important because it   

„ „F  but
the tongue has other functions:  
„ is efficient because of the action
of the tongue in keeping the food between the teeth and 

„ it with

 Elevation of the tongue is the first step in 
„.

87

„ P.372

The parotid glands are the pair of salivary glands just below and in front of
the ears.

70.„

„ P.372

,2,

„ are at the posterior corners of the mandible.

71. 
„„ are below the floor of the mouth.

Each of these 3 glands (exocrine glands) have the same function ± has at
least one duct that  
 
 
.

72. 

  is the 
 
  „ 
„ 
, which breaks
down starch molecules to shorter chains of glucose molecules, or to
maltose, a disaccharide. P.372
73. !+
    
„ 
). At the junction with the stomach,
the lumen (cavity) of the esophagus is surrounded by the 

    
„ 
(LES or 

   
„ 
), a circular 
  . The LES relaxes to permit food to enter the stomach, then
contracts to prevent the backup of stomach contents. If the LES does not
close completely, gastric juice may splash up into the esophagus; this
painful condition we call heartburn, or gastroesophangeal reflux disease
(Ý3/). P. 373

74.
„
5   ± The nerve networks in the submucosa of the
alimentary tube layer; are called Meissner¶s plexus or submucosal plexus,
and they innervate the mucosa to regulate secretions. Parasympathetic
impulses increase secretions, whereas sympathetic impulses decrease
secretions. P. 376

„
5   ± the autonomic nerve plexus in the submucosa of the
organs of the alimentary tube; regulates secretions of the glands in the
mucosa of these organs (aka    ).

  - Y
Y c 

c 

c  blood vessels and lymphatic
vessels;
 „
5   is a nerve network that innervates the
mucosa, part of the enteric nervous system that extends the entire length of
the alimentary tube.

75. What is ,
 5   ,
 5   (or  „


 ) is the portion of the enteric nervous system in this layer (external
muscle layer of the alimentary tube) and some of its millions of neurons are
autonomic. Sympathetic impulses decrease contractions and peristalsis
(motility), whereas parasympathetic impulses increase contractions and
peristalsis (motility), promoting normal digestion. P. 376

,
 5   +  „

  ' is the autonomic nerve
plexus in the external muscle layer of the organs of the alimentary tube;
regulates the contractions of the external muscle layer.P.551

76. What are the 


 The 


 are the glands of the
stomach and consist of several types of cells; their collective secretions are
called gastric juice. P. 376 the collective secretions; mucous cells which
secrete  , *
  secrete 
„ „, and 

 
produce 
 


 with enzymes called proton pumps. P. 377
The glands of the mucosa of the stomach; secrete gastric juice. P. 563

77. *
  ± Chief cells secrete 
„ „, an inactive form of the
enzyme pepsin. (Stomach) P. 377

*
  the cells of the gastric pits of the stomach that secrete
pepsinogen, the inactive form of the digestive enzyme pepsin.

78. 

  ± Parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid (HCl); these
cells have enzymes called proton pumps, which secrete H+ ions into the
stomach cavity. The H+ ions unite with Cl- ions that have diffused from the
parietal cells to form HCl in the lumen of the stomach. HCl converts
pepsinogen to pepsin, which then begins the digestion of proteins to
polypeptides, and also gives gastric juice its pH of 1 to 2. This very acidic
pH is necessary for pepsin to function and also kills most microorganisms
that enter the stomach. The parietal cells also secrete intrinsic factor, which
is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 P. 377

Parietal cells the cells of the gastric pits of the stomach that secrete

 


 and the
„

„
 
. P.575

79. Presence of food in the stomach causes Ý  aka

„
 „

„ cells secrete the hormone 

„, a hormone that
stimulates the secretion of greater amounts of gastric juice. P. 377

80 0
   ± the digestive function of bile is accomplished by bile
salts, which 
 fats in the small intestine. Emulsification means that
large fat globules are broken into smaller globules. This is mechanical, not
chemical, digestion; the fat is still fat but now has more surface area to
facilitate chemical digestion. P. 379 The emulsifying or fat-separating
action of bile salts increase the surface area of fats so that lipase works
effectively.

Bile salts are necessary for the efficient absorption of fatty acids and the
fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K).

81. *„ 
    ± the hepatic duct unites with the cystic duct of
the gallbladder to form the common bile duct, which takes bile to the
duodenum. (Liver) P. 379
*„
   the duct formed by the union of the hepatic duct from
the liver and the cystic duct from the gallbladder, and joined by the main
pancreatic duct; carries bile and pancreatic juice to the duodenum. P.556

82. 

„± Secretion of pancreatic juice is stimulated by the hormones
secretin and cholecystokinin, which are produced by the duodenal mucosa
when chyme enters the small intestine. 

„ stimulates the production
of bicarbonate juice by the pancreas, and  
„
„ stimulates the


„  „

 „ . P. 381



„ is a hormone secreted by the duodenum when food enters;
stimulates secretion of bile by the liver and secretion of bicarbonate
pancreatic juice. P.581

83. * 

„
„ when fatty foods enter the duodenum, the
enteroendocrine cells of the duodenal mucosa secrete the hormone
 
„
„. This hormone stimulates contraction of the smooth
muscle in the wall of the 
, which forces bile into the cystic duct,
then into the common bile duct, and on into the duodenum. P. 379
Contraction of the gallbladder ± the chemical regulation is cholecystokinin-
produced by the enteroendocrine cells of the duodenum when chyme
enters. When enzyme pancreatic juice is secreted ± cholecystokinin is
released from the duodenum. P. 381

* 
„
„ a hormone secreted by the  „ when food
enters: stimulates contraction of the gallbladder and secretion of „ 
pancreatic juice. P.554

84. .
 
„6 Trypsinogen is an inactive enzyme that is changed to active

 
„ in the duodenum. Trypsin digests polypeptides to shorter chains of
amino acids. P. 379

.
 
„ is a digestive enzyme that breaks down proteins into polypeptides;
secreted by the pancreas. P.586

85. *


„ ± lipid protein complexes ± Fat-soluble nutrients are
absorbed into the lymph in the lacteals of the villi. Bile salts are necessary
for the efficient absorption of fatty acids and the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D,
E & K). Once absorbed, fatty acids are recombined with glycerol to form
triglycerides. These triglycerides then form globules that include
cholesterol and protein, these are the lipid-protein complexes called
 

„. In the form of chylomicrons, most absorbed fat is
transported by the lymph and eventually enters the blood in the left
subclavian vein. P. 384

*

„ is a small fat globule formed by the small intestine from
absorbed fatty acids and glycerol. P.555
c