India

India
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India
I
INTRODUCTION
India(inHindi,Bharat),officiallyRepublicofIndia,federaldemocracyinsouthernAsiaandamember
oftheCommonwealthofNations,comprising,withPakistanandBangladesh,thesubcontinentof
India.Indiaistheseventh-largestcountryintheworldandthesecondmostpopulous,afterChina.It
geographicallyconsistsoftheentireIndianpeninsulaandportionsoftheAsianmainland.Indiais
borderedonthenorthbyAfghanistan(ifPakistan-controlledKashmirisincluded),Tibet,Nepal,China,
andBhutan;onthesouthbythePalkStraitandtheGulfofMannar,whichseparateitfromSriLanka,
andtheIndianOcean;onthewestbytheArabianSeaandPakistan;ontheeastbyMyanmar
(Burma),theBayofBengalandBangladesh,whichalmostcutsoffnorth-eastIndiafromtherestof
thecountry.WithJammuandKashmir(thedefinitivestatusofwhichhasnotbeendetermined),India
hasanareaof3,165,596sqkm(1,222,243sqmi).ThecapitalofIndiaisNewDelhi,andthe
countryslargestcitiesareMumbai(formerlyBombay),Delhi,andKolkata(formerlyCalcutta).
II
LANDANDRESOURCES
Indiamaybedividedintofourmainregions:theHimalaya,thenorthernriver-plains,theDeccan
Plateau,andtheEasternandWesternGhats.
TheHimalayamountainsystemisabout160to320km(100to200mi)wideandextendsabout
2,410km(1,498mi)alongthenorthernandeasternmarginsoftheIndiansubcontinent,separatingit
fromtherestofAsia.Itisthehighest,youngest,andoneofthemostactivemountainsystemsinthe
world.NotablepeakswhollyorpartlywithinIndiaincludeKanchenjunga(8,598m/28,209ft),the
third-highestpeakintheworld,afterMountEverestandK2(MountGodwin-Austen),NangaParbat
(8,125m/26,657ft),NandaDevi(7,817m/25,645ft),Rakaposhi(7,788m/25,550ft),andKamet
(7,756m/25,447ft).
LyingsouthofandparalleltotheHimalayaisthenorthernplainsregion,avastbeltofflatlandsabout
280to400km(175to250mi)inwidth.Theregionistheworldslargestalluvialplainandcomprises
themajorpartoftheareawateredbytheIndus,theGanges,andtheBrahmaputrarivers.Becauseof
theabundanceofwaterandtherichalluvialsoil,thenorthernplainsarethemostfertileanddensely
populatedpartofIndiaandwerethecradleofitscivilization.Theyextendwest-eastfromthePakistan
bordertotheBangladeshborder,continuingeastintonorth-eastIndiaviathenarrowcorridorofland
nearDarjiling.
ThecentralandwesternportionsoftheIndianplainsregionarewateredbytheRiverGangesandits
tributaries,whichdrainthesouthernslopesoftheHimalaya;theregionisknownconsequentlyasthe
Gangeticplain.Thenorth-easternstatesofAssamandArunachalPradesharewateredbytheRiver
Brahmaputraanditsaffluents,whichriseinthenorthernrangesoftheHimalaya.TheBrahmaputra
crossesintoBangladeshnorthoftheKhasiHills.TheRiverIndusrisesinTibet,flowswestthrough
JammuandKashmirState,andcrossesintoPakistan.Onthesouth-westernborderwithPakistanthe
plainsgivewaytotheGreatIndianDesertandthesaltmarshesknownastheRannofKachchh.
Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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SouthoftheplainsliestheDeccanPlateau,avast,triangulartablelandoccupyingmostofpeninsular
India.Generallyrocky,theDeccanisanunevenplateaudividedintonaturalregionsbylowmountain
rangesanddeepvalleys.Elevationsrangefromabout305to915m(1,000to3,000ft),although
outcroppingsashighas1,524m(5,000ft)occur.TheDeccanisborderedbythemountainsystems
knownastheEasternGhatsandtheWesternGhats.
TheWesternGhats,asteepescarpmentoverlookingtheArabianSea,haveageneralelevationof
about915m(3,000ft).ThefertileMalabarCoastliesbetweentheWesternGhatsandtheArabian
Sea.TheEasternGhatsaverageabout460m(1,500ft)inheight.BetweenthemandtheBayof
Bengalisanarrowcoastalplain,theCoromandelCoast.Thetworangesmeetatthesouthernmost
pointoftheDeccan(nearBangalore)intheNilgiriHills.
Climate
Becauseofthepeninsularity,unusualtopography,andgeographicalpositionofIndia,climatic
conditionsarewidelydiversified,onbothaseasonalandregionalbasis.Thediversityrangesfrom
tropicaltotemperatezonalextremes;thetemperatureextremesareconfinedlargelytotheslopesof
theHimalaya.Exceptinthemoremountainousregions,mostoftherestofIndiahasauniformly
tropicalclimate.Seasonalvariations,resultingfromthesouth-westernandnorth-easternmonsoons,
profoundlyinfluencetemperature,humidity,andprecipitationthroughoutthesubcontinent.For
generalpurposes,theseasonsofIndiamaybeclassifiedasrainyanddry.Therainyseason,which
generallyextendsfromJunetoNovember,istheseasonofthesouth-westernmonsoon,amoisture-
ladenwindblowingofftheIndianOceanandtheArabianSea.BeginningearlyinJuneonthewestern
coastofthepeninsula,themonsoongraduallyaffectsalmosttheentirecountry.Duringthisseason,
rainfallcanbeveryheavyalongtheslopesoftheWesternGhatsitoftenreachesmorethan3,175
mm(125in).CherrapunjiintheKhasiHillsofnorth-easternIndiaranksasoneofthewettestplaces
onEarththevillagereceivedarecord-breaking22,987mm(905in)ofrainin1861anditsaverage
yearlyrainfallisabout10,920mm(430in).ThenearbyvillageofMawsynramholdstherecordofthe
worldshighestaverageannualrainfallwith11,873mm(467in)ayear.Meanannualprecipitation
alongthesouthernslopesoftheHimalayaisabout1,525mm(60in).Thesouth-westernmonsoon
failsattimes,causingdroughtsandoccasionallyfamine.However,therainsareamixedblessing.
Theyleadtotheproliferationofmalaria-carryingmosquitoes,whilethecontrastbetweenday- and
night-timetemperaturesencouragesrespiratorydisorders.Normally,thepowerofthemonsoon
diminishesinSeptember.
Thecoolseasonofthenorth-easternmonsoon,extendingfromearlyDecemberuntilaftertheendof
February,isusuallyaccompaniedbyextremelydryweatheralthoughseverestorms,attendedby
slightprecipitationonthenorthernplainsandheavysnowfallsintheHimalaya,sometimescrossthe
country.Thehotseason,beginningaboutthemiddleofMarchandextendinguntiltheonsetofthe
south-westernmonsoon,ismostoppressiveduringMay,whentemperaturesashighas51.7C(125
F)arenotuncommonincentralIndia.InthevicinityofKolkata,themeanannualtemperatureis
about26.1C(79F).Themeanannualtemperatureinthewest-centralcoastalregionofthe
peninsulaisabout27.8C(82F).AroundChennai(formerlyMadras)temperaturesrangebetween
about24.4and33.3C(76to92F),withanannualmeanofabout28.9C(84F).
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NaturalResources
IndiacontainsmorethantwothirdsoftheentireareaoftheIndiansubcontinent,includingmostof
thehighlyfertileGangeticplain.Inadditiontoextensivecultivableregions,acomprehensiveirrigation
network,andvaluablestandsoftimber,Indiahasmostoftheknownmineraldepositsofthe
subcontinent.However,thoughithasrichresources,inmanyareasthesehavenotyetbeenfully
exploited.
PlantsandAnimals
InthearidareasthatadjoinPakistan,thefloraissparseandlargelyherbaceous.Thornyspecies,
includingrepresentativesofthegeneraCapparis(caper)andZizyphus(jujube),arecommon.Bamboo
occursinsomeareas,andthepalmisamongthefewvarietiesoftrees.ThewetterGangeticplain
supportsmanyplantspecies.Vegetationisespeciallyluxuriantinthesouth-easternplains,wherethe
mangroveandthesal,ahardwood,flourish.
ManyvarietiesofarcticfloraarefoundonthehigherslopesoftheHimalaya.Thedenselyforested
lowerrangesoftheHimalayasupportnumerousspeciesofsubtropicalplants,notablythe
orchidaceae.Coniferousspecies,includingcedarandpine,predominateinthenorth-western
Himalaya.Totheeast,theHimalayanslopesaboundwithtropicalandsubtropicalvegetation,notably
therhododendron.Theoakandmagnoliaareamongthepredominanttrees.TheMalabarCoastofthe
south-westernpeninsulaandtheslopesoftheWesternGhats,areasofhighrainfall,arethickly
wooded.Evergreens,bamboo,andvaluabletimbervarieties,includingteak,predominateinthis
region.Extensivetractsofimpenetrablejungleoccurintheswampylowlandsandalongthelower
slopesoftheWesternGhats.ThevegetationoftheDeccanislessluxuriant,butthicketsofbamboo,
palm,anddeciduoustreesarefoundthroughoutthepeninsula.
Theforests,plains,hills,andmountainsofIndiaareinhabitedbyawidevarietyofanimallife.Thecat
familyiswellrepresented,withthetigerandpanther,snowandmainlandcloudedleopard,junglecat,
and,intheDeccan,thecheetah.Lionsarealsofound,thoughnowlimitedtotheGirNationalParkin
Gujarat.Strenuousnationalandinternationaleffortstoprotectthetiger,whichwasonceontheverge
ofextinction,haveresultedinahealthybuild-upofpopulationstoseveralthousand,protectedin
reservessuchasthatatRanthambore,inRajasthan.
TheAsianelephantisfoundalongthenorth-easternslopesoftheHimalayaandintheremoteforests
oftheDeccan.Therhinoceros,guar,blackbear,wolf,jackal,dhole,wildbuffalo,wildpig,andseveral
speciesofape,antelope,anddeerarealsoindigenoustoIndia.Variousspeciesofwildgoatandsheep
aswellastheibexandtheserow(relatedtothechamois)arefoundintheHimalayaandother
mountainousareas.Thepygmypig,bandicootrat,andtreemousearetypicalofthesmaller
mammals.
Indiahasmanydifferentkindsofsnake.Venomousspeciesincludethecobra,thedaboia,andsaltwatersnakes.Amongnon-venomousspecies,pythonsusefullyconsumedestructiverodents.
Indigenousreptilesalsoincludethecrocodile.Indiasbirdlifeincludesparrots,peacocks,kingfishers,
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andherons.TheriversandcoastalwatersofIndiateemwithfish,includingmanyediblevarieties.
EnvironmentalConcerns
Indiahasastrongconservationandenvironmentalprotectionmovement,whichhascampaignedand
lobbiedwithconsiderablesuccessagainstthedestructionofhabitatsthroughthedemandsof
continuingandrapidindustrialization,andpopulationpressures.Examplesofcampaignsincludethe
treehuggerswhohavefoughtdeforestationintheHimalaya,thepreventionoftheSilentValley
projectinKerala(amajorhydroelectricschemethatwouldhavedestroyedthehabitatofspecies
uniquetotheregion),andmostrecently,thelong,drawnout,andbitterbattletostopthemassive
NarmadaDamProjectinMadhyaPradeshandGujarat.Onanotherfront,environmentalistgroups
havedelayedtheTehriproject,involvingtheconstructionofdamsinahighlyseismicregionofthe
Himalaya.AmongthecurrentenvironmentalconcernsinIndiaaredeforestation,desertification,lack
ofaccesstowater,airandwaterpollution,andthestrainplacedonnaturalresourcesbyahugeand
growingpopulation.
III
POPULATION
ThediverseracialandculturaloriginsofthepeopleofIndiaareboundintricatelywiththoseofthe
otherpeoplesoftheIndiansubcontinent,includingtheinhabitantsofPakistan,Bangladesh,Nepal,
Bhutan,andSriLanka,aswellasthosefurtherafield.TheexactoriginsofmostIndianpeopleare
impossibletodeterminebecauseofthelargevarietyofracesandculturesthathaveinvadedandbeen
assimilatedintothesubcontinent.However,elementsofthreemajorracialgroupstheCaucasoid,the
Australoid,andtheMongoloidmaybefoundinpresent-dayIndia.Attimes,geographyand
environmenthaveencouragedsuccessivewavesofmigrantstominglewiththeindigenouspeoples.
However,environmentalandhistoricalfactorshavealsofavouredthecoexistenceinIndiaofmany
differentpeopleswithdistinctphysicalandculturalcharacteristics.ThisisreflectedinIndiaslinguistic
diversity;thecountryhas18majorlanguagesandmorethan1,000minorones(seeIndian
Languages).
Approximately8percentofthetotalpopulationbelongstomorethan300so-calledscheduledtribes.
ThesetribaloraboriginalgroupsareraciallyandculturallydistinctfromthemajorityIndianpopulation
andalsotendtovaryconsiderablyamongthemselves.Theirnamederivesfromtheirinclusionona
schedulethatgivesthemcertainconstitutionalprotection,representation,andrights.
Broadlyspeaking,themajorityofnon-tribalIndianpeoplesarepredominantlyCaucasoidinfeatures,
showingconsiderablevariationinskincolour.Mongoloidfeaturesareseeninthehillpeoplesofthe
verynorth,suchastheNagas.Australoidfeaturesarealsoseenamongthetribalgroups,suchasthe
SantalofBangla.
ThemajorityofpeopleinthenorthandeastspeakIndo-AryanlanguagessuchasAssamese,Punjabi,
Urdu,Hindi,andBengali.TheinfluenceofclosecontactwithPersiaandtheMughalperiodare
apparentinthelanguageaswellasthearchitecture,clothing,andotheraspectsoflifeinthenorth.
TheselanguagesderivefromSanskrit,nowessentiallyadeadlanguage,butstillusedinthereadingof
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sacredtextsandotherreligiousceremonies.Incontrast,theDravidianlanguagesofthesouth,such
asKannada,Telugu,andMalayalam,deriveprimarilyfromTamil,alsoalanguageofthesouth,
althoughMalayalamcontainsaconsiderablenumberofSanskritwords.Alltheselanguagesboast
substantialandrichliteratures.Ofthe18languagesrecognizedintheconstitution,one,Manipuri,the
languageofthefarnorthernstateofManipur,isSino-Tibetaninorigin.
Amongthetribalpeoples,oftenlivinginrelativelyisolatedhillyregions,anumberhavemaintained
theiruniqueculturesandcustoms,althoughtheencroachingofthemainstreampopulationhascaused
considerableassimilationanderosionoftraditionalwaysoflife.
Caste
TheIndianconstitutionsetsouttheresolvetoeradicatetheage-oldsystemofcaste,whichhas
deniedforcenturiestheopportunityofsocialadvancementtotheloweststratumofthesystem,the
Dalits(formerlyUntouchablesorHarijans,childrenofGod,asGandhinamedthem).Considerable
stepsweretakenafterindependenceactivelytopromotetheeducationandwelfareofthese
depressedclasses,mostnotablythroughasystemofpositivediscriminationbyassigningaquotaof
upto50percentofplacesinuniversitiesandprofessionalinstitutionstothescheduledcastes.Old
traditionsdiehard,however,anddespitetheseeffortsandthoseofindividualssuchasGandhi,
Ambedkar,andothers,prejudice,mainlyinthesocialsphere,remains.Nevertheless,individualsfrom
scheduled-castebackgroundsarenowfoundinallwalksoflifeandincludeeminentscientists,judges,
andpoliticians.Inrecentyears,asabusiness-led,consumercultureevolves,withstatuscounted
morebymaterialwealththanfamilyandtradition,theholdofcasteisdeclining,withmanyinter-caste
marriages,especiallyamongtheurbanmiddleclasses.InruralIndia,however,traditionshowslittle
signofchanginginthisregard.
Inthepoliticalsphere,partiesandorganizationsbasedoncastelineshaveoftenbeenvociferousin
thedemandingofrightsandtheprotectionoftheinterestsoftheircommunities.Politiciansand
partiesfrequentlyseektosecurethevotesofparticularjatis(sub-castes).Allegiances,however,tend
tobefluidandoftenbasedonexpediency.Thecontinuationofthesystemofpositivediscriminationin
universityentrancehascausedfrictionwithnon-scheduled-castestudents,whoclaimithasresultedin
intolerablyhighentrancerequirementsforothercastesandloweredstandardsoverall.
PopulationCharacteristics
Indiahasabout16percentoftheworldspopulation.Itspopulationis1,147,995,900(2008
estimate).Theoverallpopulationdensityisabout386peoplepersqkm(1,000persqmi).Many
birthsanddeathsareunregistered,butofficialdatasuggestthatthebirthratein2008wasabout22
per1,000.Lifeexpectancyaveraged69years.Approximately71percentofIndiaspopulationlivesin
ruralareas.Thoughlivingconditionsinmanyareashaveimprovedforexamplethroughtheprovision
ofcleanwatermostpeoplearestillpoor.AboutonethirdofthepopulationlivesonorbelowtheUN
povertyline;lessthan3percentofIndianhouseholdshaveanincomeofmorethanUS$2,500ayear.
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PoliticalDivisions
Indiaisdividedinto28statesAndhraPradesh,ArunachalPradesh,Assam,Bihar,Chhattisgarh,Goa,
Gujarat,Haryana,HimachalPradesh,JammuandKashmir,Jharkhand,Karnataka,Kerala,Madhya
Pradesh,Maharashtra,Manipur,Meghalaya,Mizoram,Nagaland,Orissa,Punjab,Rajasthan,Sikkim,
TamilNadu,Tripura,Uttaranchal,UttarPradesh,andWestBengal;6unionterritoriesAndamanand
NicobarIslands,Chandigarh,DadraandNagarHaveli,DamanandDiu,Lakshadweep,and
Puducherry;andtheNationalCapitalTerritoryofDelhi.TheJammuandKashmirregionisdisputed
withPakistan,andIndiaclaimsAksaiChin,administeredbyChinasincetheSino-IndianWarof1962,
aspartofJammuandKashmirState.Thenorth-easternborderofArunachalPradeshisdisputed
betweenIndiaandChina.
PrincipalCities
NewDelhi,Indiascapitalcity,hasapopulationof179,112(2001).Thecountryslargestcitiesare
Kolkata(population,2001,13,216,546),Delhi(2001,12,791,458),andMumbai(2001,11,914,398).
Othercitieswithpopulationsofmorethan1millioninclude:theportofChennai(2001,6,424,624);
Hyderabad(2001,5,533,640),whichisfamousforitshandicrafts;Ahmadabad(2001,4,519,278),
andBangalore(2001,5,686,844),whicharemajorrailjunctions;theleathermanufacturingcityof
Kanpur(2001,2,690,486);Pune(2001,3,755,525);Surat(2001,2,811,466);Jaipur(2001,
2,324,319);Lucknow(2001,2,266,933);Nagpur(2001,2,122,965);Indore(2001,1,639,044);
Bhopal(2001,1,454,830);Vadodara(2001,1,492,398);andCochin(2001,1,355,406).
Religion
Themajorreligiousgroups(followedbytheirapproximateportionofthetotalpopulation;2001
census)areHindus(82percent),Muslims(12.1percent),Christians(2.3percent),andSikhs(1.94
percent).OtherimportantreligiousminoritiesareBuddhists,Jains,andParsis.
TheriseofreligiousnationalismandfundamentalisminIndiafromthe1980sonwardshasincreased
politicalandsocialtensionsinsomeareas,andattimessuchasthe1992and1993riotsinPunjab
andelsewherehaseruptedintoviolence.TheHindutvamovement,demandingaHinduIndia,has
grownsignificantlyinstrength.Itisrepresentedbythegroupoforganizationscollectivelyknownas
theSanghParivar,includingthestaunchlyHindunationalistRashtriyaSwayamsevakSangh(RSS),the
VishwaHinduParishad(VHP),andtheultra-extremistShivSena.Therisetopowerofthe
parliamentarywingofthemovement,theBharatiyaJanataParty(BJP)inrecentyears,albeitas
leaderofawide-rangingcoalitioncalledtheNationalDemocraticAlliance,hasincreasedtheinfluence
ofHindutvaideology.TheriseofHindutvahasraisedseriousconcernsregardingthefutureofthe
secularIndiaestablishedunderJawaharlalNehru,thefirstprimeministerofindependentIndia.
Language
Around387languagesarespokeninIndia,wheretheprincipalofficiallanguageisHindi.Twenty-one
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otherlanguagesholdofficialstatusintheirlocalstates(Assamese,Bengali,Bodo,Dogri,Gujarati,
Kannada,Kashmiri,Konkani,Maithili,Malayalam,Marathi,Meithei,Nepali,Oriya,EasternPunjabi,
Sanskrit,Santali,Sindhi,Tamil,Telugu,andUrdu.AswellasHindi,Englishisrecognizedashaving
associateofficialstatus,foruseinofficialproceedingssuchasparliament(althoughonlythewelleducatedhavefluencyinit).Hindi,anIndo-IranianlanguagewrittenintheDevanagariscript,is
spokenbyabouthalfthepopulationmainlyinthenorthernstates.Oftheotherofficiallanguages,the
followingarethemostwidespread:Bengali(69.5million),Telugu(66million),Marathi(62.4million),
Tamil(53million),andUrdu(43.4million).Sanskritistheleastknown,withjustover50,000mothertonguespeakersaccordingtothe1991census.
ThemanyotherlanguagesspokeninIndiacomefromtheAustro-Asiatic,Sino-Tibetan,Dravidian,
Indo-Iranian,andTai-Kadailanguagefamilies.Theirspeakersnumberanythingfromafewthousand
toseveralmillion.ThemostwidelyspokenareMaithili(22million),Bhojpuri(24,544,000),Awadhi
(20million),andHaryanvi(13million).SeeIndianLanguages.
Education
AncientIndiawasasocietyofconsiderableeducationaldevelopment.Itsuniversitiesattractedmany
studentsfromelsewhereinAsiaespeciallyChinese,whocametostudytheteachingsofBuddhain
someofthefirstuniversitiesintheworld,notablyNalanda,whichwasestablishedbythe6thcentury
BC.Indiaalsoextendeditseducationalinfluencebysendingitsuniversitygraduatestootherpartsof
Asiatoteach.Fromthe13thcenturyonwards,however,firstunderMuslimcontrolandlaterunder
Britishrule,theoriginalcontributionofIndianstoeducationwaned,andapplicationofnewer
educationalmethodswascurtailed.
Inthe20thcenturyGopalKrishnaGokhale,MohandasGandhi,andRabindranathTagorereceived
internationalrecognitionforeducationalcontributionstotheircountry.
Gokhalewasoneoftheearlynationalistleadersandin1911heintroducedabillinparliamentaimed
attheprovisionoffreeandcompulsoryprimaryeducation.Gandhi,whowasinfluencedbyGokhale,
institutedbasicliteracyandcommunity-improvementprogrammes.In1901Tagore,oneofthe
greatestpoetsofmodernIndia,foundedanexperimentalschoolatSantiniketan,160km(99mi)from
Kolkata,modelledontheancientIndiantapovana(foresthermitage).Aimedatcombiningthebest
ofWesternandIndianculture,theschoolin1921becametheVisva-BharatiUniversityandattracted
studentsfromallovertheworld.
SincegainingitsindependencefromBritainin1947,Indiahassoughttodevelopamodern,
comprehensiveschoolsystem;thereportsoftheAll-Indiancommissionsof1953and1964advocating
educationalreformprovidedimpetusforimprovement.TheeducationofIndiaslargeandyouthful
population,withitssocialandreligiouscomplexities,hasnotbeeneasy,however.Fundsthatmight
havebeenusedforeducationhavehadtobeutilizedtocombatpoverty,foodshortages,and
overpopulation.Therelicsofthecastesystem,inadequatevocationalplacement,andreligious
diversityhavecontributedtothedifficultyofeducationalreform.Nevertheless,sweepingstructural
changeshavebeenundertakenandlargelycarriedthrough,andthenumberofschoolsandofpupils
hasrisengreatlysinceindependence.
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Theschoolsystemsofthe28statesareunderthedirectcontrolofthestategovernments;thefederal
MinistryofEducationassiststhestatesystems,directseducationinthesevencentrallyadministered
unionterritories,providesfinancialhelpforIndiasinstitutionsofhigherlearning,anddischarges
variousotherresponsibilities.Primaryeducationisfree,butnotcompulsory.Inthe1970sthe
predominantpatternofavailableschoolingincludedeightyearsofprimaryandmiddleschool
education,threeyearsofsecondaryeducationincludingavocationalelement(sothatpupils
completionmightqualifyforentryintoatradeorprofession),andthreeyearsofuniversityeducation
leadingtoadegree.Then,asnow,however,onlyaminorityofpupilswentpasttheprimarylevel.In
1996therewere581,305primaryschools.Implementationofaslightlymodifiedpattern,consistingof
tenyearsofprimary,middle,andsecondaryschooleducation,twoofhighersecondaryeducation,and
threeofuniversity,beganinthe1980s.Thereisalsoanationwideadultliteracyprogramme.
Accordingtothe1991census,about52percentoftheadultpopulationwasliterate,comparedwith
justover43percentadecadeearlier;in2005,56.6percentofadultswereliterate.Literacyvaries
considerablyfromstatetostate.Kerala,inSouthIndia,hasachievedaremarkableliteracylevelof
over90percent,possiblyrelatedtotheimportancegiventotheeducationofwomenandtheir
relativelyhighstatusinsociety.In19992000Indiaspent2.9percentofthegrossnationalproduct
and2.2ofthetotalgovernmentexpenditureoneducation.
G1
Schools,Universities,andColleges
In19981999,135millionpupilswereenrolledinprimaryschoolsand51millioninsecondary
schools.
Indiahad164universities,11institutionsofnationalimportance,38institutionswithuniversity
status,andmorethan8,600technical,arts,andsciencecollegesinthemid-1990s.Thetotal
enrolmentinuniversitiesandcollegesin1996was10.6millionstudents.LargeinstitutionsincludedDr
BhimRaoAmbedkarUniversity(formerlyAgraUniversity,founded1927),theUniversityofBihar
(1952),theUniversityofMumbai(1857),theUniversityofCalcutta(1857),theUniversityofDelhi
(1922),GauhatiUniversity(1948),GujaratUniversity(1950;inAhmadabad),theUniversityofKerala
(1937;inThiruvananthapuram),theUniversityofMadras(1857),theUniversityofMysore(1916),the
UniversityofPune(1949),andtheUniversityofRajasthan(1947;inJaipur).Outstandingcentresof
studyandresearchincludetheIndianInstituteofScienceinBangaloreandtheTataInstituteof
FundamentalResearchinMumbai.
Culture
Indiaisasecularcountrythathastraditionallyabsorbedandgivenbirthtoavarietyofreligionsand
religioussects.Themajorityofpresent-dayIndiansareHindu,however,andthisisreflectedinmany
aspectsofthesharedcultureacrossthecountry.Hinduismitselfhas,overcenturies,absorbedand
evolvedanumberofdifferentphilosophiesandapproaches,fromthephilosophicalAdvaitaof
ShankaratothedevotionoftheBhaktimovement.
ThecoexistenceofsignificantminorityfaithswiththemajorityfaithofHinduismhasbynomeans
alwaysbeenpeaceful;Hindu-MuslimandHindu-Sikhtensions(oftenfannedbymotivesotherthan
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religiousones)have,inthepast,resultedinmanydeaths.TheRamajanmabhoomimovement,whose
demandstobuildaHindutempleonwhattheyclaimtobethebirthplaceofRamainAyodhyaresulted
inthedestructionbyamoboftheBabriMasjid(amosquewhichtheydeclaredtohavebeenbuilt
afterthedestructionofaprevioustemple)in1992,hasclearlybeenabletogenerateconsiderable
popularsupport.
SuchdevelopmentsposeaseriousthreattothefutureofsecularisminIndia.Itcouldbearguedthat
thisrecentso-calledHindufundamentalism(acontradictioninterms,asHinduismhasnodefined
fundaments)isanefforttoforgeasingularnationalcultureonreligiouslinesfromrichanddiverse
traditions.Theinculcationofsuchideashasbeenfacilitatedbythewidespreadaccesstotelevision,
latterlysatellitetelevision,anditspowerfulculturalmessages.Thesamemediahavealsospread
anothervalue-setwhichtosomeextenthasservedtodissipatethecallofreligionthatofaWesternstyleconsumersociety.
ManylanguagesarespokenacrossIndia.Eighteenofthemajoronesarerecognizedinthe
constitution,butmanyotherrelativelyminoronesarealsospokenregionally.Sanskrit,theancient
languageoftheHinduscriptures,isanIndo-EuropeanlanguagerelatedtoGreekandLatin.Itwasthe
mediumforthevastbodyofreligiousandsecularwriting(see SanskritLiterature)thatconstitutesthe
coreofclassicalIndianliterature.Tamilisalsoaveryancientlanguage,witharichliteratureand,
unlikeSanskrit,itisstillthrivingtoday.TamilisaDravidianlanguage,withacompletelydifferent
scripttoSanskrit,andformsoneofseveralDravidianlanguagesspokeninthesouthofIndia.Large
bodiesofliteraturealsoexistinalltheothermajorlanguagesofIndia,notablyHindi,Bengali,Urdu,
Telugu,Kannada,andMalayalam.
EarlyclassicalpaintingandsculpturewasinspiredbyHinduism,Buddhism,andJainism,allinfluenced
byoneanother.TheartofMadhura,Gandhara(withitsblendingofHellenisticandIndianelements),
therefinementofGuptaart,thefrescoesatAjanta,therock-cutreliefsatMahabalipuram
(Mamallapuram)andtheNatarajaatChidambaram,allformpartofthesplendidheritageofearly
India.Perhapstheworldsfirstextanttreatiseonthetheoryofdrama,musicanddance,theNatya
Shastra,byBharata,writtenbyaboutAD300,formedthebasisofasophisticatedtraditioninthe
performingarts(see IndianDance;IndianTheatre).
ArelativedeclineinclassicalHinduartsandculturefollowedtheendofthereignofHarshainthe7th
centuryinnorthernIndiaasnewsocio-politicalformsbegantoevolve,althoughthesouth,under
kingdomssuchasthePallava,andlatertheChola,wasreachingitsapexinartandarchitecture.In
thisperiodofuncertaintyandchange,amajordislocationinculturaldevelopmentoccurredin
northernIndia,withthewavesofconquerorsfromCentralAsiainthe11thand12thcentury,who
broughtwiththemaquitedifferentfaith,Islam.Someoftheancientcentresoflearning,suchasthe
magnificentBuddhistuniversityatNalanda,weretotallydestroyedbyTurksinthe11thcentury.
Afterseveralcenturiesofwarfare,disruption,andrepressionunderTurkishandMongolrulers,bythe
mid-16thcentury,theMughaldynastyfoundedbyBabur,adescendantoftheMongolTamerlane,had
conqueredallofnorthernIndia.Islam,withitslinearWesterncosmogony,andrevulsionagainstany
formofidol-worship,wasfundamentallydifferentfromHinduismandothereasternfaiths,andsome
oftheearlyconquerors,inparticular,ransackedtemplesandshrines,suchastheJagannathtemplein
India
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Puri,andshowedscantrespectforancientlearning.Others,however,becameinterestedinSanskrit,
andkeyworks,suchasthemathematicaltreatiseofBhaskara,theLilavati,weretranslatedinto
PersianandbecameverypopularduringtheMughalperiod.
UnderthegreatMughalemperorssuchasAkbar,thecountryexperiencedanewperiodofflourishing
ofthearts,withfreshimpetusarisingfromPersianinfluenceculminatinginadistinctstyleofart,
music,andarchitectureinnorthernIndia.TheMughalperiodprovidedIndiawithsomeofitsmost
impressivearchitecture,bestknownthroughtheworld-renownedTajMahalinAgra.Italsobrought
outstandingworkinmanuscriptillustration,miniaturepainting,andthedecorativearts,aswellasthe
evolutionofHindustanimusicinthenorth.Thesouthevolveditsownstyle,knownasCarnaticmusic.
Bothclassicalformshaveproducedcomposersandmusiciansofthehighestcalibre,includingTansen,
Tyagaraja,andinrecentyears,AllauddinKhan,RaviShankar,M.S.Subbulakshmi,andmanyothers.
Astrong,regionalfolktraditionofalltheperformingartshascontinuedthroughout.
UnderBritishrule,muchofthiscreativeculturalmomentumbecamedissipated,butatthesametime,
anumberofindividualssuchasWilliamCareyandMaxMller,becameinterestedinancientand
medievalIndiancultureand,bytheirtranslationsandcommentaries,providedWesternreaderswith
accesstokeyworks.Someartforms,suchasstylesofclassicalIndiandance,however,declined
throughlackofpatronageorfellintodisreputeunderVictorianvalues.ArevivalinaspectsofIndian
thoughtandcultureaccompaniedtherisingnationalistfeeling,andthe20thcenturyhasseenefforts
notonlytorevivedyingartssuchasKathakali,buttoreconstituteearlyforms.Indance,forexample,
ChandralekhahasexploredtheearlyformsofBharatanatyam,andtheeroticstyleofOrissi,depicted
inmanyancientsculptures,hasbecomewellknown.
See also IndianArtandArchitecture;IndianMusic.
H1
LibrariesandMuseums
Indiahasmorethan60,000libraries,includingmorethan1,000specializedonesattachedtovarious
governmentdepartments.TheNationalLibrary,inKolkata,isoneofthreecopyrightlibrariesthat
receivecopiesofallbooksandmagazinespublishedinIndia.Outstandingamongseveralhundred
publiclibrariesisthatinDelhi.
Indiasmorethan350museumsincludeanumbercontainingimportanthistoricalandarchaeological
collections,suchastheGovernmentMuseumandNationalArtGallery,Chennai;theNationalMuseum,
NewDelhi;SarnathMuseum,Vrnasi;andtheIndianMuseum,Kolkata.Vadodara,Chennai,
Kozhikode(formerlyCalicut),andNewDelhihavemuseumscontainingoutstandingcollectionsof
medievalandmodernart.
IV
ECONOMY
Indiahasamixedeconomyinwhichboththecentralandstategovernmentspayaleadingroleas
regulators,planners,andthroughownershipofpublicenterprises.Large-scalegovernment
involvementintheeconomybeganinthe1950sasareflectionofnationalismandofthesocialismof
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Page 11
thefirstpost-independencegovernmentledbyJawaharlalNehruandwiththeaimofspeedingup
economicdevelopmentandgrowthtomeettheneedsofIndiasrapidlygrowingpopulation.Thefirst
ofIndiasfive-yeareconomicplanswaslaunchedin1951.Duringthedecadesthatfollowedthestate
tookovercertainkeysectorsandinvestedheavilyinothers,whiletheprivatesectorwassubjectto
wide-rangingcontrols.Tariff,andother,barrierswereerectedtoprotectdomesticindustries,and
variousagrarianreformprogrammeswereinitiated.
Theresultsweregenerallypositive,especiallywhencomparedwithmanyotherdevelopingcountries.
Economicgrowth,exceptduringtimesofseveredroughtsuchas1979and1987,wassteady;it
averaged3.6percentayearinrealterms(thatis,aftertakingintoaccountpopulationgrowth)
between1965and1980,andmorethan5percentayearduringthe1980s.Inflationandthenational
debtweregenerallykeptlow.Agriculturaloutputrosesignificantlyandthespectreofmassfamine
waseliminated.Thebasisofamodernindustrialstatewaslaid.However,growthlevelswerestilltoo
lowtohavemorethanamarginalimpactontheincomeofthemajorityofIndians.In2004Indias
grossnationalproduct(GNP)wasaboutUS$673,205million,givinganincomeperheadofjust
US$820.Inaddition,morethan60percentofunder-fivesweremalnourished,whileaccesstoclean
waterandsanitationwasstillavailableonlytoaminorityofthepopulation.
In1991P.V.NarasimhaRaobecameprimeministerandinstitutedasignificantchangeineconomic
policy.Manyofthecontrolsovertheprivatesectorhavebeenabolishedandthestatemonopolyin
certainareas,suchasairtransport,wasloosened.Theeconomygenerallywasopenedupbythe
reductionoftariffcontrolsandbytheencouragementofforeigninvestment.Thesechangeswere
partlybroughtaboutbytheneedtosustainhighergrowthrates.However,thegovernmentalso
neededtocutpublicspendingandtoreduceinflation,debtrepayments,andthebalanceofpayments
deficitwhichhadallrisensharplyasaresultofproblemscreatedbytheGulfWarandbygovernment
borrowinginthelate1980s.In1991and1992realeconomicgrowthdroppedto1.1percent;by
1996itwasabove6.5percent.
Changesatnationallevelhavealsobeenreflectedatstatelevel.Thestateshavesignificantcontrol
overinternalpolicyandinterpretnationalpolicyindifferentways.Some,likeWestBengal,havefar
greatergovernmentcontroloftheeconomythanaverage;others,likeMaharashtra,havetraditionally
beenmoremarket-oriented.Since1991,however,almostallthestateshaveopenedtheirdoorsto
foreigninvestment,reducedcontrolsovertheprivatesector,andallowedsomeprivatizationofstate
companies.Somestateshavebeenmoresuccessfulinthisregard.Fivemajorstates,whichtogether
constituteonethirdofIndiaspopulationAndhraPradesh,Gujarat,Karnataka,Maharashtra,and
TamilNaduhavesecuredtwothirdsofprivateinvestmentproposalssince1991and60percentof
commercialbankcredit.Incontrast,sevenstates,whichtogetherconstitute55percentofthe
population,havesecuredonly30percentofprivateinvestmentproposalsduringthesameperiod.
ThesearethestatesofAssam,Bihar,MadhyaPradesh,Orissa,Rajasthan,UttarPradesh,andWest
Bengal.Thisdisparitymayleadtoinstabilityinthefuture.In2006some4.45milliontouristsvisited
India,andspentanestimatedUS$7,352million.
Agriculture,Forestry,andFishing
Intermsoflanduses,54percentofIndiaslandisusedforarableagriculture,3percentforcrops,
India
Page 12
and4percentforpasture.AbouttwothirdsofIndiaspopulationdependsonthelandtomakea
living.Agriculturegeneratesanestimated18percentofgrossdomesticproduct(GDP).Mostfarms
areverysmalltheaveragesizeofholdingsnationallyis2.63hectares(6.5acres),butmorethanone
thirdofholdingsareconsideredtoosmallforthesubsistenceneedsofafarmingfamily.Intermsof
areasowntheleadingcropisrice,thestaplefoodofalargesectionoftheIndianpopulation.Wheat
ranksnextinimportancetorice,andIndiaisalsoamongtheleadingproducersintheworldofsugar
cane,tea,cotton,andjute.Annualproductionofthesecommoditiesin2006wassugarcane,281
milliontonnes;rice,137milliontonnes;wheat,69.3milliontonnes;cotton,3.56milliontonnes;jute,
2milliontonnes;andtea,892,730tonnes.Otherimportantcropsaresorghum,millet,maize,barley,
chickpeas,bananas,mangoes,rubber,coffee,linseed,peanuts,andvariousseedsandspices.
Theraisingoflivestock,particularlyhornedcattle,buffalo,horses,andmules,isacentralfeatureof
theagriculturaleconomy.In2006Indiahadabout181millioncattle,substantiallymorethanany
othercountryintheworld.Theseanimals,likebuffaloes,horses,andmules,areutilizedprimarilyas
beastsofburden.AlthoughthevegetarianismassociatedwithHinducustomisfollowedbyfew,
especiallyinnorthIndia,Hinduswillnoteatbeef.Lackofpastureandwatersuppliesmeansmost
Indiancattleareofpoorquality.Thecountrys98.8millionbuffaloarelargelyraisedinthedelta
regions.InthedryregionsofPunjabandRajasthancamels(0.63million)aretheprincipalbeastsof
burden.Sheep(62.8million)andgoats(125million)areraisedmainlyforwool.
Althoughmuchfarmingisstillbytraditionalmethods,therehasbeenasignificantchangeinthe
technologiesavailablesinceindependence.Theareaundercanalirrigationsystemsfinancedbythe
governmenthasexpandedenormously;therehasbeenanevengreaterexpansionintheareawatered
bywell-basedsystems.By2003about558,080sqkm(215,476sqmi)wasirrigated.Thedemandfor
chemicalfertilizersandhigh-yieldingseedvarietieshasincreasedmarkedly,particularlysincethe
much-publicizedGreenRevolutionofthe1960sandearly1970swhichparticularlybenefitedricher
farmersinwheat-growingareaslikeUttarPradeshandPunjabstates.
TheforestlandsinIndiacoverabout21percentofthetotallandarea.Commercialforestryisnot
highlydevelopedandislargelyrestrictedtothenorthernhighlands,Assam,andtheregionsbordering
ontheHimalaya.However,forestsareusedtoprovidefuelwoodandcharcoal,themainenergysource
formostIndians,aswellasvaluablefruitsandnuts,fibres,oils,gums,andresins.Theannualtimber
harvestwasabout329millioncum(11.6billioncuft)in2006.
Althoughlargelyundevelopedcommercially,fishingremainsvitalincertainregions,suchasthe
GangesdeltainBengalandalongthesouth-westerncoast.Inrecentyearsthegovernmenthasbeen
encouragingdeep-seafishingbyconstructingprocessingplantsandunderwritingocean-goingfleets
andvessels.In2005estimatethecountrysannualcatchtotalledmorethan6.32milliontonnes,of
whichabout2.99milliontonneswasthemarinecatch.Kerala,Tamil,Nadu,andMaharashtraarethe
mainfishingstates,accountingforabouthalfofthenationalcatch.Overfishingisbecomingaproblem
insomeareas.
Mining
Indiaranksamongtheworldleadersintheminingofironoreandcoal,andproducessignificant
India
Page 13
amountsofbauxite,manganese,mica,ilmenite,copper,petroleum,asbestos,chromium,graphite,
phosphaterock,zinc,gold,andsilver.ThisvariedmineralbasewasakeyfactorinIndiaseconomic
developmentfollowingindependenceunderpinningtheestablishmentofadiversifiedmanufacturing
sector.Nationalizationduringthe1950shasgiventhegovernmentadominantroleinthesector.
Annualproductionfiguresin2004includedcoal(366milliontonnes),ironore(77.2milliontonnes),
bauxite(11.3milliontonnes),manganese(630,000tonnes),aluminium(861,800tonnes),zinc
concentrates(341,000tonnes),copperore(28,800tonnes),silver(13tonnes),andgold(3,800kg).
OilproductionisconcentratedinGujaratandAssamstates,andoffshoreintheKhambht(Gulfof
Khambht).In1997outputamountedtoabout241millionbarrels,orabout60percentofIndias
needs;outputofnaturalgaswas27.1billioncum(957billioncuft).
Manufacturing
Indiahasaverydiversifiedmanufacturingsectorthatcontributesabout16percentofGDP.The
modernsector,whichhassomeverylargeconcernsparticularlyintheironandsteelsector
dominatesintermsofoutput.However,small-scale,family-ownedcraft-basedconcernsaremost
importantintermsofemployment.Textilemanufacturingespeciallycottontextilesisoneofthe
longestestablishedandstilloneofthemostimportantsectors.Mostcitieshaveatleastonecotton
mill;outputofcottonclothinthemid-1990swasmorethan17.0billionm(55.8billionft).Theiron
andsteelindustryexpandedgreatlyafterthe1950s;inthemid-1990soutputoffinishedsteel
productswasmorethan17.8milliontonnes.Otherimportantindustriesincludetheprocessingoftea,
grains,oilseeds,sugar,tobacco,andotheragriculturalproducts,printingandpublishing,oil-refining,
andthemanufactureofelectricalandelectronicequipment,motorvehicles,paper,footwear,
chemicals,tilesandbricks,leatherandmetalgoods,andrailwayequipment.Thecomputerindustry,
inparticularthedevelopmentofsoftware,hasexpandedconsiderablyinrecentyears.Bangalore,in
southernIndia,hasbeentermedIndiasSiliconValley.
Energy
About84percentofIndiaselectricityisproducedinthermalfacilitiesusingcoaloroilproducts.
Another12percentisgeneratedbyhydroelectricfacilities,and3percentisproducedinnuclear
powerplants,includingonesatKotaandnearMumbai.In2003Indiageneratedatotalof556.8billion
kWh.Althoughcapacityiscontinuouslybeingexpanded,outputisunabletokeepupwithdemandand
powershortagesareaproblemparticularlytothemanufacturingsector.Indiaplanstoprovide
electricityineveryvillageby2009.
CurrencyandBanking
ThebasicmonetaryunitistheIndianrupee,dividedinto100paise(39.45Indianrupeesequalled
US$1;early2008).
TheReserveBankofIndia,foundedin1934andnationalizedin1949,operatesasthecentralbank
andsolebankofissue.Aseriesofnationalizationsbroughtthemajorityofcommercialbankinginto
India
Page 14
thepublicsector.Althoughtherewere300scheduledcommercialbanksintheearly1990s,morethan
85percentofdepositsandcreditswereaccountedforbythe27public-sectorbanks.
MoneylendingpracticesinruralIndiahaveledtoproblemsofwidespreadindebtedness.Credit
societiesandcooperativebankshavebeensetuptotrytoovercometheseproblemsandhave
becomeincreasinglyimportantparticularlyintheprovisionofcredittofarmerstoenablethemto
purchaseseeds,fertilizers,andotheragriculturalinputs.
CommerceandTrade
Becauseofthehighlevel,untilrecently,ofprotectionism,thevolumeofforeigntraderelativetothe
sizeanddiversityoftheIndianeconomyhasbeenlow.Inaddition,therehasbeenapersistenttrade
deficit,causedbyimportsofoil,rawmaterials,consumergoods,jewels,chemicalsandfertilizers,and
aggravatedbyahighlevelofsmuggling.In2003IndiasannualimportscostsomeUS$77.2billion,
anditsyearlyexportsearnedaboutUS$63billion.Theexporttradeisveryvaried,andisdominated
bytextiles,garments,jewelleryandgemstones,leathergoods,tea,engineeringgoods,andbasic
chemicals.TheUnitedStates,inthemid-1990s,receivedabout19percentofIndiasyearlyexports
andsuppliedabout10percentofitsimports.OtherleadingtradingpartnersareGermany,Japan,the
UnitedKingdom,SaudiArabia,Belgium,theCommonwealthofIndependentStates,France,Australia,
theNetherlands,andIran.
Transport
Atindependencein1947,Indiahadoneofthebest-developedtransportnetworksofanycolony
particularlyitsrailwaysystem,whichhadbeenestablishedduringBritishrule.Sincethenithasbuilt
onthisbase,increasingthelengthofroadsandestablishingacomprehensiveinternalairtransport
network.However,thecountrysbroadnetworkofstate-ownedrailwaylinescontinuestocarrythe
bulkofgoodstraffic.Thetotallengthofoperatedrailwaytrackwas63,465km(39,435mi)in2005of
which17percentwaselectrified.Threedifferentgauges(widths)oftrackareinuse.Therewere
morethan3.4millionkm(2.1millionmi)ofroadsofwhichabouthalfweresurfaced.In1995there
wereanestimated3.8millioncarsinIndia;in1996therewasaratioofapproximately6carsfor
every1,000people.ThemajorIndianports,includingKolkata,Mumbai,Chennai,and
Vishakhapatnam,arereachedbycargocarriersandpassengerlinersoperatingtoallpartsofthe
world.Thecivilaviationnetworkwasnationalizedin1953,withAirIndiaoperatingthelong-haul
internationalroutesandIndianAirlinesdomesticandregionalroutes.Since1991somedomestic
routeshavebeenopenedtotheprivatesector.Thenetworksandvolumeoftrafficisexpanding
rapidlyandairroutesnowconnectnotonlythemajorcitiesandtownsbutalsoremoteareasinthe
Himalayaandnorth-eastIndia.Thereareanestimated290airportsinIndia.
Communications
Despitethepovertyofmuchofthepopulation,limitingthedevelopmentofthecommunication
system,Indiastelephonenetworkhasexpandedsignificantlyinrecentyears,gainingfromthe
India
Page 15
liberalizationoftheeconomy.By2000thereweresome19milliontelephonelinesregisteredwiththe
state-ownedTelecommunicationsDepartmentandin2003morethan17millionmobiletelephones
wereinuse.Thestate-ownedAllIndiaRadiobroadcaststoabout116millionradiosets.Programmes
arebroadcastin24principallanguagesandmanydialects.Televisionservessome79million
receivers,manyofthemownedcommunally.Sincethelate1980sthestate-ownedterrestrialservice
hasbeenaugmentedbyavarietyofsatelliteservices,whichhaveexposedmanyordinaryIndiansto
televisionprogrammesfromtheWestforthefirsttime.Theprintedmediaisstillveryimportant.In
themid-1990sthereweremorethan33,612newspapersandperiodicalswithatotalcirculationof
morethan67.6million.The3,740dailynewspapershadacombinedcirculationinexcessof18.8
million.Thepressisfreeandoftenverycriticalofthegovernmentandpoliticians.The Hindu,The
Times of India,andtheIndian ExpressareamongtheinfluentialEnglish-languagedailies.
HealthandWelfare
Sinceindependence,thegovernmenthaspaidparticularattentiontoIndiasendemichealthproblems.
Butdespitevigorouseffortsinareasofpreventivemedicine,sanitation,andnutrition,health
conditionsremainmarginalamongthepooralthoughepidemicsofcholera,dysentery,and
elephantiasisarenolongercommon.Muchofthepopulation,however,continuestosufferfrom
malnutrition.Progresshasbeenmadeincombatingmalariaandplagueandincontrollingtuberculosis.
Overalllifeexpectancyatbirthwasabout69.2yearsin2008,comparedwith32yearsin1941.The
infantmortalityratedeclinedfrom151to91per1,000livebirthsbetween1965and1989.In2008
theinfantmortalityratewas32deathsper1,000livebirths.
In1993some410,875doctorswerepractisingingovernmenthospitalsandprivateclinics,providing
anapproximateratioofonedoctorforevery1,674people.Thecountrywasservedbyover642,100
hospitalbeds,inapproximately15,000hospitals.Muchoftheruralpopulationlacksreadyaccessto
professionalservices.In2001,1.8percentofgovernmentexpenditurewasspentonhealthcare.
Social-welfareprogrammeshavebeenparticularlyinevidenceinsuchareasasfamily-planning,
variouskindsofemergencyrelief,andcarefortheDalits,whoareprotectedbylawbutstillsubjectto
muchharassment.Workerscompensationisprovidedbylaw.
GOVERNMENT
TheRepublicofIndiaisgovernedaccordingtotheprovisionsofaconstitutionadoptedin1949and
amendedfrequentlysince.ItincorporatesvariousfeaturesoftheconstitutionalsystemsoftheUnited
Kingdom,theUnitedStates,andotherWesterndemocracies.
Bythetermsoftheconstitution,IndiaisasovereigndemocraticrepublicwithintheCommonwealthof
Nations.ThegovernmentisfederalinitsstructureandIndiaisaunionofstatesandcentrally
administeredunionterritories.Thereare28states,6unionterritories,andtheNationalCapital
TerritoryofDelhi.
India
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ExecutiveandLegislature
ThechiefexecutiveandheadofstateofIndiaisthepresident.Theroleofpresidentingovernmentis
largelynominalandceremonial,however,foractualexecutivepowerresidesinacouncilofministers
responsibletotheparliament,whichiscomposedoftheRajyaSabha(CouncilofStatesorupper
house)andtheLokSabha(HouseofthePeopleorlowerhouse).Thepresidentiselectedforafiveyeartermbyanelectoralcollegeconsistingoftheelectedmembersofthenationalandstate
legislaturesandiseligibleforsuccessiveterms.Ballotingintheelectoralcollegeisahighly
complicatedprocess.Thecouncilofministers,orCabinet,isheadedbyaprimeminister,whois
formallyappointedbythepresident.Eachofitsmembersistheheadofanadministrativedepartment
ofthecentralgovernment.Inmostimportantrespects,theIndianCabinetsystemisidenticaltothat
oftheUnitedKingdom.
TheconstitutionvestsnationallegislativepowerinIndiainabicameralparliamentconsistingofthe
LokSabhaandtheRajyaSabha.TheLokSabhaconsistsofupto550membersdirectlyelectedby
universaladultsuffrage(545in2004),anduptotwomemberswhomaybeappointedbythe
presidenttorepresenttheAnglo-Indiancommunity.So-calledscheduledcastesandscheduledtribes
arespecificallyallocated79and41seatsrespectivelyintheLokSabha.MembersoftheLokSabha
normallyserveforfiveyears,thestatutorylimitforthedurationofthehouse.However,thehouse
maybedissolvedupondefeatofmajorlegislationproposedbytheexecutivebranchofthe
government.TheRajyaSabhahasupto250members(245in2001).Allareelectedbytheelected
membersofthestatelegislativeassembliesexceptfor12whoareappointedbythepresident.The
RajyaSabhaisapermanentbody;thetermsofonethirdofthemembersofthecouncilexpire
biennially.
PoliticalParties
TheIndianNationalCongress,foundedin1885,ledIndiainthestruggleforindependenceandin
variousincarnationshasprovidedmostofthecountrysprimeministers.In1969agroupofCongress
membersleftthepartytoformthesmallIndianNationalCongress-Organization(orO).Anotherparty
thathashadinfluenceacrossthenation,butparticularlyinWestBengalandKerala,istheCommunist
PartyofIndia(CPI),formedin1925,whichlatersplitin1964,thebreakawayfactionfoundingthe
CommunistPartyofIndia(Marxist)(CPI-M).Inearly1977Congress(O)joinedwiththreeother
parties,BharatiyaJanaSangh,BharatiyaLokDal,andtheSocialistParty,toformtheJanataParty,
whichwonabouthalfoftheseatsintheLokSabhainelectionsinMarch1977.InMaytheJanata
PartyachievedasolidmajoritybymergingwiththeCongressforDemocracy.In1978theCongress
Partysplitagain,asIndiraGandhifoundedtheIndianNationalCongress-Indira(orI),whichin1981
wasconfirmedbytheSupremeCourtastheofficialCongressParty.Congress(I)swepttovictoryin
parliamentaryelectionsin1980and1984,butlostitsmajorityin1989.In1988JanataDal(Peoples
Party)wasformedbyamergeroftheJanataParty,LokDal,andJanMorcha.Themajorcompetitors
forCongressinthe1989electionsincludedJanataDalandtheBharatiyaJanataParty(BJP),arightwingHindunationalistgroup,formedbybreakawaymembersoftheJanataPartyin1980.TheBJP
increaseditselectoralsupportandformedagovernmentfor13daysin1996,althoughitwasunable
tomusterthemajoritynecessarytoremainincontrol,andacoalitionofLeftistpartiescalledthe
India
Page 17
UnitedFrontcametopower,supportedbytheCongress.Electionswereheldin1998,whentheBJP
cametopowerbackedbyacoalitionofparties.Tensionsexistedwithinthiscoalition,notably
concerningoneoftheregionalparties,theAIADMK(apartyofthestateofTamilNadu).Itsleader,
theformerfilmstarJayalalithawithdrewhersupportduringavoteofconfidence,andthegovernment
fell.Despitethis,theBJPastheleadingpartyintheNationalDemocraticAlliance(withoutthe
AIADMK)wasre-electedin1999.
ElectionsheldinAprilandMay2004sawasurprisevictoryfortheIndiaNationalCongress.Theparty
took147seatsandwithitsalliessecured217seatsoverall.TherulingBJPwon138seatsaspartofa
largerelectoralalliancecalledtheNationalDemocraticAlliance(185seats).
Judiciary
JudicialauthorityinIndiaisexercisedthroughasystemofnationalcourtsadministeringthelawsof
therepublicandthestates.Alljudgesareappointeesoftheexecutivebranchofthegovernment,but
theirindependenceisguaranteedbyavarietyofsafeguards.Noteworthyamongthelatterisa
provisionrequiringatwo-thirdsvoteofthenationallegislaturetoeffectremovalfromoffice.Atthe
apexofthejudicialsystemistheSupremeCourt,consistingofupto17members.Nextinauthority
arethehighcourtsandsubordinatecourtsineachstate.
StateGovernment
TheformofthestategovernmentsofIndiaisgenerallymodelledonthatofthecentralgovernment.
Eachstateisheadedbyagovernorwhoisappointedtoafive-yeartermbythenationalpresident.
Bihar,JammuandKashmir,Karnataka,Maharashtra,andUttarPradeshstateselectbicameral
legislativeassembliesandlegislativecouncils;theremainder,unicamerallegislativeassemblies.Of
the4,072seatsallottedtothelegislativeassemblies,557arereservedforthescheduledcastesand
527forthescheduledtribes.
InIndialegislativeresponsibilitiesaredividedintothreegroups,orlists.ListOnecomprises97
subjectsincludingdefence,foreignaffairs,communications,thecurrency,banking,andcustoms
whichareundertheexclusivejurisdictionofthenational,orUnion,parliament.ListTwocomprises66
subjectsoverwhichthestatesparliamentshaveexclusivelegislativepowers,includingpoliceand
publicorder,education,publichealth,agriculture,andlocalgovernment.The47subjectsonList
Three(knownastheconcurrentlist)arecommontoboththeUnionandstateparliaments,and
includeeconomicandsocialplanning,andlabourandpricecontrols.
LocalGovernment
Urbanareasaretheresponsibilityofavarietyofmunicipalbodieswhichtakecare,amongother
things,oftheroads,watersupply,drainageandsanitation,vaccinationprogrammes,andeducation.
Theyaredirectlyelectedandraiserevenuethroughproperty,vehicle,andothertaxes.
India
Page 18
Inruralareasthereisthepanchayati raj,athree-tiersystemofcouncilsofancientoriginoperatingat
village,blockanddistrictlevel.Electeddirectlybyandfromamongvillagers,thepanchayatsare
responsibleforagriculturalproduction,ruralindustry,medicalrelief,motherandchildwelfare,grazing
grounds,localroads,andwatertanksandwells.The73rdand74thconstitutionalamendments
allocatedmorepowersandresourcestothepanchayatsandincreasedtheproportionofseats
reservedforwomenwithinthem.
Defence
AllbranchesofthearmedservicesofIndiaaremadeuponlyofvolunteers.In2004thestrengthof
thearmywas1,100,000.Thenavycomprised55,000personnelandtheairforce170,000personnel,
withmorethan600combataircraft.Combined,theycompriseoneoftheworldslargestarmedforces,
numbering1million.TheIndianmilitaryhasatraditionofnon-involvementindomesticpolitics,
althoughithasbeenusedtosuppressconflictinitsborderregions.Therehasneverbeenacoup
dtat.
InternationalOrganizations
IndiaisamemberoftheUnitedNations(UN),theCommonwealthofNations,theWorldTrade
Organization(WTO),andtheColomboPlan.Itisalsoamemberofregionalorganizations,suchasthe
SouthAsianAssociationforRegionalCooperation(SAARC).
VI
HISTORY
ThefollowingaccountofIndiashistoryisnecessarilylimitedinscope;onlythehighlightsandmajor
turningpointsarestressed.ForsupplementaryinformationregardingIndianhistoryandcivilization,
see Buddhism;Caste;Dravidian;EastIndiaCompany;Hinduism;IndianArtandArchitecture;Indian
Dance;IndianLanguages;IndianLiterature;IndianNationalistMovement;IndianPhilosophy;Indus
Valley;Islam;Jainism;Parsis;SanskritLanguage;SanskritLiterature;Sikhism.Foradditional
informationonhistoricalfigures,seethebiographiesontheindividualsmentioned.
Prehistory
BecausetheIndiansofremoteantiquityleftnowrittenrecordsoftheirsocial,cultural,andpolitical
activities,historiansareobligedtorelyalmostexclusivelyonarchaeologicaldiscoveriesforan
understandingoftheearliestcivilizationsonthesubcontinent.Evidenceindicatesthat,possiblyduring
theNeolithicperiodoftheStoneAge,theinhabitantsofthesubcontinentweredispersedandpartially
assimilatedbyinvadingDravidianpeoples,whoprobablycamefromthewest.Onthebasisof
archaeologicaldiscoveriesintheIndusValley,thecivilizationsubsequentlydevelopedbythe
DravidiansequalledandpossiblysurpassedinsplendourthecivilizationsofancientMesopotamiaand
Egypt.
Aboutthemiddleofthe3rdmillenniumBC,DravidianIndiaappearstohaveexperiencedaninflux,
India
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perhapsinsuccessivewaves,ofmigrantsoftheIndo-Europeanlinguisticstock.Thesepeoples,
probablyoriginatingfromCentralAsiaandusuallyreferredtoasIndo-Aryans,enteredthe
subcontinentthroughthemountainpassesalongthenorth-westernfrontierandgraduallysettledin
mostoftheterritorynorthoftheVindhyaRangeandwestoftheRiverYamuna.Thereisnoevidence
thatthesepopulationchangeswereintheformofinvasions.Theinfluenceofthemigrantswould
seemtohavebeenlimitedinsouthernpartsofthepeninsula,whereDravidianlanguagescontinueto
dominate,butassimilation,including,intheviewofsomeauthorities,absorptionofvariousaspectsof
existingDravidianculture,occurredinthenorth-west.
VedicPeriod
ObscuritysurroundsIndiaspoliticalhistoryformanycenturiesafterthearrivalofthewavesof
migrantsfromCentralAsia,buttheVeda,acollectionofsacredwritingsdatingfromabout1200BC,
containsconsiderableinformationonsocialpractices,religiousbeliefs,andculturalattainments.As
depictedinsomeVedichymns,thecivilizationthatemergedduringtheearlycenturiesafterthe
interminglingofIndo-AryanandDravidianculturesonthesubcontinentwasnotableinseveral
respects.Tribalpoliticalorgansfunctionedaccordingtodemocraticprinciples,thesocialstatusof
womencomparedfavourablywiththatofmen,andmarriagewasregardedassacred.TheIndo-
Aryanshadadvancedskillsinvariousartsandsciences,includinglivestock-raising,metalhandicrafts,
carpentry,boatbuilding,andmilitaryscience.
TheVedichymnscomposedduringthisandlaterperiodsalsodepicttheemergenceandcrystallization
ofkeyfeaturesofthesocio-religioussystemknownasHinduism.Virtuallyallthatisknownwith
certaintyofthepoliticalsituationisthatinthecourseofthe1stmillenniumBC,16autonomousstates
wereestablishedintheregionboundedbytheHimalaya,thesouthernreachesoftheGanges,the
VindhyaRange,andtheIndusValley.Ofthesestates,comprisingbothrepublicsandkingdoms,the
mostimportantwasKosala,akingdomsituatedintheregionoccupiedbymodernOudh.Other
importantkingdomswereAvanti,Vamsas,andMagadha.Thelast-namedkingdomoccupiedthe
territoryofmodernBihar,andinaboutthemiddleofthe6thcenturyBCitbecamethedominantstate
ofIndia.DuringthereignofitsfirstgreatKingBimbisara(reignedabout543-491BC),Buddhaand
VardhamanaJnatiputraorNataputtaMahavira,therespectivefoundersofBuddhismandJainism,
preachedandtaughtinMagadha.
In326BC AlexandertheGreatledanexpeditionacrosstheHinduKushintonorthernIndia.Hewon
severalvictoriesduringhismarchintoIndia,climaxingintheBattleofHydaspesthatendedinthe
defeatofKingPorosneartheRiverHydaspes(nowtheJhelum).However,Alexanderdidnotstayin
Indialong,andthepoliticalandculturaleffectsoftheinvasionwereinsignificant,exceptinthe
opportunityprovidedfortheMauryanKingChandraguptatoexpandhisempirewestwardsutilizingthe
politicalvacuum.
MauryaDynasty
In321BCChandragupta,knowntotheGreeksasSandrocottos,seizedcontrolofMagadha.Withinthe
nextdecadeChandragupta,founderoftheMauryadynastyofIndiankings,extendedhissovereignty
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overmostofthesubcontinent.HewasassistedbyKautilya(orChanakya),aBrahminchiefminister
whomayhavebeenthemaincontributortotheArthashastra,atextbookonpoliticsakintoThe Prince
bytheItalianhistorianNiccolMachiavelli.ThemilitarypoweroftheIndianEmpirecausedSeleucusI,
oneofAlexandersgeneralsandthefounderoftheSeleucidEmpire,toarrangeanalliancewiththe
Mauryaruler.Concludedin305BC,thetreatywasconsolidatedbyamarriagearrangementbetween
ChandraguptaandadaughteroftheSeleucidruler.
Asoneresultofthecloserelationsbetweenthetwoempires,Greekculturalinfluencewaswidespread
innorthernIndia.TheMauryadynastyendureduntilabout185BC.Duringthereign(c.273-232BC)of
Ashoka,thegreatestMauryasovereign,Buddhismbecamethedominantreligionoftheempire.India
was,bynow,agreatcentreoflearningwithuniversitiessuchasthoseatNalanda,andTakshasila
attractingscholarsfromChinaandSouthEastAsia.Ofthedynastiesthatappearedintheperiod
immediatelyfollowingthedownfalloftheMauryas,theSungaenduredlongest,lastingmorethana
century.Thechiefeventofthisperiod(c.184-72BC)wasthepersecutionanddeclineofBuddhismin
IndiaandthetriumphofBrahmanism.InconsequenceofthevictoryoftheHinduBrahman(priests),
thecastesystembecamedeeplyingrainedintheIndiansocialstructure,creatinggreatobstaclesto
nationalunification.
AnextensivesectionofwesternIndiawasoccupiedinabout100BCbyinvadingShakas(Scythians),
theninretreatbeforetheYueh-chiofcentralAsia.Pushingsouthwards,theYueh-chisubsequently
settledinnorth-westernIndia,whereKadphises,oneoftheirkings,foundedtheKushandynastyin
aboutAD40.AlargepartofnorthernIndiashortlyfellundertheswayoftheKushankings.Oneofthe
earlyKushanmonarchsestablisheddiplomaticandcommercialrelationswiththeRomanEmpire.
BuddhismthrivedundertheKushans,andespeciallyundertheruleofEmperorKanishka,whowasa
patronoflearningandthearts.MathematicsandscienceflourishedandthemedicaltextsofCharaka
werewrittenatthistime.
TherulersoftheindigenousAndhradynasty,whichcametocontroltheformerSungadominionsin
about27BCandenduredforabout460years,maderepeatedattemptstoexpeltheShakas.These
attemptsendedinfailureandinaboutAD236theShakasattainedcompletesovereigntyoverwestern
India.Adecadeearlier,shortlybeforethefalloftheAndhradynasty,theKushanrealmalso
disintegrated.TheensuingcenturywasaperiodofpoliticalconfusionthroughoutmostofIndia.
GuptaEmpire
In320aMagadharajanamedChandraguptaI(reigned320-330),whohadconqueredthe
neighbouringterritories,foundedanewimperialregimeandtheGuptadynasty.Hisgrandson
ChandraguptaII(reigned375-413)vastlyexpandedtherealm,subjugatingallofthesubcontinent
northoftheRiverNarmada.UndertheGuptadynasty,whichlastedfor160years,Indianculture
reachednewheights.Theperiodwasoneofsustainedpeace,steadyeconomicadvance,and
intellectualaccomplishment,particularlyinart,music,andliterature.Equallyimportantly,Hinduism,
whichhadlongbeenindecline,experiencedarobustrenaissancethroughabsorptionofsomefeatures
ofBuddhism.
Towardsthecloseofthe5thcentury,Hunnishinvaders,oftenreferredtoastheWhiteHuns,pushed
India
Page 21
intoIndiafromcentralAsia.TheGuptaEmpirebrokeupundertheattacksoftheseinvaders,whose
supremacywentunchallengedfornearlyacentury.Foreignmilitaryreverses,notablyatthehandsof
theTurksinabout565,finallyunderminedthepoweroftheHunsinIndia.Amongthecontemporary
descendantsoftheHunswhoremainedinIndiaarecertaintribalgroupsofRajasthanstate.Another
powerfulkingdomwasfoundedinnorthernIndiain606byHarsha,thelastBuddhistmonarchof
consequenceinIndianhistory.HarshasreignemulatedtheGuptaperiodinitspatronageofthearts,
andtheculturalachievementsofthisperiodcanbeseeninthechroniclesofthegreatChinesepilgrim,
Xuangzang(Hsuan-tsangorTripitaka).Duringhisreign,Harshasecuredcontrolofalmosttheentire
mainlandandattempted,withoutsuccess,toconquertheDeccan.AfterHarshasdeath,hisrealm
disintegratedintoamultiplicityofwarringpettystatesandprincipalities.Thisanarchicstateofaffairs,
whichwasalsogenerallycharacteristicofthesituationonthepeninsula,prevailedthroughoutIndia
untilthebeginningofthe11thcentury.
MuslimandMongolInvasions
Theprolongedperiodofinternalstrifedrewtoacloseasanewpower,solidlyunitedunderIslam,
aroseinwesternAsia.ThisnewpowerwasKhurasan,previouslyaSamanidprovincethathadbeen
transformedintoanindependentkingdombyMahmudofGhazn(reigned999-1030).Acapable
warriorwhosesovereigntyoverKhurasanhadbeenrecognizedbythecaliphofBaghdad,Mahmudin
1000launchedthefirstof17consecutiveexpeditionsacrosstheAfghanfrontierintoIndia.These
incursionsweremarkedbyvictoriesoverthedisunitedIndians.By1025Mahmudhadsackedmany
westernIndiancities,includingthefabulouslywealthyportofSomnath,andhadannexedtheregion
ofPunjabtohisempire.
ThemostsuccessfuloftheMuslimrulersafterMahmudwasMuhammadofGhur,whosereignbegan
in1173.RegardedbymosthistoriansastherealfounderofMuslimpowerinIndia,heinitiatedhis
campaignsofconquestin1175.Inthecourseofthenextthreedecades,hesubjugatedallofthe
Indo-GangeticplainwestofBenares(nowVaranasi).OnthedeathofMuhammadofGhur,Qutb-udDinAybak,hisviceroyinDelhiandaformerslave,proclaimedhimselfSultan.Theso-calledSlave
dynastyfoundedbyQutb-ud-Din,itsonlyoutstandingruler,endureduntil1288.
AnothercapableMuslim,Ala-ud-Din(reigned1296-1316),wasthesecondrulerofthesucceeding
Khaljidynasty.HeconsolidatedtheIndianrealmbyconqueringtheDeccan.However,beforetheend
ofhisreign,theMongolsbegantoinfiltratethenorthernfrontiersofhisdominions.Muhammad
Tughluq,thelastDelhisultanofimportance,completelyalienatedbothMuslimsandsubjectHindusby
hiscrueltyandreligiousfanaticism.Theempirewastornbyrevolutionarystrifeandsomeprovinces,
notablyBengal,seceded.
TheturmoilincreasedafterTughluqsdeath.In1398,whentheMongolconquerorTamerlaneledhis
armiesintoIndia,hemetlittleorganizedresistance.Tamerlanecompletedhisvictoriousinvasionby
sackinganddestroyingDelhi,andmassacringitsinhabitants.HewithdrewfromIndiashortlyafterthe
sackofDelhi,leavingtheremnantsoftheempiretoMahmud(reigned1399-1413),thelastofthe
Tughluqs.Mahmudwassucceededin1414bythefirstoftheSayyids,adynastythatwaslaterdriven
frompowerbyBahlol(reigned1451-1489),founderoftheLodilineofkings.TheLodidynasty,
generallyweakandineffectual,endedin1526.InthatyearBabur,adescendantofTamerlaneandthe
India
Page 22
founderofthegreatMughaldynasty,carriedoutaseriesofraidsintoIndiawhichendedwiththe
defeatoftheLodiarmy.BaburoccupiedAgra,theLodicapital,andproclaimedhimselfemperorofthe
Muslimdominions.Withinfouryearsofhisinitialvictory,BaburcontrolledalargepartoftheIndian
mainland.
MughalEmpire
Akbar,Babursgrandson,wasthegreatestMughalsovereign.Duringhisreign(1556-1605),he
subduedrebelliousprincesinvariousregions,includingthePunjab,Rajputana(modernRajasthan
State),andGujarat.HeaddedBengaltohisrealmin1576,conqueredKashmirbetween1586and
1592,andannexedSindin1592.Between1598and1601hesubjugatedanumberoftheDeccan
Muslimkingdoms.Intheadministrationofhisvastdominions,Akbarrevealedremarkable
organizationalabilities.Hesecuredtheallegianceofhundredsoffeudalrulers,promotedtrade,
introducedanequitablesystemoftaxation,andencouragedreligioustolerance.TheMughalEmpire
reacheditsculturalpeakunderShahJahan,Akbarsgrandson.ShahJahansreign(1628-1658)
coincidedwiththegoldenageofIndianSaracenicarchitecture,bestexemplifiedbytheTajMahal.
Hewasdrivenfromthethronein1658byhisson,Aurangzeb,whotookthetitleofAlamgir
(ConqueroroftheWorld).Treacherousandaggressive,Aurangzebmurderedhisthreebrothersand
wagedaseriesofwarsagainsttheautonomouskingdomsofIndia,sappingthemoralandmaterial
strengthoftheempire.DuringhiscampaignsintheDeccan,theMarathas,aScytho-Dravidianpeople,
inflictednumerousdefeatsontheimperialarmies.ThestabilityofAurangzebsregimewasfurther
underminedasaresultofpopularantagonismtothereligiousbigotryhefostered.Duringhisreign,
whichendedin1707withhisdeathinexile,theSikhfaithgainedastrongfootholdinIndia.
Inthehalf-centuryfollowingAurangzebsdeath,theMughalEmpireceasedtoexistasaneffective
state.Thepoliticalchaosoftheperiodwasmarkedbytherapiddeclineofcentralizedauthority.
NumerouspettykingdomsandprincipalitieswerecreatedbyMuslimandHinduadventurers,andlarge
independentstateswereformedbythegovernorsoftheimperialprovinces.Amongthefirstofthe
largeindependentstatestoemergewasHyderabad,establishedin1712.ThetotteringMughalregime
sufferedadisastrousblowin1739whenthePersiankingNadirShahledanarmyintoIndiaand
plunderedDelhi.Amongthelootseizedbytheinvaders,thesixthMuslimforcetooverrunIndia,was
themammothKoh-i-noordiamondandthefabulousPeacockThrone,madeofsolidgoldinlaidwith
preciousstones.ThePersiankingsoonwithdrewfromIndia,butin1756Delhiwasagaincaptured
thistimebyAhmadShah,EmirofAfghanistan,whohadpreviouslyseizedthePunjab.In1760the
MarathasandtheSikhsjoinedforcesagainstthearmiesofAhmadShah.Theensuingbattle,foughtat
PanipatonJanuary7,1761,resultedincompletevictoryfortheinvaders.In1764,followingthe
withdrawaloftheinvadersfromIndia,theMughalEmperorregainedhisthrone.Hisauthority,like
thatofhissuccessors,waspurelynominal,however.WiththedefeatoftheMarathasandtheSikhs,
thepossibilityofthereunificationofIndiaintoastrong,singlestatehadvanishedandthecountry,
longthearenaofbittercolonialrivalryamongthemaritimepowersofEurope,fellincreasinglyunder
Britishdomination.
PortugueseandDutchColonialism
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MuslimcontrolofthetradearteriesbetweentheMediterraneanandIndia,ledvariousEuropean
powerstodreamofanewroutetotheFarEastlongbeforeBaburfoundedtheMughalEmpire.The
Portuguesedevotedremarkablezealandinitiativetothesearchforsucharoute.In1497and1498
VascodaGama,oneoftheroyalnavigators,ledanexpeditionaroundtheCapeofGoodHopeand
acrosstheIndianOcean.OnMay19,1498,daGamasailedintotheharbourofKozhikode(Calicut),
ontheMalabarCoast,openinganeweraofIndianhistory.Establishingfriendlyrelationswiththe
dominantDeccankingdom,thePortuguesesecuredamonopolyofIndianmaritimetradeand
maintaineditforacentury.ThePortuguesemonopolywasbrokenearlyinthe17thcenturybythe
DutchEastIndiaCompany,anamalgamationofprivateDutchmerchanttraderssetupin1602under
theauspicesoftheDutchgovernment.Twoyearsearlier,theEnglishmonarchElizabethIhadgranted
achartertoasimilarmerchantorganization,thefirstEnglishEastIndiaCompany.Company
negotiationswiththeMughalruler,EmperorJahangir,weresuccessful,andinDecember1612the
EnglishfoundedtheirfirsttradingpostatSurat,ontheGulfofKhambht.OnNovember29a
PortuguesefleethadattackedanumberofEnglishvesselsintheGulfofKhambhtandtheEnglish
hadtriumphedintheensuingbattle.
DuringthenextdecadethePortugueseweredefeatedinseveralmorenavalengagementswiththe
English,whothereafterencounteredlittleoppositioninIndiafromthatquarter.TheDutch,already
entrenchedintheMalayArchipelago,alsoendeavouredtodrivetheEnglishoutofIndia,butwere
themselveseliminatedasaseriouscompetitiveforcebeforetheendofthe17thcentury.Meanwhile
theEnglishEastIndiaCompanysteadilyexpandeditssphereofinfluenceandoperations.Itsecureda
footholdinOrissain1633,foundedthecityofMadrasin1639,obtainedtradingprivilegesinBengalin
1651,acquiredBombayfromPortugalin1661,andarrangedacommercialtreatywiththeMaratha
rulerShivajiBhonslein1674;in1690itestablishedKolkataafterforciblysuppressinglocalopposition
tothemove.
GrowingFrenchandBritishRivalry
Duringthefirsthalfofthe18thcenturytheFrench,whohadbeguntooperateinIndiaabout1675,
emergedasaseriousthreattothegrowingpowerandprosperityoftheBritishEastIndiaCompany.
ThefrictionbetweenFranceandthenewlyformedGreatBritainreachedanacutestagein1746,when
aFrenchfleetseizedMadras.Thisaction,aphaseoftheWaroftheAustrianSuccession(1740-1748),
andthesubsequentfightinginIndiaendedinastalemate;in1748theFrenchreturnedMadrastothe
British.WithinthreeyearsthesmoulderingfeudbetweentheEuropeanrivalsagainflaredintoarmed
conflict.RobertClive,aBritishEastIndiaCompanyemployee,wondistinctionandvictoryinthefight
forcontrolofHyderbdandtheCarnatic.
ThefinalstageofthecontestbetweentheFrenchandBritishfordominanceinIndiadevelopedasan
extensionoftheSevenYearsWarinEurope.Inthecourseofthehostilitieswhichlastedfrom1756to
1763,andinvolvedlargecontingentsofIndianpartisans,theBritishwonseveraldecisivevictoriesand
effectivelyendedFrenchplansforpoliticalcontrolofthesubcontinent.Themostimportanteventof
thewarwasClivesvictoryatPlasseyin1757,whichmadetheBritishvirtualmastersofBengaland
allowedthemtotaxthelucrativeprovinceanimportantstepintheconsolidationoftheirpowerin
thesubcontinent.BythetermsofthegeneralpeacesettlementfollowingtheSevenYearsWar,
FrenchterritoryinIndiawasreducedtoafewtradingposts.See alsoCarnaticWars.
India
Page 24
EastIndiaCompany
Asaresultofitsvictories,theEastIndiaCompanyhadacquiredstrategicpoliticalandterritorial
positionsinBengal,themostpopulousIndianprovince,andinimportantareasoftheDeccan.
Consolidationandextensionofthesegainscharacterizedthecompanyssubsequentpolicy,which
retaineditsstatusasaprivatecommercialfirmuntil1773.InthatyeartheEastIndiaCompanywas
madebyparliamentasemi-officialagencyoftheBritishgovernment.TheapplicationofBritishpolicy
inIndiawasfacilitatedbythepowervacuumthatfollowedtheBattleofPanipat(1761),whenneither
theMughalEmpirenortheMarathaConfederacywasstrongenoughtoexerciseauthority.
I1
ArmedResistance
Inthepursuitoftheirobjectives,theBritishreliedprimarilyonsuperiormilitarypower,butbribery,
extortion,andthepoliticalmanipulationofIndianleaderswerefrequentlyandsuccessfullyemployed.
DisunityamongthevariousIndiankingdomsandprincipalitiespavedthewayforeventualBritish
subjugationoftheentiresubcontinentandcontiguousregions,notablyBurma.Atsporadicintervals,
individualIndianstatesandgroupsofstatesfiercely,butvainly,resistedexploitationandterritorial
seizuresbythecompany.ThechiefcentresofarmedresistancetoBritishruleincluded,atvarious
times,theMarathaConfederacy,Mysore,Sind,andPunjab.In1845,hostilitiesbrokeoutbetweenthe
SikhsofPunjabandtheBritish,startingawarthatprovedcostlytobothsides.TheSikhswere
defeatedin1846buttwoyearslatertheyagainengagedtheBritish.Inonebattle,foughtat
Chilianwala,theSikhsinflictednearly2,500casualtiesontheBritish.Thelatterwonadecisivevictory
onFebruary21,1849,however,forcingtheSikhstocapitulate(seeSikhWars).
I2
DalhousiesImpact
AnnexationofPunjabbytheEastIndiaCompanyfollowed.DuringthenextfewyearsJamesAndrew
BrounRamsay,10thEarlofDalhousie,thengovernor-generalofthecompanyinIndia,annexedthe
kingdomsofSatara,Jaipur,Sambalpur,Jhansi,andNagpuronthedeathoftheirrulers.Dalhousies
policyofannexationengenderedprofoundhostilityamongtheIndiannobilityandpeoples.India
benefitedmaterially,however,fromvariousimprovementsandreformsintroducedbyDalhousies
administration.Railways,bridges,roads,andirrigationsystemswerebuilt;telegraphandpostal
serviceswereestablished;andrestrictionswereimposedonsuttee(theimmolationofwivesonthe
funeralpyresoftheirhusbands),slavetrading,andotherancientpractices.Theseinnovationsand
reforms,however,arousedlittleenthusiasmamongtheIndianpeople,manyofwhomregardedthe
modernizationoftheircountrywithfearanddistrust.In1856DalhousieannexedOudh,anactthat
addedimmeasurablytopopulardiscontent.Dalhousiesapparentattitudeofcontemptforthelearning
andcultureofIndiacausedparticularresentment.
I3
IndianMutiny
AstheunrestinIndiamounted,alarge-scaleconspiratorialmovementspreadamongthesepoys,the
IndiantroopsemployedbytheBritishEastIndiaCompany.Ageneraluprising,knownastheIndianor
India
Page 25
SepoyMutiny,beganatMeerut,atownnearDelhi,onMay10,1857.Sparkedoffbyaspontaneous
reactionofHinduandMuslimtroopsoffendedattheuseofcowandpigfat,respectively,inanew
typeofcartridge,itbecameamoregeneralexpressionofoppositiontoBritishrule,ralliedaroundthe
bannerofBahadurShahII,titularemperorofthemoribundMughalEmpire.Themutineersquickly
occupiedDelhiandotherstrategiccentres,massacredhundredsofEuropeans,and,onJune30,laid
siegetotheBritishresidencyatLucknow.ThecitywasrelievedinNovemberandreinforcementsof
Britishtroopsandloyalsepoyswererushedtothedisaffectedareas.Fightingcontinuedinto1859,but
byJune1858thechiefrebelstrongholdshadfallen.
AperiodofbrutalreprisalsbytheBritishtroopsfollowed,especiallyinDelhi,wherethousandswere
killed,manywithouttrial.Inthesameyear,thejudicialauthoritiesoftheEastIndiaCompany
convictedBahadurShahIIonchargesofrebellionandsentencedhimtolifeimprisonment,thus
closingthefinalchapterofMughalhistory.HewasexiledtoRangooninBurma(nowMyanmar).As
onemajorresultoftheIndianMutiny,theBritishParliamentin1858passedtheActfortheBetter
GovernmentofIndia,whichtransferredtheadministrationofIndiafromtheEastIndiaCompanyto
theBritishCrown.
BritishIndiaandRisingNationalism
ManyoftheabusesprevalentinIndiaduringtheruleoftheEastIndiaCompanywereeradicatedor
modifiedaftertheBritishgovernmentassumedcontrolofIndianaffairs.Importantfiscal,
governmental,judicial,educational,andsocialreformswereinstituted,andthesystemofpublicworks
inauguratedbyDalhousiewasvastlyextended.TheBritishgovernmenthadinheritednumerous
difficultproblems,includingtheimpoverishedconditionofthemajorityofIndianpeople,popular
resentmentoverthecountryscolonialstatus,andagrowingspiritofnationalism.Frequentdisastrous
famines,beginningwiththe1866Orissafamine,whichtookthelivesof1.5millionpeople
contributedsubstantiallytopoliticalunrest.In1876theBritishgovernment,thenheadedbyBenjamin
Disraeli,proclaimedQueenVictoriaEmpressofIndia.
J1
PoliticalFerment
Intheclosingyearsofthe19thcenturyandduringthefirstdecadeofthe20thcentury,socialand
politicalfermentinIndiaspreadwidely.AspectsofWesternandEasternideasandcultureswere
effectivelycombinedbytheIndianintellectualelite,someofwhomhadstudiedandtravelledinthe
West.Underthestimulusofvigorouspropagandacampaignsinthelocalpress,massmeetings,and
secretpoliticalorganizations,IndiannationalismbegantoseriouslythreatenBritainspositioninIndia.
AnumberofassociationsdedicatedtothestruggleagainstBritishrulehadbeencreatedinthe
decadesfollowingtheIndianMutiny.Ofthese,themostinfluentialwastheIndianNationalCongress,
foundedin1885.Thisorganization,whichenlistedthesupportofmanyprominentHindusand
Muslims,graduallyheightenedthepoliticalconsciousnessofthemassesandacceleratedthetrend
towardsnationalunification.Ontheculturallevel,thecelebratedpoetandeducatorRabindranath
TagoremadeenduringcontributionstothecauseofIndianunity.
TheIndianNationalCongressdrewinspirationandencouragementfromtheJapanesevictoryinthe
India
Page 26
Russo-JapaneseWarof1904and1905,apracticaldemonstrationofthelatentpoweroftheAsian
peoples.HostilemanifestationsagainstBritishrulebecamemoreandmorefrequent,particularlyin
Bengal.Themoreradicalnationalistsresortedtoassassination,bombings,andotheractsofterrorism.
RetaliatorymeasuresbythecolonialauthoritieswerecounteredbyapopularboycottofBritishgoods.
J2
RepressiveMeasures
Condemningmostofthenationalistactivitiesasseditious,theBritishgovernmentadoptedaspecial
criminalcodetodealwiththesituation.Amongothermeasures,thiscodeprovidedfortrialwithout
juryforthoseaccusedoftreason,andfordeportationorsummaryimprisonmentforagitators.These
repressivestepswerefollowedin1909bytheIndiaCouncilsAct,whichintroducedalimiteddegreeof
self-governmentinIndia.DissatisfiedwiththisconcessiontoIndiandemandsforindependence,the
nationalistmovementcontinuedtogainheadway.
Aroundthistime,anewmovementhadbeenformed.TheMuslimLeaguewasformedin1906withthe
encouragementoftheBritishgovernment,andhadpressedfortheintroductionofseparate
electoratestosafeguardthepositionoftheMuslimcommunity.TheorganizationsupportedtheBritish
government,fearingtheintroductionofHindu RajiftheBritishshouldeverleaveIndia.Itwas
establishedbyeliteMuslims.EvenbeforetheLeaguewasestablished,theIndianNationalCongress
hadnotcountedmanyMuslimsamongitsmembers,althoughsomeprominentindividuals,suchasthe
influentialjournalistAbulKalamAzad,registereddisapprovalofLeaguepolicy,resignedfromthe
organization,andjoinedtheIndianNationalCongress.
J3
JointCampaign
FollowingtheoutbreakofWorldWarI,manyIndians,bothHinduandMuslim,ralliedtotheBritish
cause.Morethan1.2millionparticipatedintheBritishwareffort,givingvaliantandloyalserviceinall
theatresoftheconflict.Thenationalistmovement,generallyquiescentduringthefirsttwoyearsof
thewar,resumedthecampaignforfundamentalpoliticalreformsintheautumnof1916.The
campaignwasinitiatedbyajointdeclarationofminimumdemandsbytheIndianNationalCongress
andbytheMuslimLeague,whichhadbeenforcedtoabandonitspro-BritishpolicyafterTurkey,a
Muslimcountry,enteredthewaronthesideoftheCentralPowers.Therefollowedapolicy
pronouncementfromtheBritishgovernmentinAugust1917,promisinganincreaseof...the
associationofIndiansineverybranchoftheadministrationandthegradualdevelopmentofselfgoverninginstitutionsinIndia.
GandhisProtestMovement
PoliticalstrifeincreasedafterWorldWarI.Inreplytotheupsurgeofnationalistactivity,theBritish
parliamentpassedtheRowlattActs,whichsuspendedcivilrightsandprovidedformartiallawinareas
disturbedbyriotsanduprisings.PassageoftheRowlattActsprecipitatedawaveofviolenceand
disorderinmanypartsofIndia.Inthisperiodofturmoil,MohandasK.Gandhi,aHindusocialand
religiousreformer,calledontheIndianpeopletomeetBritishrepressionwithpassiveresistance
India
Page 27
(Satyagraha).TheprotestmovementreachedinsurrectionaryproportionsonApril13,1919,
proclaimedbyGandhiasadayofnationalmourning.InAmritsar,inthePunjab,anunarmedcrowdof
men,women,andchildren,stagingapeacefulprotestinaconfinedsquare,werefireduponbyBritish
troopsundertheordersofGeneralDyer.Approximately400peoplewerekilled.
InconsequenceoftheAmritsarmassacre,theanti-BritishmovementinIndiareachednewlevelsof
intensity.TheoutstandingfeatureofthisstageofthestrugglewasGandhispolicyofnon-cooperation,
institutedin1920.Amongotherthings,thepolicycalledfortheboycottofBritishgoods,courts,and
educationalinstitutions;fornon-cooperationinpoliticallife;andfortherenunciationofBritishtitles
heldbyIndians.Thenon-cooperationmovementwassometimesattendedbyviolence,despite
admonitionsbyGandhiagainsttheuseofforce.Combinedwithparliamentarymethodsofstruggle,
themovementprovedtobearemarkablyeffectiveweaponinthefightforIndianindependence.In
theviewofBritishofficialdom,theactivitiesengagedinbyGandhiconstitutedsedition,andtheIndian
leader,alongwithotheroutstandingactivistssuchasSarojiniNaidu,wasperiodicallyimprisonedor
internedduringthe1920sand1930s.Gandhi,knownamonghisadmirersasMahatma(Sanskritfor
greatsoul),figureddecisivelyinIndianpoliticalhistory.
IncreasingInternalDissension
Between1922,theyearoftheinitialimprisonmentofGandhiforsedition,and1942,whenhewas
placedincustodyforthelasttime,thefightforIndianindependencewasmarkedbyserioussetbacks,
includingtherenewalofdissensionbetweenMuslimsandHindus,andbymanyvictories.
L1
CivilDisobedience
ThetideofIndiannationalism,havingacquiredmomentumsteadilysinceGandhiwasfirstarrested,
attainedaclimacticstageinthespringof1930.OnMarch12ofthatyear,followingBritishrejectionof
demandsfordominionstatusforIndia,Gandhiannouncedthathewouldleadamassviolationofthe
governmentsaltmonopoly.Thiswasaccomplished,afteralongmarchtotheGulfofKhambht,by
boilingsea-watertoproducesalt.SimilaractionsoccurredthroughoutIndia.Thissimpleact,of
makingsalt,provedprofoundlysymbolicandeffective,andonMay5Gandhiwasagainjailedbythe
Britishauthorities.RiotsanddemonstrationsimmediatelyfollowedinCalcutta,Delhi,andother
centres.Trainswerestoned,telegraphwireswerecut,andseveralgovernmentofficialswere
assassinated.Strivingtocopewiththeseandlaterdisorders,thegovernmentcarriedoutwholesale
arrests;byNovemberabout27,000Indiannationalistshadbeensentencedtoprisonterms.
L2
Hindu-MuslimSchism
Finally,inMarch1931,theBritishgovernmentarrangedatrucewithGandhi,whohadbeenreleased
inJanuaryalongwithotherpoliticalprisoners,includingJawaharlalNehru,hisclosestassociateand
thesecretaryoftheIndianNationalCongress.MeanwhiletheMuslimLeague,professingfearsof
Hindudomination,hadadvanceddemandsforspecialprivilegesintheproposeddominion
government.Inthecourseoftheresultingcontroversy,bitterHindu-Muslimriotingravagedmany
India
Page 28
communitiesofIndia.Addingtothemiseryandsufferingoccasionedbytheseoutbursts,theworld
economiccrisis,whichhadbegunin1929,completelydisruptedtheeconomyofIndiaduringtheearly
1930s.
L3
GovernmentofIndiaAct
In1935,followingaseriesofconferencesinLondonbetweenBritishandIndianleaders,the
GovernmentofIndiaActwasapprovedbytheBritishparliament.TheActprovidedforthe
establishmentofautonomouslegislativebodiesintheprovincesofBritishIndia,forthecreationofa
centralgovernmentrepresentativeoftheprovincesandprincelystates,andfortheprotectionof
Muslimminorities.Inaddition,theActprovidedforabicameralnationallegislatureandanexecutive
armunderthecontroloftheBritishgovernment.LargelyinfluencedbyGandhi,theIndianpeople
approvedthemeasures,whichbecameeffectiveonApril1,1937.ManymembersoftheIndian
NationalCongress,however,continuedtoinsistonfullindependenceforIndia.
Ontheprovinciallevel,fewdifficultiesdevelopedintheapplicationoftheGovernmentofIndiaAct.
However,theplanforfederationprovedunworkableforavarietyofreasons,includingmutual
suspicionandantagonismbetweentheIndianprincesandtheradicalsoftheIndianNational
Congress,andMuslimclaimsthattheHinduswouldhaveexcessiveinfluenceinthenational
legislature.TheIndianNationalCongressperformedbetterinthe1937provincialelectionsthan
expected,whiletheMuslimLeaguedidmuchworse.Theproposedcoalitionbetweenthepartiesin
provincessuchastheUnitedProvinceswasthereforeabandonedbytheCongress,alienatingthe
League.Tensionsincreasedfurtherduetoallegationsofanti-MuslimactivitybyCongress
governments.ThesedevelopmentspavedthewayforMuhammedAliJinnah,thepresidentofthe
MuslimLeague,tocallin1940forindependentstatesinwhichtheconstituentunitsshallbe
autonomousandsovereign.
WartimeAgitation
OntheoutbreakofWorldWarIItheViceroyofIndia,VictorAlexanderJohnHope,Marquessof
Linlithgow,declaredwaronGermanyinthenameofIndia.Thisstep,takeninaccordancewiththe
constitutionof1937butwithoutconsultingIndianleaders,alienatedGandhiandimportantsectionsof
theIndianNationalCongress.InfluentialgroupswithinCongress,supportingGandhisposition,
intensifiedthecampaignforimmediateself-government,namingitastheirpriceforcooperationinthe
wareffort.AttheendofOctober1939theCongressministriesineightprovincesresignedinprotest
againsttheadamantattitudeoftheBritish.Thecivildisobediencecampaignwasresumedbythe
IndianNationalCongressinOctober1940.MeanwhiletheMuslimLeague,manyoftheprincelystates,
andcertainmembersoftheIndianNationalCongresshadendorsedtheBritishwareffort.The
subsequentcontributionsofIndiatothestruggleagainsttheAxispowerswereextensive.About1.5
millionIndiantroopswereservingathomeandonthefrontsbytheendofthewar,whileIndias
financialcontributiontotalledapproximatelyUS$12billion.
InDecember1941theBritishauthoritiesinIndiareleasedtheCongressleaderswhohadbeenplaced
underarrestin1940.Anewwaveofanti-Britishagitationfollowed,andinMarch1942theBritish
India
Page 29
governmentdispatchedSirStaffordCripps,thenLordPrivySeal,toIndiawithproposalsdesignedto
satisfynationalistdemands.TheseproposalscontainedthepromiseoffullindependenceforIndiaafter
theendofthewarandcalledfortheestablishmentofaninterimIndiangovernmentresponsibleforall
mattersexceptnationaldefenceandforeignaffairs.BecausetheleadersofboththeIndianNational
CongressandtheMuslimLeaguehadbasicobjectionstovarioussectionsoftheproposals,theCripps
missionendedinfailure.
ThecivildisobediencemovementwasresumedinAugust1942.Gandhi,Nehru,andthousandsoftheir
supporterswereroundedupandimprisoned,andtheIndianNationalCongresswasoutlawed.
EncouragedbyIndiandisunityandwiththehelpoftheextremenationalist,andformerCongress
president,SubhasChandhraBose,whohadorganizedaprovisionalIndiangovernmentinBurma,
theJapanesepromptlyintensifiedmilitaryoperationsalongtheBurmese-Indianfrontier.TheJapanese
invasionofIndiabeganalonga322-km(200-mi)frontinMarch1944.Afterinitialsuccesses,the
JapaneseweregraduallyforcedbackintoBurmabyAnglo-Indiantroops.
TheBritishgovernmentreleasedGandhifromjailonMay6,1944.DuringhisinternmentGandhihad
modifiedmostofhisviewsregardingthenatureofthewarandtheCrippsprogramme,andin
September1944heandtheMuslimleaderJinnahbegandiscussionsonmutualdifferences.Primarily
becauseofJinnahsinsistenceonthedemarcationofthefrontiersofPakistanpriortotheformationof
aninterimgovernment,thediscussionsendedinfailure.
InterimGovernment
InJune1945IndiabecameachartermemberoftheUN.InthesamemonthNehruwasreleasedfrom
jail,andshortlythereaftertheBritishgovernmentissuedawhitepaperontheIndianquestion.The
proposalscloselyresembledthoseoftheCrippsprogramme.Anotherdeadlockdevelopedandduring
thesecondhalfof1945anewwaveofanti-BritishriotsanddemonstrationssweptIndia.Three
representativesoftheBritishgovernment,includingCripps,madeanotherattempttonegotiatean
agreementwithIndianleadersinthespringof1946.AlthoughtheMuslimLeaguetemporarily
withdrewitsdemandsforthepartitionofIndiaalongreligiouslines,andacceptedtheplanfora
confederalunitedIndia,insuperabledifferencesdevelopedwithrespecttothecharacterofaninterim
government.TheCongresswasalsounhappywiththedecentralizedproposalsbytheCabinetMission
Plan.Thenegotiationswerefruitless,andinJunetheBritishviceroyArchibaldWavellannouncedthe
formationofanemergencycaretakergovernment.Aninterimexecutivecouncil,headedbyNehru
andincludingrepresentativesofallmajorpoliticalgroupsexcepttheMuslimLeague,replacedthis
governmentinSeptember.Thefollowingmonth,theMuslimLeagueagreedtoparticipateinthenew
government.Nonetheless,communalstrifebetweenMuslimsandHindusincreasedinvariouspartsof
India.
Bytheendof1946theIndianpoliticalsituationvergedonanarchy.TheBritishprimeminister
ClementR.AttleeannouncedinFebruary1947thathisgovernmentwouldrelinquishpowerinIndia
notlaterthanJune30,1948.Accordingtotheannouncement,themovewouldbemadewhetheror
notthepoliticalfactionsofIndiahadagreedonaconstitution.PoliticaltensionmountedinIndia
followingtheannouncement,creatinggravepossibilitiesofadisastrousHindu-Muslimcivilwar.After
consultationswithIndianleaders,LouisMountbatten,whosucceededWavellasViceroyinMarch
India
Page 30
1947,recommendedimmediatepartitionofIndiatotheBritishgovernmentastheonlymeansof
avertingcatastrophe.AbillincorporatingMountbattensrecommendationswasintroducedintothe
BritishparliamentonJuly4;itobtainedspeedyandunanimousapprovalinbothhousesofparliament.
IndianIndependenceAct
UndertheprovisionsoftheIndianIndependenceAct,whichbecameeffectiveonAugust15,1947,
IndiaandPakistanwereestablishedasindependentstateswithintheCommonwealthofNations,with
therighttowithdrawfromorremainwithintheCommonwealth.TheIndiangovernment,bytheterms
ofadeclarationissuedjointlybythetheneightmembersoftheCommonwealthonApril28,1949,
electedtoretainitsmembership.ForthesubsequenthistoryofPakistan,seePakistan:History.
ThenewstatesofIndiaandPakistanwerecreatedalongreligiouslines.Areasinhabitedpredominantly
byHinduswereallocatedtoIndia,thosewithapredominantlyMuslimpopulationwereallocatedto
Pakistan.BecausetheoverwhelmingmajorityofpeopleontheIndiansubcontinentareHindus,
partitionresultedintheinclusionwithintheUnionofIndia,asthecountrywasthennamed,ofmostof
the562princelystatesinexistencepriortoAugust15,1947,aswellasthemajorityoftheBritish
provinces.
BythetermsoftheIndianIndependenceAct,governmentalauthorityintheUnionwasvestedinthe
ConstituentAssembly,originallyanall-Indiabodycreatedforthepurposeofdraftingaconstitutionfor
theentirenation.TheAll-IndiaConstituentAssembly,whichhelditsfirstsessioninDecember1946,
wasboycottedbythedelegatesoftheMuslimLeague.Theremainingdelegates,whowerechiefly
representativeoftheIndianNationalCongress,formedtheConstituentAssemblyoftheIndianUnion.
AfterthetransferofpowerfromtheBritishgovernment,theConstituentAssemblyassignedexecutive
responsibilitytoaCabinet,withNehruasprimeminister.Mountbattenbecamegovernor-generalof
thenewcountry.
ContinuedHindu-Muslim-SikhAntagonisms
TheterminationofBritishruleinIndiawasgreetedenthusiasticallybyIndiansofeveryreligiousfaith
andpoliticalpersuasion.OnAugust15,1947,officiallydesignatedIndianIndependenceDay,
celebrationceremonieswereheldinallpartsofthesubcontinentandinIndiancommunitiesabroad.
Theseceremoniestookplace,however,againstanominousbackgroundofviolencethataccompanied
thepopulationshiftsoccasionedbypartitionbothHindu-MuslimandSikh-Muslim.
P1
PopulationShifts
Inanticipationofborderdisputesinsuchregions,notablyBengalandPunjab,aBoundaryCommission
withaneutral(British)chairwasestablishedtodrawthelineforthepartitionofthesubcontinent.The
chairmanoftheCommission,SirCyrilRadcliffehadnevervisitedIndiabefore,andhadonlyafew
weeksinwhichtocompletehiswork.TherecommendationsofthisCommissionoccasionedlittle
India
Page 31
activedisagreementwithrespecttothedivisionofBengal.Inthatregion,largelybecauseofGandhis
moderatinginfluence,littlecommunalstrifedeveloped.InthePunjab,however,thedemarcationline
broughtnearly2millionSikhsunderthejurisdictionofPakistan.TheBoundaryCommissionsdecisions
precipitatedbitterfighting.AmassexodusofMuslimsfromUnionterritoryintoPakistanandofSikhs
andHindusfromPakistanintoUnionterritorytookplace.Inthecourseoftheinitialmigrations,which
involvedmorethan4millionpeopleinSeptember1947alone,refugeeconvoyswerefrequently
attackedandmassacredbyfanaticalpartisans.Co-religionistsofthevictimsresortedtoreprisals
againstminoritiesinothersectionsoftheUnionandPakistan.TheIndianandPakistaniauthorities
broughtthestrifeundercontrolduringOctober,buttheshiftofpopulationsinthePunjabandother
borderareascontinueduntiltheendoftheyear.Relationsbetweenthetwostatesgrewworsein
October,whentheIndianarmedforcessurroundedJunagadh,aprincelystateontheKathiawar
Peninsula.Thisactionwastakenbecausethenawab(ruler)ofthestate,whichhadalargeHindu
majority,hadpreviouslyannouncedthathewouldaffiliatewithPakistan.TheIndianmilitary
authoritiessubsequentlyassumedcontrolofJunagadh,pendingaplebiscite.
P2
WarinKashmir
Kashmir,aprincelystateinhabitedpredominantlybyMuslimsbutruledbyaHindu,becamethenext
majorsourceoffrictionbetweenIndiaandPakistan.OnOctober24,1947,Musliminsurgents,
supportedbyinvadingco-religionistsfromtheNorth-WestFrontierProvinceofPakistan,proclaimed
theestablishmentofaProvisionalGovernmentofKashmir.ThreedayslaterHariSingh,theHindu
MaharajaofKashmir,announcedtheaccessionofKashmirtotheUnionofIndia.Approvingthe
maharajasdecisionandpromisingaplebisciteaftertherestorationofpeace,theIndiangovernment
immediatelydispatchedtroopstoSrinagar,thecapitalofKashmirandthemajorobjectiveofthe
insurgents.PoliticalagitationinKashmirwasledbySheikhAbdullah,theleaderoftheregionslargest
secularparty,whofavouredKashmirsaccessiontoIndia.Hostilitiesquicklyattainedserious
proportions,andatNewYear1948theIndiangovernmentfiledaformalcomplaintwiththeUN
SecurityCouncil,accusingPakistanofgivinghelptotheMusliminsurgents.
DespiterepeatedattemptsbytheSecurityCounciltoobtainatruceinthetroubledarea,fighting
continuedthroughout1948.ThepeacemakingeffortsoftheSecurityCouncilfinallymetwithsuccess
inJanuary1949,whenbothIndiaandPakistanacceptedproposalsforaplebisciteonthepolitical
futureofKashmir,heldundertheauspicesoftheUN.Ceasefireorderswereissuedbythetwo
governmentsonthesameday.Amongotherthings,theUNplanprovidedforthewithdrawalof
combattroopsfromthestate,forthereturnofrefugeesdesirousofparticipatingintheplebiscite,and
forafreeandimpartialvoteunderthedirectionofapersonalityofhighinternationalstanding.In
March1949UNSecretary-GeneralTrygveLieappointedtheAmericanAdmiralChesterW.Nimitz
administratoroftheKashmirplebiscite,scheduledforlaterintheyear.
MeanwhileboththeUnionofIndiaandPakistanhadsufferedthelossofoutstandingleaders,andthe
IndiangovernmenthadbecomeembroiledinadisputewiththenizamofHyderbd,MirOsmanAli
KhanBahadur.GandhiwasassassinatedbyaHindufanaticonJanuary30,1948,andJinnah,the
founderofPakistan,diedthefollowingSeptember.ThetensionbetweentheIndiangovernmentand
Hyderbd,inhabitedpreponderantlybyHindus,resultedfromthereluctanceofthenizam,aMuslim,
tobringhisstateintotheUnion.Protractednegotiationsforapeacefulsolutionofthedisputeendedin
India
Page 32
failure;onSeptember17IndianforcesoccupiedHyderbd,thecapitalcity,endingthenizams
resistance.HesubsequentlysignedinstrumentsofaccessionmakingHyderbdpartoftheUnionof
India.
AlthoughIndiaandPakistanagreed,inJuly1949,onalinedemarcatingtheirrespectivezonesof
occupationinKashmir,thetwostateswereunabletoreconcilebasicdifferencesonthetermsofthe
proposedplebiscite.ThedeadlockwasprimarilyduetoIndianinsistencethatPakistanitroopsbe
withdrawnfromthedisputedterritorybeforetheplebisciteandtoPakistansrefusaltowithdrawits
troopsunlesstheIndiansalsowithdrewtheirs.
FirstYearsasaRepublic
TheIndianConstituentAssemblyapprovedarepublicanconstitutionfortheUniononNovember26,
1949.Comprisingapreamble,395articles,and8schedules,thedocumentprovedtobemore
voluminousthananyotherbodyoforganiclawinexistence.Oneoftheconstitutionsfeaturesisa
clauseoutlawinguntouchability,theancientpracticeofcastethatcondemnedabout40millionHindus
tosocialandeconomicdegradation.TheGandhidiscipleandAll-IndiaCongressleaderRajendra
PrasadwaselectedfirstPresidentoftheRepublicinJanuary1950.Asprovidedbytheconstitution,
theRepublicwasformallyproclaimedonJanuary26.TheConstituentAssemblythenreconstituted
itselfasaprovisionalparliamentandJawaharlalNehruwaselectedPrimeMinister.
Q1
Non-Alignment
DuringitsfirstyearasaRepublic,Indiafiguredincreasinglyininternationalaffairs,especiallyinUN
deliberationsandactivities.Nehrusgovernment,adheringtopoliciesdevelopedinthepre-republican
period,maintainedagenerallyneutralpositionwithrespecttotheColdWarbetweentheSovietbloc
andtheWesterndemocracies.Indiandeterminationtoavoidentanglementwitheithersidebecame
increasinglyapparentfollowingtheoutbreakoftheKoreanWarinJune1950.SubsequentlytheIndian
governmentapprovedtheUNSecurityCouncilresolutioninvokingmilitarysanctionsagainstNorth
Korea;noIndiantroopswerecommittedtotheUNcause,however.BeginninginJuly,whenNehru
despatchednotesontheKoreansituationtotheUnitedStatesandtheUnionofSovietSocialist
Republics(USSR),IndiasoughtrepeatedlytorestorepeaceintheFarEast.Initsinitialattemptsat
mediation,theIndiangovernmentsuggestedthatadmissionoftheChinesePeoplesRepublictothe
UNwasaprerequisiteofasolutionoftheFarEasterncrisis.EvenaftertheChineseinterventioninthe
KoreanWar,anddespiteIndian-ChinesedifferencesoverTibet,Indiaadheredtothisviewbutitwas
rejectedbyamajorityoftheSecurityCouncil.InOctober1950,afteraChinesearmyinvadedTibet,
theIndiangovernmentdispatchedanotetoChinaexpressingsurpriseandregret.
Q2
ForeignAid
Outstandingamongdomesticeventsduringthefirstyearofrepublicanrulewasaseriesofnatural
disasters,notablyanextendeddroughtinsouthernIndiaandsevereearthquakesandfloodsin
Assam.About6milliontonnesofgrainandotherfoodstuffswerelost,accordingtoanofficialestimate
India
Page 33
madeinNovember1950.Duringtheresultingfamine,largesectionsofthepopulationwereforcedto
subsistonadailyrationof57g(2oz)ofrice.IndiaappealedtotheUnitedStatesinDecember1950
forUS$200millionworthoffood.InFebruary1951USPresidentHarryS.TrumanaskedCongressto
enactlegislationproviding2milliontonnesofgrainforIndianrelief.Considerableoppositiontothe
requestdevelopedinCongress,primarilybecauseofIndianpolicyontheKoreanWar.Indian
restrictionsontheexportofcertainstrategicmaterialsalsoprovokedcongressionaloppositiontothe
reliefmeasure.NehrudeclaredthatIndiawouldrefusetoacceptreliefwithpoliticalstringsattached,
andinJune1951CongressfinallyapprovedaUS$190millionreliefloantoberepaidonterms
acceptabletotheIndiangovernment.
Q3
DomesticPolicies
ThefollowingmonthNehruannouncedthatthegovernmentmustencouragebirthcontrolinorderto
copewiththeproblemofarapidpopulationgrowthandafoodsupplyrenderedinadequateby
traditionalagriculturalmethodsandfrequentnaturaldisasters.Shortlyafterwards,thegovernment
promulgatedafive-yearnationaldevelopmentplanprovidingforexpenditureofUS$3.8billion,largely
onirrigationandhydroelectricprojects.
TheresultsofthefirstgeneralelectionsintheIndianRepublicwereannouncedonMarch1,1952.
Basedonuniversalsuffrage,theballotinghadbeguninOctober1951andendedinFebruary1952.
TheIndianNationalCongress,therulingparty,won364of489contestedseatsinthenational
legislatureandwasvictoriousinallbuttwooftheconstituentstates.InMaythenewlyconstituted
electoralcollegeelectedPresidentRajendraPrasadtothepresidencyforafullfive-yearterm.
InternationalAffairs
TheconstitutionhadleftthedooropenforthereorganizationofthestatesoftheUnion.Demandsfor
thereorganizationalonglinguisticlineswerelong-standing;theIndianNationalCongresshad
committeditselfin1920,andhadreorganizeditsinternalstructurealonglinguisticlinesin1921.
Immediatelyafterindependence,Nehrusoughttobacktrackonthedemandpartiallybecausehefelt
thatthestatehadmorepressingproblemstodealwithintheaftermathofpartition,andalsobecause
hefeltthataconcessionoflinguisticstatescouldleadtothedivisionofIndia.Thedemandsdidnotgo
awayandin1953followingthefasttodeathofaprominentTeluguspeaker,Nehruacceptedthe
demandforthecreationofthestateofAndhraPradeshinthesouthofIndia.Atthesametimea
StatesReorganizationCommissionwasannounced,todeterminewhatfurtherlinguistic
reorganizationswerenecessary.TheCommissionreportedin1955,andin1956theinternalmapof
IndiawasredrawnalonglinguisticlinesalthoughstatessuchasBombayandPunjabwereexcluded
fromthereorganization,asweretheheterogeneousnorth-easternstatesofthecountry.
InJune1952India,whichhadboycottedthe1951Japanesepeaceconference,signedabilateral
peacetreatywithJapan.Amongtheprovisionswasawaiverofallreparationsclaims.During
SeptembertheIndiangovernmentacceptedfamine-relieffoodshipmentsfromthePeoplesRepublic
ofChinaandtheSovietUnion,butonlyafterbothcountriesagreedtoIndianstipulationsagainst
possiblepoliticalstrings.
India
R1
Page 34
KoreaandKashmir
Indiafiguredsignificantlyininternationaldevelopmentsduring1953.AnIndiangeneralwasnamedto
chairtheNeutralNationsRepatriationCommissionprovidedforbytheKoreanarmisticeagreementof
July27.Inthisposition,heperpetuatedtheIndianpolicyofneutrality,provokingaccusationsof
partialityfromboththeUNandCommunistcommands.TheissueofIndianparticipationinthe
projectedKoreanpeaceconferencewasdecidedinAugustwhentheUNGeneralAssemblyvoteddown
aBritish-backedresolutioninvitingIndiatotheconference.Subsequently,theUSSecretaryofState,
JohnFosterDulles,termedIndianexclusionfromtheproposedpeacetalksthepriceofneutrality.
Indian-PakistanitalksonplebiscitearrangementsforKashmirwereterminatedinDecember1953over
disagreementonthenumberandcompositionoftroopstobestationedthereduringthevoting.The
KashmirConstituentAssemblyunanimouslyapprovedaccessiontotheIndianRepublicearlyin
February1954.
R2
Indochina
TheprimeministersofIndia,Pakistan,Burma,Indonesia,andSriLankaconferredinSriLankafrom
April28toMay2,1954.Amongotheractions,theleadersadoptedadeclarationofsupportforthe
GenevaConferenceonFarEasternAffairs,thenabouttoconvene.Theconferencewascalled,inthe
faceofimminentFrenchdefeat,todiscussanendtothewarinIndochina.Nehruheldaseriesof
meetingslateinJunewithPremierZhouEnlaiofChina,whowasadelegatetotheGeneva
Conference;theyissuedajointstatementurgingapoliticalsettlement.Undertheprovisionsofthe
IndochineseceasefireagreementsinJulyofthatyear,Indiachairedthethree-powerInternational
Commissionestablishedtosuperviseapplicationoftheagreements.
R3
BandungConference
IndiaparticipatedintheAsian-AfricanConference,ameetinginApril1955of22Asianand7African
states,heldinBandung,Indonesia.InJune,NehruspenttwoweeksintheUSSR.Attheconclusionof
thevisitheandSovietpremierNikolayA.Bulganinissuedajointstatementappealingforabanon
nuclearweapons,fordisarmament,forwiderapplicationoftheprinciplesofcoexistence,andfor
recognitionofthelegitimaterightsofTaiwanbythePeoplesRepublicofChina.
Indian-Portugueserelationshadworsenedsteadilyin1954becauseofinsistentdemandsbyIndian
nationaliststhatPortugalvacateGoaandtherestofPortugueseIndia.InAugust1955Portuguese
securityforcesfiredonagroupofIndiandemonstratorswhocrossedtheGoanborder.Indiathen
severeddiplomatictieswithPortugal.
R4
SuezandHungary
InJuly1956NehruconferredwithPresidentTitoofYugoslaviaandPresidentGamalAbdelNasserof
Egypt.Thethreeleaderslaterissuedajointcommuniquaffirmingtheiroppositiontocolonialismand
theirbeliefinaworldwidesystemofcollectivesecurity.DuringthecrisisfollowingEgyptsseizureof
India
Page 35
theSuezCanalonJuly26,andthesubsequentinvasionofEgyptbyIsrael,France,andBritain,India
madenumerousattemptstoreconcilethevariousnations.ThroughoutthecrisistheIndianminister
withoutportfolioV.K.KrishnaMenonconferredfrequentlywithrepresentativesofbothsides.Atthe
sametimeIndiawaswidelycriticizedforitsfailuretosupportaUNresolutionofNovember5,1956,
condemningtheUSSRforitsuseofforceagainstanti-SovietrebelsinHungary.Laterthatmonth,
however,Nehru,whohadinitiallycharacterizedtheanti-Sovietuprisingasacivilwar,denouncedthe
SovietoccupationofHungary.
InternalAffairs
OnJanuary26,1957,IndiadeclaredthestateofKashmirtobeanintegralpartoftheIndianRepublic,
followingdecisionstothateffectbytheKashmirConstituentAssembly.Protestriotsandburningsof
effigiesofNehrusubsequentlytookplaceinPakistan,whichlodgedavigorouscomplaintintheUN.In
nationalelectionsheldinFebruaryandMarch1957,theCongressPartywon366of494seatsinthe
lowerhouseofparliament;theCommunistswon29seatstobecomethelargestoppositionpartyand
alsogainedcontrolofthestateofKerala.PrimeMinisterNehruandPresidentPrasadretainedtheir
positions.InMarchadecimalsystemofcurrencywasintroduced.
InKeralaeffortstoincreasegovernmentcontrolofprivateschoolsarousedmassopposition,
manifestedbyfrequentanti-governmentdemonstrationsduring1958.Toupholdlawandorder,
PrasadtookoverthefunctionsoftheKeralagovernmentinJuly1959.Legislativeelectionsinthestate
inFebruary1960resultedinsubstantialgainsfortheanti-Communistparties.
TheStatesReorganizationCommissionhadexcludedBombayfromtheinitialreorganizationofstates,
partiallybecauseofthelargenumberofGujaratispeakersinthecityofBombay.However,inthe
1957electionspoliticalpartiessupportingadivisionperformedwellandinMay1960thestateof
BombaywasdividedalonglinguisticlinesintothetwostatesofMaharashtraandGujarat.Toplacate
rebelliousNaga,NehruannouncedthatanewstateofNagalandwouldbecreatedoutofthestateof
Assam.However,PunjabispeakersinthestateofPunjabwhohadbeenagitatingforaseparate
Punjabispeakingstatewerenotaccommodated.Thiswasbecausethedemandwasperceivedtobea
religiouslymotivatedonetocreateaSikhstate.Punjabwasfinallyreorganized(afterNehrusdeath)
in1966intotwostatesPunjabandHaryana,withsomeareasallocatedtotheunionterritoryof
HimachalPradesh.Butcontentiousissuesremainedthecapital,Chandigarh,becamethejointcapital
ofbothstatesandremainsaunionterritory.
ThethirdIndianfive-yeareconomicdevelopmentplanwasinauguratedinApril1961;itscostwas
estimatedatUS$24.36billionanditsobjectivewastoincreasetheaverageannualper-capitaincome
fromUS$69.30toUS$80.85.Along-rangegoalwastomakeIndiaindependentofforeignaidby
1976.
ClasheswithNeighbours
DuringtheTibetanrevoltofMarch1959,some9,000Tibetanrefugeessoughtpoliticalasylumin
India.ThereafterseveralborderclashesoccurredbetweenChineseandIndiantroops,andinAugust
India
Page 36
IndianterritorywaspenetratedbyChinesetroops.Aconferencetosettlethedispute,inApril1960,
attendedbyNehruandZhouEnlai,endedinadeadlock.
FollowingchargesofPortugueseaggression,IndianforcesonDecember18,1961,invadedand
annexedtheremainingPortugueseenclavesonthesubcontinent:Goa,Daman,andDiu.Thenextday
aresolutionwasbroughtbeforetheUNSecurityCouncilcondemningIndiaasanaggressor;itfailedto
beadoptedbecauseofaSovietveto.
During1962theborderdisputebetweenChinaandIndiagrewincreasinglytense.Earlyintheyear
bothcountriesaddedoutpostsalongthecontestedfrontierterritoryinthehighHimalaya,andin
OctobertheChineseattackedandoverranIndianoutpostsonbothwesternandeasternpartsofthe
border(seeSino-IndianWar).TheIndians,ill-preparedandparticularlyill-equippedforhigh-elevation
fighting,wereunabletohalttheChineseadvance,whichonlyendedwhenBeijingannounceda
unilateralceasefireinlateNovember.ThecrisisprecipitatedadrasticoverhaulofIndiandefences,and
DefenceMinisterV.K.KrishnaMenon,apowerfulneutralist,wasoustedfromthegovernmentatthe
endofOctober.
OnMay27,1964,Nehru,whohadservedasprimeministersinceIndiaattaineditsindependence,
died.HewassucceededbyLalBahadurShastri,formerlyhomeaffairsminister.Pakistancontinuedto
challengeIndiasclaimtothepredominantlyMuslimstateofKashmir,whereinAugust1965incidents
involvingPakistaniguerrillasandIndiantroopsprecipitatedanundeclaredwarbetweenthetwo
states.HostilitiescontinueddespiteaUN-arrangedceasefireandthesituationremainedtenseuntil
Soviet-mediatednegotiationsbetweenShastriandPakistanipresidentMuhammadAyubKhan
resulted,onJanuary10,1966,inatroop-withdrawalagreement.
NewLeadership
AfewhoursaftersigningtheagreementinTashkent,USSR,Shastridiedofaheartattack.Nehrus
daughterIndiraGandhi,aformerministerofinformation,waschosentobethenewprimeminister.
In1969PrimeMinisterGandhifacedarevoltbytheconservativewingoftheCongressPartybutwon
animpressivevictorywhen,withhersupport,theformervice-president,VarahagiriVenkataGiri,
defeatedtheofficialCongresscandidateforpresident.Consolidatingherstrength,Gandhiandher
faction,calledtheRulingCongressPartyorCongress(R),wonamajorvictoryintheelectionsof
March1971.
Laterthatmonth,civilwareruptedinPakistan,asthenationalgovernment,dominatedbyWest
Pakistanis,movedtosuppressBengalieffortstoachieveautonomyforEastPakistan.Asmillionsof
BengalirefugeesstreamedacrosstheborderintoIndia,relationsbetweenIndiaandWestPakistan
worsened.InDecember,IndiajoinedthewarinsupportofEastPakistan,compelledthesurrenderof
Pakistaniforcesthere,andwasthefirsttorecognizethenewnationofBangladesh.MostBengali
refugeessubsequentlyreturned.
EconomicconditionsinIndiaworsenedduringthemid-1970s.Asunemploymentmounted,foodriots
brokeout,andaccusationsofgovernmentcorruptionintensified.Toworldsurprise,Indiaexplodedits
India
Page 37
firstnucleardeviceonMay18,1974.AparliamentaryefforttotoppletheGandhigovernmentwas
defeatedinJuly;inthefollowingmonthacandidatebackedbyGandhi,FakhruddinAliAhmed,was
electedNationalPresident.Earlyin1975IndiaannexedSikkim,whichthenbecamethe22ndstateof
therepublic.
GandhiwasconvictedinJune1975ofcorruptpracticesduringthe1971electioncampaign.Facedwith
thelossofherparliamentaryseat,shedeclaredanationalstateofemergency.Centralizingpowerin
herownhands,sheimplementedstrongmeasurestofostereconomicdevelopmentandlowerthe
nationalbirthrate.Increasingly,shereliedonheryoungerson,SanjayGandhi.Politicalopposition
wasquelledbymassimprisonmentandpresscensorship.Hermethods,especiallythecensorshipof
thepressandtheharshmethodsintroducedinsomeareastocompelthesterilizationofpeopleas
partofthedriveforpopulationcontrol,causedwidespreadresentment.
JanataGovernment
Inearly1977,however,Gandhicalledageneralelection,hopingtobeabletodemonstratepopular
support.Instead,shelostherseatinparliamentandtheCongressPartyfailedtowinamajorityinthe
legislatureforthefirsttimesince1952.TheJanataParty,acoalitionformedtoopposeherregime,
wonabouthalftheseatsinparliamentanditshead,MorarjiR.Desai,wasnamedprimeminister.The
repressiveactionsoftheGandhigovernmentwerereversed.InJanuary1978Gandhiformed
Congress-Indira(I)asabreakawaypartyfromtheCongressParty.Gandhispersonalcharisma
remainedstrongdespitetheEmergencyyears,andCongress(I)soonwonelectionsinthesouthand
inMaharashtra;inAprilCongress(I)wasnamedthemainoppositionpartyintheLokSabha(lower
house).
GandhiReturns
In1979,aftermorethantwoyearsinpower,theJanatagovernmentlostitsparliamentarymajority
andDesairesigned.ElectionsinJanuary1980resultedinamajorvictoryforGandhiandherCongress
(I)partyandsheresumedtheofficeofPrimeMinister.OnJune23Sanjay,whohademergedfromthe
electionsasamajorpoliticalforce,waskilledinaplanecrash.Hisseatinparliamentwastakenbyhis
olderbrother,RajivGandhi,whomIndiraGandhiappearedtobegroomingashersuccessor.
ToappeaseSikhsdemandingautonomyforPunjab,wheretheyareamajority,IndiraGandhi
supportedthepresidentialcandidacyofZailSingh,whoinJuly1982becameIndiasfirstSikhchiefof
state.Simultaneously,shesupportedtheSikhextremist,Bhindranwale.Shedidsotounderminethe
politicaloppositiontotheCongressPartyinthestate:theAkaliDal.Therefore,autonomistagitation
continuedandviolentincidentsincreased.InOctober1983GandhibroughtPunjabunderpresidents
rule,givingthepoliceemergencypowers.
ThecentreofSikhresistancewasthereligionsholiestshrine,theGoldenTempleatAmritsar.OnJune
2,1984,thetemplewassealedoffandoccupiedbyIndiantroopsinapoorlyjudgedandimplemented
operation,killinghundredsofSikhsandseizingcachesofammunition.Thetroopswithdrewbythe
endofthemonth,butoutrageamongSikhnationalistspersisted.OnOctober31,IndiraGandhiwas
India
Page 38
shotandkilledbySikhmembersofherpersonalguard.Intheriotingthatfollowed,atleast1,000
Sikhswerekilledbymobs.RajivGandhiwassworninasprimeministerhoursafterhismothers
death.
HefacedanewcrisisonDecember3,whenaleakofmethylisocyanategasfromaUnionCarbide
pesticideplantinBhopal,centralIndia,resultedinthedeathsofatleast3,300peopleandinthe
illnessofmorethan20,000others.WithhisleadershipreaffirmedintheDecember1984
parliamentaryelections,GandhirespondedtounrestamongtheSikhsbyagreeingtoexpandthe
boundariesofPunjab.
Earlyin1987IndiantroopsweresenttoSriLankatohelpsuppressarebellionbyTamilguerrillas.A
peaceagreementwassignedinJuly,butviolentclashescontinued.AlsoinJuly,theelectionof
RamaswamiVenkataramanaspresidentseemedtoconsolidateGandhisposition.Allegationsof
corruptionandmismanagementweakenedtheCongress(I),however,asdidGandhisinabilitytodeal
effectivelywithdemandsforautonomyinPunjabandKashmir.IntheNovember1989elections,
Congress(I)lostitsparliamentarymajority,andVishwanathPratapSingh,leaderoftheJanataDal
Party,becameprimeminister.In1990,asplitwithinSinghsownpartyledtothecollapseofhis
minoritygovernment;hewassucceededbyhischiefrival,ChandraShekhar,whosegovernment
steppeddowninMarch1991,pavingthewayfornewelections.Duringtheelectioncampaign,Rajiv
GandhiwaskilledbyaTamilsuicidebomber.OutragedvotersgaveCongress(I)aparliamentary
majority,andP.V.NarasimhaRao,formerforeignministerandaGandhisupporter,becameprime
minister.
RaoGovernment
InJanuary1993Raosauthoritywasunderminedbynationwideriotsthatfollowedthedestructionof
the16th-centuryBabriMasjidmosqueinAyodhyabyHindumilitantsinDecember1992.Theyclaimed
thesiteoriginallybelongedtoaHindutemplededicatedtothegodRama,whoaccordingtotradition,
isbelievedtohavebeenborninthecity.NeithertheUnionnorthestategovernmentmovedto
preventthedestruction.Nearly2,000people,mainlyMuslims,throughoutIndiadiedintheensuing
sixweeksofsectarianviolence.Fearingmoreriots,RaopreventedHindunationalists,whowere
demandinghisresignationandthatofhisgovernment,fromholdingamassrallyinthecapital.All
fourBJPstategovernmentsweredismissedbypresidentsrule.InMarch,aseriesofunrelatedbombs
explodedinMumbaiandKolkata.ThewaveofexplosionsinMumbaikilledmorethan300peoplein
thecitysfinancialdistrict.TheKolkataexplosionswerelinkedtoagroupofcriminalswhomishandled
explosiveswhenattemptingtoassemblebombsinanapartmentbuilding.
Duringtheearly1990stensionsbetweenIndiaandPakistanoverKashmirincreased(seeJammuand
Kashmir).Since1989JammuandKashmirStateinIndiahasbeenthesiteofsporadicfighting
betweentheIndianarmyandmilitantMuslimseparatists,whoeitherwanttoformanindependent
state,orunitewithMuslimPakistan.PakistaniprimeministerBenazirBhuttoopenlysupportedthe
MuslimrebelsinIndianKashmir.InJanuary1994,IndiaandPakistanheldtalksconcerningthe
disputedregion,butnorealprogresswasmade.SincePakistanwaspursuinganuclearweapons
developmentprogramme,manycountriesfearedthatthedisputeoverKashmircouldescalateintoa
nuclearconflict.
India
Page 39
InSeptember1993adevastatingearthquakeshookcentralIndiaabout320km(200mi)westof
Hyderbd.Itkilledanestimated10,000peopleanddestroyeddozensofvillages.Theproblemsfaced
byRaoandCongress(I)wereunderlinedtowardstheendof1994whenthepartywasheavily
defeatedinstateelectionsinthesouth.VoterrejectionofCongress(I)partlyreflectedthecontinuing
effectofthe1993riotsandcontinuinginter-religiontension,butitwasalsoaresultofpopular
antipathytothemarket-orientedeconomicreformsintroducedbytheRaogovernmentafter1991.
Althoughtheopeningupoftheeconomyhadhelpedtorestoregrowth,ithadalsoledtoasharp
increaseininflation,higherprices,andcutsinjobsincertainareas.Stateelectionsinsomeofthe
northernstates,includingkeyCongress(I)strongholds,duringearly1995furtherunderlined
Congress(I)sfallfromfavour,amidgrowingsupportfortheright-wingHindunationalistBharatiya
JanataParty(BJP).ViolenceinJammuandKashmircontinued,withclaimsoftortureandmurder
madeagainstgovernmentforcesbyrespectedinternationalbodieslikeAmnestyInternationalandthe
InternationalCommissionofJurists.
InMarch1996theSupremeCourtfreedtheCentralBureauofInvestigationfromprimeministerial
controltoinvestigatepoliticalcorruption,aswideningscandalsunderminedpublicfaithinestablished
politicians.InlowerhouseelectionsinAprilandMay,Congress(I)wastoppledfrompower,endingits
post-independencedominationofIndianpolitics.Sincenopartyhadwonaclearmajorityinthe
elections,thestrugglebegantofindsuccessorstoCongressrule.
NewPoliticalOrder
TheBharatiyaJanataParty,whichhadwon194seatsintheelections,wasfirsttoformagovernment
onMay16,1996,butdespitebelatedattemptstosheditsHindufundamentalistimageandwooother
politicalgroups,theBJP-ledadministrationwasunabletoassemblethe273membersneededfora
parliamentarymajority,andonMay28theBJPleaderA.B.Vajpayeeresignedasprimeministerto
avoidavoteofnoconfidence.Thecentre-leftUnitedFrontcoalitionthenformedagovernmentunder
H.D.DeveGowda,backedbyarumpofCongress(I)MPs.TheUnitedFrontgovernmentreflecteda
broaderbaseofsupportamongcastesandinterestgroupsthantheCongress(I)andBJP,butalsoa
dangerofnationalfragmentation,asmanyofitsmemberswerepurelyregionalparties.Underlining
separatisttensions,violenceeruptedanewinJammuandKashmironMay30followingpollinginthe
region,withMuslimanti-governmentrebelspressingforboycottofthepoll.
TheUnitedFrontcoalitiongovernment,althoughholdingonly128seatsinthe545-memberLok
Sabha,gainedeffectiveendorsementinJune,whenitwonavoteofconfidence.Theplethoraof
corruptionallegationsthathaddoggedformerPrimeMinisterRaoculminatedincorruptionandforgery
chargesinSeptember.AdditionalindictmentsofbriberywerebroughtagainstRaoinOctoberandthe
formerCommunicationsMinisterSukhRamwaschargedwithcorruptioninthesamemonth.Thefirst
statevisitbyaChineseheadofstatewasmadebyPresidentJiangZemininNovember.Raoresigned
hispositionasCongress(I)parliamentaryleaderinDecember,andwasreplacedbytheparty
presidentSitaramKesriinJanuary1997.
ThewithdrawalofsupportforthegovernmentbyCongress(I)resultedinavoteofconfidenceinthe
LokSabhainwhichthegovernmentwasdefeated,leadingtotheresignationofDeveGowdaasprime
minister.AgeneralelectionwaspreventedbynegotiationsbetweentheUnitedFrontandCongress
India
Page 40
(I),resultingintheresumedsupportofCongress(I)withtheappointmentofanewleaderofthe
coalition.TheformerMinisterofExternalAffairs,InderKumarGujral,arespectedseniorfigureknown
forimprovingrelationswithPakistan,becamethenewprimeministerofIndiaonApril22,1997.Kesri
wasre-electedastheleaderofCongress.
Indiacelebratedthe50thanniversaryofitsindependenceinAugust,butPrimeMinisterGujralspoke
oftheplagueofcorruption.
Y1
Electionsof1998and1999
InNovembertheminorityUnitedFrontgovernmentcollapsedafterCongresswithdrewitssupport.The
actionwassparkedbyareportthatimplicatedaregionalpartywithrepresentativesintheUnited
FrontcoalitionintheassassinationofRajivGandhi.OnDecember4PresidentNarayanandissolvedthe
LokSabhaandannouncedgeneralelectionsforFebruaryandMarch.Twenty-sixpeoplewere
sentencedtodeathinJanuary1998fortakingpartinthemurderofRajivGandhi.Hiskillerswere
believedtobeconnectedtoSriLanka'sTamilTigersecessionistmovement.Theelectionperiodwas
marredbyviolence,bombattacks,andvotingirregularities.TheHindunationalistBJPwonthe
elections,but,inanindecisiveresult,fellshortofthe272seatsneededforanabsolutemajorityinthe
LokSabha.Theythereforesoughtsupportamongthesmallerpartiesinordertoformagovernment.
Thedistributionofseatsatthe11thLokSabhawas193seatstotheBJPanditsallies,177tothe
UnitedFront,144seatstotheCongressanditsallies,28toindependentsandothers,and18seatsto
theTamilregionalistDravidaMunnetraKazhagam.AtalVajpayeeheadedtheBJPcoalition
government.IndiaofficiallybecameanuclearpowerinMay1998,whenitdetonatedfivenuclear
devices.
InFebruary,VajpayeemadeahistoricbusridefromNewDelhitothePakistanicityofLahore,
inauguratingaregularbusservicebetweenthetwonationsandrevivingthestalledpeaceprocess.
VajpayeeandhisPakistanicounterpartNawazSharifmetandsignedaprotocoldesignedtoprevent
nuclearwar.Nevertheless,bothcountriescontinuedthedevelopmentofmissiles.InAprilIndiatested
anewlong-rangemissile,theAgniII,capableofcarryingnuclearweapons.Laterthatmonththe
coalitionwasdissolvedVajpayee'sgovernmenthadlasted13monthsandwasIndia'sfifthinunder
threeyears.
Despitetheearlierdiplomaticmoves,tensionswithPakistanrosetotheirmostseriouspitchinover
twodecadeswhenIslamicguerrillaforces,widelybelievedtohavebeenbackedbyPakistan,
encroachedintotheIndian-controlledKargilsectorofKashmirinMay1999.Indialaunchedairstrikes
againsttheinsurgentsinaneight-weekconflictindifficultterrainthatresultedinover1,000deaths
andhundredsofinjured.TheIndianmilitarycampaignwassuspendedinJuly,afterPakistanagreed,
afterpressurefromtheUnitedStates,tosecurethewithdrawaloftheIslamicinsurgents.
India'sbillionthcitizenwasborninAugustIndiahasthefastest-growingpopulationintheworldwith
anannualincreaseofover15.5millionpeople.
Vajpayeewasreturnedasprimeminister,followingtheLokSabhaelectionsofOctober1999,leading
acoalitiongovernment(theNationalDemocraticAlliance)ofover20parties,withamajorityofmore
India
Page 41
than50seats.SoniaGandhi,thewidowofRajivGandhi,wasselectedleaderoftheparliamentary
opposition.
NewMillenniumPolitics
TensionssurroundingKashmirwereraisedagainattheendof1999whenanIndianAirlinesplanewas
hijackedbyIslamicmilitantsanddivertedtoKandahrinAfghanistan.AftereightdaystheIndian
governmentagreedtothehijackers'demandsandreleasedthreeprisonersheldfortheirinvolvement
intheseparatistconflictinKashmir.TheissueofcontinuingviolenceintheKashmirregionwashigh
ontheagendaduringthevisitbyUnitedStatespresidentBillClintontoIndia,Pakistan,and
BangladeshinMarch2000,butnodiplomaticbreakthroughwasseriouslyexpectedorachieved.
ThemapofIndiawasreworkedinNovember2000,whenthreenewIndianstates,Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand,andUttaranchal,wereestablished,carvedoutofMadhyaPradesh,Bihar,andUttar
Pradesh,respectively.Thechanges,whichhadbeendebatedforsometime,affectregionsofhigh
potentialintermsofmineralresourcesandtourism.Justtwomonthslater,onRepublicDay,January
26,2001,theprosperousstateofGujaratwasrockedbyadevastatingearthquake,withitsepicentre
inBhuj,thatmayhaveleftsome30,000dead.Thecostofreconstructionhasbeenestimatedatover
US$3billionandrecoveryisexpectedtotakeyears.
InMay2001,IndiaannouncedtheendoftheunilateralceasefireoverKashmir,butofferedtalkswith
Pakistanovertheissueoftheterritory.PrimeMinisterVajpayeeandPresidentMusharrafmetinAgra
inJulytheirfirstface-to-facetalksbutfailedtoresolvetheirdifferences.Inanexpressionofthanks
forsupportgivenfollowingtheterroristattacksonthecitiesofNewYorkandWashington,D.C.in
September,theUSliftedthesanctionsithadformerlyplacedonIndia.
ThetensionneartheLineofControlinKashmircontinuedthroughoutthesummerandautumn,and
IndialaunchedmajorassaultsafteranattackontheassemblybuildinginSrinagarinwhichdozensof
peoplewerekilled.OnDecember13therewasasuicideattackontheIndianfederalparliamentin
which12peopledied;IndiafollowedupbyinstitutingaseriesofsanctionsonPakistaninanattempt
togettheringleadersarrested.Pakistanclampeddownbyarrestingnumeroussuspectsandbanning
twohigh-profilemilitantorganizations.
TensionsoverthedemolishedmosqueatAyodhyacontinuedin2002.TheVHPhaddeclaredthat
March12,2002wouldbeadayofactiontobuildatempleonthesitewherethemosquehadstood.
TensionsbetweenHindusandMuslimswerehighandmanyHindustravelledtothesite.Inlate
February,atrainfullofKarSevakswasreturningfromthesite,andatarailwaystationinthetownof
Godhra,ineasternGujarat,acarriagewassetonfire.Somefifty-eightHindus,mainlywomenand
childrendied.AtthetimeitwaswidelyreportedthatMuslimshadattackedthetrainandsetthe
carriagealight.Revengekillingsspreadquickly,tobothurbanandruralareasofGujarat.Upto2,000
people,mainlyMuslims,arebelievedtohavebeenkilled.Manynationalandinternationalhuman
rightsorganizationshaveclaimedthatthestategovernment,runbytheBJPatbestfailedtoprevent,
andatworstwascomplicitinthegenocidalviolence.
A.P.J.AbdulKalam,aMuslim,waselectedasIndiasnewpresidentinJuly.Byprofessionheisa
India
Page 42
nuclearscientistandisregardedasthefatherofIndianmissiledevelopment.Hereplacedthevery
highlyregardedandindependentPresidentNarayanan.
Inthestateelectionsatthebeginningof2002theBJPdidcomparativelybadly.Itdidnotwinin
UttaranchalandwasforcedintothirdplaceinUttarPradesh,theelectoralcoreofIndia.InPunjabthe
CongressbeatitanditsallytheAkaliDal(SAD).CongressalsowoninManipur.InOctober2002,
freeelectionswereheldinthestateofJammuandKashmirandtherulingNationalConference,a
memberoftheNDA,wasdefeated.Althoughtheelectionswerenotfreefromviolenceand
intimidation,thefactthattheyreturnedanewgovernmentandthattheoldgovernmentstepped
downwasseenasapositivedevelopmentforthestabilityofthecountry.TheCongressPartyreceived
alargernumberofseats(20)comparedtoitscoalitionpartner,thePeoplesDemocraticParty(PDP).
IncoalitionnegotiationsitallowedthePDPelectedfromtheKashmirValleytotakethechief
ministership.
Reversingtheelectoraltrendofmuchof2002,intheGujaratstateelectionsofDecember2002(held
afterthegenocidalviolenceofMarch),theBJPperformedstrongly,winning127outofthe182seats.
Itrepeatedthisperformanceatstateelectionsheldinlate2003inthelargeandimportantstatesof
Rajasthan,MadhyaPradesh,andChhattisgarh.ThemoreaccommodativeattitudetakenbytheIndian
governmenttotheKashmirdisputehasmeantthatrelationsbetweenIndiaandPakistanhave
thawed,andinlate2003thetwocountriesstartedpursuingtalksabouttalks.
AA
TheElectionofManmohanSingh
Theparliamentaryelectionofthespringof2004wasstaggered,with13statesvotingonApril20,
followedbyfurthervotingonApril26,May5,andwiththefinalroundonMay10.Earlyindications
fromexitpollssuggestedthatCongress,ledbySoniaGandhi,wasmakingsignificantgains,aswere
someoftheregionalparties.ThefinalresulthadCongresswinning145seatsagainsttheBJPs138.In
asurprisemoveSoniaGandhiturneddownthepositionofprimeminister;instead,ManmohanSingh,
aformerfinanceminister,wasappointedthecountrysfirstSikhprimeminister.Heleadsacoalition
ofparties.
OnDecember26,2004,anunderseaearthquakemeasuring9.1ontheRichterscaleoccurredinthe
IndianOcean.Thethirdlargestearthquakeinrecordedhistorygeneratedamassivetsunami,which
causedwidespreaddevastationwhenithitland.IndiasworstaffectedregionwastheAndamanand
NicobarIslandsintheBayofBengal.ThesouthernmostNicobarIslandswereclosesttotheepicentre
oftheearthquake,whichgeneratedwavesmorethan15m(50ft)high.Oftheestimated250,000
peoplekilledintheIndianOceanregion,theAndamanandNicobarslostaround2,000,withanother
5,500orsopeoplepresumedmissing.
OtherIndianregionsaffectedincludedKerala,Puducherry,AndhraPradesh,and,mostseverely,Tamil
Nadu.Earlyestimatesplacedthemainlanddeathtollataround9,000,withanother3.5millionpeople
beinglefthomeless,displaced,orinneedoffood.
InFebruary2005theIndianandPakistaniauthoritiesagreedtocommenceabusservicebetweenthe
townsofSrinagarandMuzaffarabad,givingKashmiristheopportunitytocrosstheceasefirelinefor
India
Page 43
thefirsttimeinmorethan50years.Symbolicallyimportanttotheregion,49passengersmadethe
inauguraltripacrosstheLineofControl,arrivingsafelydespiteagrenadeattackfrommilitantgroups.
InaterroristattackontherailwaysysteminMumbaiinJuly2006morethan180peoplewerekilled.
Thecoordinatedbombingsoccurredaboardsevencommutertrainswithin15minutesofeachother
duringtheeveningrush-hour.NogroupclaimedresponsibilityfortheatrocityanddespitePakistans
claimsthattheterroristsdidnotoriginatethere,itwaswidelybelievedthatIslamicmilitantswere
responsible.Singhannouncedthatthepoliticaltensionswouldmakethepeacetalksbetweenthetwo
countriesincreasinglystrained.
PratibhaPatil,formergovernorofthestateofRajasthan,waselectedIndiasfirstwomanpresidentin
July2007.BackedbyCongressanditsleaderSoniaGandhi,shewonaroundtwo-thirdsofthevotes.
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Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

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