CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
The aim is to design and develop a control system based an electronically controlled automotive
rain operated motor is called AUTOMATIC RAIN OPERATED WIPER.
Rain operated motor is consists of conduction sensor (Tough sensor) circuit, Control Unit, wiper
motor and glass frame. The sensor is used to detect the rain or water flow. There is any rain on
the class, the sensor senses the rain or flow water and giving the control signal to the wiper
motor.
We have pleasure in introducing our new project AUTOMATIC RAIN OPERATED WIPER,
which is fully equipped by sensors circuit and wiper motor. It is a genuine project which is fully
equipped and designed for Automobile vehicles. This forms an integral part of best quality. This
product underwent strenuous test in our Automobile vehicles and it is good. The Automatic rain
operated wiper system is a fully automation project. This is an era of automation where it is
broadly defined as replacement of manual effort by mechanical power in all degrees of
automation. The operation remains an essential part of the system although with changing
demands on physical input as the degree of mechanization is increased.
Degrees of automation are of two types, viz.

Full automation.

Semi automation.
In semi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power is required whereas in
full automation human participation is very negligible.

1.1 NEED FOR AUTOMATION

Automation can be achieved through computers, hydraulics, pneumatics, robotics, etc., of these
sources, pneumatics form an attractive medium for low cost automation. Automation plays an
important role in automobile.
Nowadays almost all the automobile vehicle is being atomized in order to product the human
being. The automobile vehicle is being atomized for the following reasons.

To achieve high safety

To reduce man power

To increase the efficiency of the vehicle

To reduce the work load

To reduce the vehicle accident

To reduce the fatigue of workers

To high responsibility

Less Maintenance cost

CHAPTER 2
WORKING OPERATION
A windscreen wiper or windshield wiper is a device used to remove rain and debris from
a windscreen or windshield. Almost all motor vehicles, including trains, aircraft and watercraft,
are equipped with such wipers, which are usually a legal requirement.
A wiper generally consists of an arm, pivoting at one end and with a long rubber blade attached
to the other. The blade is swung back and forth over the glass, pushing water from its surface.
The speed is normally adjustable, with several continuous speeds and often one or more
"intermittent" settings. Most automobiles use two synchronized radial type arms, while many
commercial vehicles use one or more pantograph arms.
The major components of the Automatic rain operated wiper are follows

Windshield wiper

Class frame and Supporting Structure

Motor driver circuit

Wiper Motor and its arrangement

IC ULN2003

IC LM7805

IC AT89S52

Crystal oscillator

The battery supplies the power to the sensor as well as rain operated motor. Wiper motor is
automatically ON during the time of rainfall. The conductive (Touch) sensor is used in this
project. It senses the rainfall and giving control signal to the control unit. The control unit
activates the wiper motor automatically. This operation is called Automatic rain operated
wiper.
3

2.1 Hardware Implementation

The basic control units of

the hardware comprises of power supply unit, Relay switch,

wiper motor, rain detector sensor motor driver circuit and the most important of all controller.
Power supply unit maintains the continuous power to the controller and the wiper motor.
Relay switch is directly connected to the controller. Motor driver circuit is linked with the
wiper motor and the controller. The command it gets from the controller is used to either drive
the wiper motor or switch it off. Rain detection sensor detects the amount of moisture on
the wind screen and accordingly sends the signal to the controller.Wiper motor control using a
load sense resistor to monitor conditions confronting the wiper operation. In this we use
ULN2003 which belongs to the family of ULN200X series of ICs.. ULN2003 is for 5V TTL,
CMOS logic devices. These ICs are used when driving a wide range of loads and are used as
relay drivers, display drivers, line drivers etc. ULN2003 is also commonly used while
driving Stepper Motors and dc motor. Microcontroller is used to designed specifically for control
applications, and is equipped with ROM, RAM and facilities I / O on a single chip.AT89S52 is
one of the family MCS-51/52 equipped with an internal 8 Kbyte Flash EPROM (Erasable and
Programmable Read Only Memory), which allows memory to be reprogrammed. In we use
7805 voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage
regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed
voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx
in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated
power supply. L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as
current amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal and provide a higher-current
signal. This higher current signal is used to drive the motors.

CHAPTER 3
IC ULN2003 DESCRIPTION
ULN2003 is a high voltage and high current Darlington array IC. It contains seven open collector
Darlington pairs with common emitters. A Darlington pair is an arrangement of two bipolar
transistors.
ULN2003 belongs to the family of ULN200X series of ICs. Different versions of this family
interface to different logic families. ULN2003 is for 5V TTL, CMOS logic devices. These ICs
are used when driving a wide range of loads and are used as relay drivers, display drivers, line
drivers etc. ULN2003 is also commonly used while driving Stepper Motors. Refer Stepper Motor
interfacing using ULN2003.
Each channel or Darlington pair in ULN2003 is rated at 500mA and can withstand peak current
of 600mA. The inputs and outputs are provided opposite to each other in the pin layout. Each
driver also contains a suppression diode to dissipate voltage spikes while driving inductive loads.

Fig. 3.1 the schematic driver diagram of IC ULN2003

Pin Diagram

Fig.3.2 IC ULN2003 PIN Diagram

3.1 Pin Description

Pin No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Function
Input for 1st channel
Input for 2nd channel
Input for 3rd channel
Input for 4th channel
Input for 5th channel
Input for 6th channel
Input for 7th channel
Ground (0V)
Common freewheeling diodes
Output for 7th channel
Output for 6th channel
Output for 5th channel
Output for 4th channel
Output for 3rd channel
Output for 2nd channel
Output for 1st channel

Name
Input 1
Input 2
Input 3
Input 4
Input 5
Input 6
Input 7
Ground
Common
Output 7
Output 6
Output 5
Output 4
Output 3
Output 2
Output 1

CHAPTER 4
IC 7805 PIN DESCRIPTION
8

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage
regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed
voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx
in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated
power supply.

Pin Diagram

Fig.4.1 Pin diagram of IC 7805

4.1 Pin Description

Pin No
1
2
3

Function
Input voltage (5V-18V)
Ground (0V)
Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V)

Name
Input
Ground
Output

CHAPTER 5
AT89S52 PIN DESCRIPTION

Microcontroller is a microprocessor designed specifically for control applications, and is

equipped with ROM, RAM and facilities I / O on a single chip.AT89S52 is one of the family
MCS-51/52 equipped with an internal 8 Kbyte Flash EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read
Only Memory), which allows memory to be reprogrammed.

Pin Description of At89s52

Fig.5.1 Pin Diagram microcontroller At89s8252

The Function of Each Pin AT89S52

Pin 1 to 8 (Port 1) is an 8-bit parallel port of a two-way (bidirectional) that can be used for
10

different purposes (general purpose).Pin 9 is a pin reset, reset is active if a high ration.P3.0
(10): RXD (serial port data receiver)

P3.1 (11): TXD (serial port data sender)

P3.2 (12): INT0 (external interrupt 0 input, active low)

P3.3 (13): INT1 (external an interrupt input, active low)

P3.4 (14): T0 (external input timer / counter 0)

P3.5 (15): T1 (external input timer / counter 1)

P3.6 (16): WR (Write, active low) control signal from port 0 write data to memory and
input-output data externally.

P3.7 (17): RD (Read, active low) control signal of the reading of input-output data memory
external to the port 0. XTAL pin 18 as the second, the output is connected to the crystal
oscillator. XTAL pin 19 as the first, high berpenguatan input to the oscillator, connected to
the crystal.

Pin 20 as Vss, is connected to 0 or ground on the circuit.

Pin 21 to 28 (Port 2) is 8 bits parallel ports in both directions. This port sends the address
byte when accessing external memory is carried on Pin 29 as the PSEN (Program Store
Enable).
Pin 30 as the ALE (Address Latch Enable) to hold down the address for accessing external
memory.

Pin 31 as the EA (External Accesss) to select the memory to be used, the internal program
memory (EA = Fcc) or external program memory (EA = Vss), also serves as Vpp
(programming supply voltage) when programming the internal flash memory on the
microcontroller Pin 32 to 39 (Port 0) is an 8-bit parallel port in both directions. Under
11

which functions as a multiplexed address data to access an external program and data
memory.

Pin 40 as Fcc, connected to +5 V as a ration to the microcontroller.

CHAPTER 6
WINDSHIELD WIPERS
The following topics related to the windshield wipers are discussed in this article Fresh Air Box
Wiper Arm Assembly
Wiper Operation

6.1 Fresh Air Box

The fresh air box on the Super Beetle is mounted directly below the air vents between the hood and
the windshield, which of course is why it's called a fresh air box. There is a deflector (rain shield)
right under the vent slots to keep water off of the wiper motor and the fresh air fan. Water is
deflected down into the inside of the box, then it drains from the fresh air box through a 3/4 inch
(or thereabouts) hole in the rear of the box. Then the water then runs out through a slot in the floor
of the luggage compartment just to the rear of the fuel tank. It's supposed to have has a plastic grill
thing in the top which catches all the leaves and such. A squirt with the hose clears the mud out of it
(drains through the tube).
Dave found his fresh air box full of dirt, twigs, leaves and whatnot, and the drain hole was
completely plugged. Dave decided to clean out the fresh air box. First, to protect the new carpet in
his luggage compartment, he laid some heavy plastic over the carpet and, taped it underneath the
fresh air box. Then he thoroughly cleaned out the box ("nobody will ever see it, but *I* know it's
there!" A common theme throughout Dave's resto work. :-)
There's plenty of room inside the fresh air box. First the wiper shafts are disconnected from the
holes through the body, then removing the motor and wiper assembly is just a matter of removing a
couple of bolts and the wiring. And "installation is the reverse of removal!" :-) We will give more
detail on removal of the wiper motor later in this article.
12

In Rob's '70 Standard Bug the wiper motor and assembly is behind and completely separate from
the air box, which is much simpler than the air box in the Super Beetle, as it has no fan. The
configuration is different in Rob's car because it has a flat screen. To remove the wiper motor, it is
first necessary to completely remove the air box, then remove the glove compartment and the right
fresh air vent.

6.2 Wiper Arm Assembly

Fig 6.1 Wiper Arm Assembly

Dave's wiper arm assembly was completely shot. The threaded sleeves on the two wiper shafts
spun freely, and there didn't seem to be any way to tighten them. The whole thing -- shaft and
sleeve -- had been spinning back and forth! The threaded sleeve was completely free. It's supposed
to be stationary -- the sleeve stays still and the shaft rotates inside of it. In Dave's situation the
entire sleeve/shaft turned as a unit.

Fig.6.2 Older Model Wiper Arm Assembly

13

6.3 Wiper Operation

The way it works is this -- it has a common brush which is earthed (bottom brush in "Speedy" Jim's
Wiper Motor Wiring picture). It has two other brushes rubbing the commutator in different places
to give high/low speeds (some car builders just use two brushes and resistors to cut back from full
speed). In the picture both switches (cam and wiper switch) are shown in park position, which
literally shorts the motor on the earth line -- follow it around - 31 to 31b to 53 on the motor,
through the motor and back to 31. Nifty -- stops the motor dead like an engine brake.
Note: "Speedy" Jim is a wonderful source of VW electrical information.
Up one click on the wiper switch (both contacts move together as indicates by the dotted line) and
the 53a - 53 wire gets power via the upper switch segment and "park" is disabled (lower switch
segment has a dead connector). The cam switch moves and turns 53a on, but it doesn't go anywhere
because the lower switch segment (31b) is resting on the dead connector above "park". Move the
switch to high and power goes to 53b at the top of the pic (the high speed brush) - the park switch
and cam switch at 53a remain the same.
Turn the switch to park and the upper switch segment is disable as it moves to the dead "off"
connector. Power still flows through the lower switch segment via 53a whilst the cam switch is still
"up", continuing through the "park" connector to the low speed 53 brush. Then as the cam drops the
cam switch to 31, it stalls the motor. This is the parking position again.

14

Fig 6.3 Wiper Wiring Schematic

15

Regarding removal of the wiper motor, someone wrote - The part that appeals to me the least is
unplugging the electrical connector below the steering column and then I guess fishing the wires up
through the maze under the dash and through the hole in the firewall. The reverse will be even
worse -- getting the wires back through that maze to the connection point.
Rob responded - On mine the wires (four as I recall) can be disconnected at a screw connector
block on the side of the wiper gear box. They are all the same colour on mine (brown) which is
making it very difficult for me to trace the right wires from wiper to switch.
There is a very tight hole in the floor of the luggage area above the steering column for the wiring
loom, but the wiper wires don't use that hole at all, so I guess your harness must look different to
mine.
Unlike modern cars, VW didn't put a simple plug on the back of the steering column, so you have
to feed what wires you can up the column as you pull the blinker mechanism upward, and of course
you soon run out of free wires to do that. The only way of getting it right out is to disconnect all the
ends from the fuse panel and pull them down into the car!

16

CHAPTER 7
RESISTANCE
The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage
applied to the electric current which flows through it:

If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law, I = V/R, can
be used to predict the behavior of the material. Although the definition above involves DC
current and voltage, the same definition holds for the AC application of resistors.
Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its resistance can be described in terms of its bulk
resistivity. The resistivity, and thus the resistance, is temperature dependent. Over sizable ranges
of temperature, this temperature dependence can be predicted from a temperature coefficient of
resistance.

Resistivity and Conductivity

The electrical resistance of a wire would be expected to be greater for a longer wire, less for a
wire of larger cross sectional area, and would be expected to depend upon the material out of
which the wire is made. Experimentally, the dependence upon these properties is a
straightforward one for a wide range of conditions, and the resistance of a wire can be expressed
as

The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the resistivity .
Although it is temperature dependent, it can be used at a given temperature to calculate the
resistance of a wire of given geometry.

17

The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity. There are contexts where the use of conductivity
is more convenient.
Electrical conductivity = = 1/

7.1 Resistor Combinations

The combination rules for any number of resistors in series or parallel can be
derived with the use of Ohm's Law, the voltage law, and the current law.

CHAPTER 8
18

RELAY
8.1 Basic Design and Operation

Fig 8.1 Simple electromechanical relay

Fig. 8.2 Small relay as used in electronics

A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first picture, is an
adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron
yoke, which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a moveable iron armature, and a
set, or sets, of contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged to the yoke and
mechanically linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when
the relay is de-energised there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the
two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may
have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has
a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the
moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) via the
yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts the
armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact or contacts either makes or
breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de19

energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the
contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a
force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this
force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters.
Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce
noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.
.

8.2 Types of relay

8.2.1 Latching Relay

Fig 8.3 Latching relay

A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called 'keep' or 'stay' relays.
When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved with a
solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an overcenter spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the coil is
relaxed, or with a remnant core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the coil turns
the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one coil turns
the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the
advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and it retains its
last setting across a power outage.

20

8.2.2 Reed Relay

A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube, which protects
the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by a magnetic field generated
when current passes through a coil around the glass tube. Reed relays are capable of faster
switching speeds than larger types of relays, but have low switch current and voltage ratings. See
also reed switch.
.
8.2.3 Contactor Relay
A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads.
High-current contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the
contacts to oxidize and silver oxide is still a good conductor. Such devices are often used for
motor starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The
overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or
where a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. Solid-state relay

Fig 8.4 Solid state relay, which has no moving parts

Fig 8.5 25 amp or 40 amp solid state contactors

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to
an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-term
reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small
voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle.
21

As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 amps, have become
commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely triggered by
transients.
8.2.4 Overload Protection Relay
One type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in series
with the electric motor . The heat generated by the motor current operates a bi-metal strip or
melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the
same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient
temperature is provided.
Pole & Throw

Fig 8.6 overload protection relay

Circuit symbols of relays. "C" denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.

Fig 8.7 The Diagram On The Package Of A DPDT AC Coil Relay

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A relay
will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in
one of three ways:

Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit
is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact.
22

Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break"
contact.

Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normallyopen contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C
contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizes a "make before
break" functionality, then it is ca Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two
circuits: one normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It
is also called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact
utilizes a "make before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.
The following designations are commonly encountered:

SPST - Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous
whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is
sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.

SPDT - Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.

DPST - Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two
SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six
terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).

DPDT - Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals.
Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight
terminals, including the coil.
The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to a
single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 14 terminals).
Applications
Relays are used
Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires evaluation of many
different factors:

Number and type of contacts - normally open, normally closed, (double-throw)

23

Contact sequence - "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example, the old
style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the connection didn't get dropped
while dialing the number.

Rating of contacts - small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated for up
to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct current

Voltage rating of contacts - typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC, automotive
types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15,000 V

Coil voltage - machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC or 120 VAC, relays for switchgear
may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate on a few mill amperes

Package/enclosure - open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation between circuits,

explosion proof, outdoor, oil and splash resistant, washable for printed circuit board assembly

Mounting - sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-panel mount, enclosure
for mounting on walls or equipment

Switching time - where high speed is required

"Dry" contacts - when switching very low level signals, special contact materials may be
needed such as gold-plated contacts

CHAPTER 9
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

24

Fig 9.1 A 4 Mhz Quartz Crystal Enclosed In An Hermetically Sealed HC-49/US Package.

Fig 9.2 Inside Construction Quartz Crystal

A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly
ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.
Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate
transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is
very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz.
The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity and the speed of sound in the material.
High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Lowfrequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a
tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is
often used in place of a quartz crystal.
When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to bend in an electric field,
by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as
piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns
to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves
like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.
Quartz has the further advantage that its size changes very little with temperature. Therefore, the
resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This
25

means that a quartz clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the
quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can
also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.
Quartz timing crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of
megahertz. More than two billion (2109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are small
devices for wristwatches, clocks, and electronic circuits. However, quartz crystals are also found
inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.

9.1 Crystal Modelling

A quartz crystal can be modelled as an electrical network with a low impedance (series) and a
high impedance (parallel) resonance point spaced closely together. Mathematically the
impedance of this nework this can be written as:

where s is the complex frequency (s = j), s is the series resonant frequency in radians and p is
the parallel resonant frequency in radians.
Adding additional capacitance across a crystal will cause the parallel resonance to shift
downward. This can be used to adjust the frequency that a crystal oscillator oscillates at. Crystal
manufacturers normally cut and trim their crystals to have a specified resonant frequency with a
known 'load' capacitance added to the crystal. For example, a 6pF 32kHz crystal has a parallel
resonance frequency of 32,768 Hz when a 6.0pF capacitor is placed across the crystal. Without
this capacitance, the resonance frequency is higher than 32,768.

9.2 Temperature Effects

A crystal's frequency characteristic depends on the shape or 'cut' of the crystal. A tuning fork
crystal is usually cut such that its frequency over temperature is a parabolic curve centered
around 25 degC. This means that a tuning fork crystal oscillator will resonate close to its target
frequency at room temperature, but will slow down when the temperature either increases or
decreases from room temperature. A common parabolic coefficient for a 32kHz tuning fork
crystal is -0.04ppm/degC^2.
f = f0[1 0.04ppm(T T0)2]26

In a real application, this means that a clock built using a regular 32kHz tuning fork crystal will
keep good time at room temperature, lose 2 minutes per year at 10 degrees above (or below)
room temperature and lose 8 minutes per year at 20 degrees above (or below) room temperature.

9.3 Crystals and frequency

Fig 9.3 Equivalent circuit for a quartz crystal in an oscillator

The crystal oscillator circuit sustains oscillation by taking a voltage signal from the quartz
resonator, amplifying it, and feeding it back to the resonator. The rate of expansion and
contraction of the quartz is the resonant frequency, and is determined by the cut and size of the
crystal.
A regular timing crystal contains two electrically conductive plates, with a slice or tuning fork of
quartz crystal sandwiched between them. During startup, the circuit around the crystal applies a
random noise AC signal to it, and purely by chance, a tiny fraction of the noise will be at the
resonant frequency of the crystal. The crystal will therefore start oscillating in synchrony with
that signal. As the oscillator amplifies the signals coming out of the crystal, the crystal's
frequency will become stronger, eventually dominating the output of the oscillator. Natural
resistance in the circuit and in the quartz crystal filter out all the unwanted frequencies.
One of the most important traits of quartz crystal oscillators is that they can exhibit very low
phase noise. In other words, the signal they produce is a pure tone. This makes them particularly
useful in telecommunications where stable signals are needed, and in scientific equipment where
very precise time references are needed.
The output frequency of a quartz oscillator is either the fundamental resonance or a multiple of
the resonance, called an overtone frequency.

27

CHAPTER 10
CAPACITOR
A capacitor consists of two electrodes or plates, each of which stores an opposite charge. These
two plates are conductive and are separated by an insulator or dielectric. The charge is stored at
the surface of the plates, at the boundary with the dielectric. Because each plate stores an equal
but opposite charge, the total charge in the capacitor is always zero.

Fig.10.1 capacitor structure

When electric charge accumulates on the plates, an electric field is created in the region between
the plates that is proportional to the amount of accumulated charge. This electric field creates a
potential difference V = Ed between the plates of this simple parallel-plate capacitor.

28

Fig.10.2 Polarization Of Capacitor

The electrons in the molecules move or rotate the molecule toward the positively charged left
plate. This process creates an opposing electric field that partially annuls the field created by the
plates. (The air gap is shown for clarity; in a real capacitor, the dielectric is in direct contact with
the plates.)

10.1 Capacitance
The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored on each plate for
a given potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between the plates:

In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge causes a
potential difference of one volt across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of
capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (F), nanofarads (nF) or picofarads (pF).
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The capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also proportional to the permittivity of the
dielectric (that is, non-conducting) substance that separates the plates.

10.2 Stored Energy

As opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor due to the separation of charge, a
voltage develops across the capacitor owing to the electric field of these charges. Ever increasing
work must be done against this ever increasing electric field as more charge is separated. The
energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored in a capacitor is equal to the amount of work required to
establish the voltage across the capacitor, and therefore the electric field. The energy stored is
given by:

where V is the voltage across the capacitor.

In electric circuits
Circuits with DC sources
Electrons cannot directly pass across the dielectric from one plate of the capacitor to the other.
When there is a current through a capacitor, electrons accumulate on one plate and electrons are
removed from the other plate. This process is commonly called 'charging' the capacitor even
though the capacitor is at all times electrically neutral. In fact, the current through the capacitor
results in the separation rather than the accumulation of electric charge. This separation of charge
causes an electric field to develop between the plates of the capacitor giving rise to voltage
across the plates. This voltage V is directly proportional to the amount of charge separated Q.
But Q is just the time integral of the current I through the capacitor. This is expressed
mathematically as:

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where
I is the current flowing in the conventional direction, measured in amperes
dV/dt is the time derivative of voltage, measured in volts / second.
C is the capacitance in farads
For circuits with a constant (DC) voltage source, the voltage across the capacitor cannot exceed
the voltage of the source. Thus, an equilibrium is reached where the voltage across the capacitor
is constant and the current through the capacitor is zero. For this reason, it is commonly said that
capacitors block DC current.

10.3 Series Or Parallel Arrangements

Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find
their total equivalent capacitance (Ceq):

The current through capacitors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each capacitor can
be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find
their total capacitance:

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One possible reason to connect capacitors in series is to increase the overall voltage rating. In
practice, a very large resistor might be connected across each capacitor to divide the total voltage
appropriately for the individual ratings.

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CHAPTER 11
MOTOR
An electric motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying
conductors to generate force. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical
energy, is done by generators such as an alternator or a dynamo; some electric motors can also be
used as generators, for example, a traction motor on a vehicle may perform both tasks. Electric
motors and generators are commonly referred to as electric machines.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps,
machine tools, household appliances,power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered
by direct current, e.g., a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle, or byalternating
current from a central electrical distribution grid or inverter. The smallest motors may be found
in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and
characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest electric
motors are used for propulsion of ships, pipeline compressors, and water pumps with ratings in
the millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their
internal construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they give.
The physical principle behind production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric
current and a magnetic field Faraday's law of induction, was discovered by Michael Faraday in
1831. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were constructed from 1821 through the end of the
19th century, but commercial exploitation of electric motors on a large scale required efficient
electrical generators and electrical distribution networks. The first commercially successful
motors were made around 1873.
Some devices convert electricity into motion but do not generate usable mechanical power as a
primary objective, and so are not generally referred to as electric motors. For
example, magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers are

usually

described

as actuators and transducers, respectively, instead of motors. Some electric motors are used to
produce torque or force.
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In an electric motor the moving part is called the rotor and the stationary part is called the stator.
Magnetic fields are produced on poles, and these can be salient poles where they are driven
by windings of electrical wire. A shaded-pole motor has a winding around part of the pole that
delays the phase of the magnetic field for that pole.
A commutator switches the current flow to the rotor windings depending on the rotor angle.
A DC motor is powered by direct current, although there is almost always an internal mechanism
(such as a commutator) converting DC to AC for part of the motor. An AC motor is supplied
with alternating current, often avoiding the need for a commutator. A synchronous motor is an
AC motor that runs at a speed fixed to a fraction of the power supply frequency, and
an asynchronous motor is an AC motor, usually an induction motor, whose speed slows with
increasing torque to slightly less than synchronous speed. Universal motors can run on either AC
or DC, though the maximum frequency of the AC supply may be limited.

11.1 Operating Principle:

all

electric

motors

are

based

around magnetism (exceptions

include piezoelectric

motors and ultrasonic motors). In these motors, magnetic fields are formed in both the rotor and
the stator. The product between these two fields gives rise to a force, and thus a torque on the
motor shaft. One, or both, of these fields must be made to change with the rotation of the motor.
This is done by switching the poles on and off at the right time, or varying the strength of the
pole.

11.2 Categorization
The main types are DC motors and AC motors, although the ongoing trend toward electronic
control somewhat softens the distinctionas modern drivers have moved the commutator out of
the motor shell for some types of DC motors.
Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism between a moving
magnetic field and a moving current sheet for average torque production, there is a clear
distinction between an asynchronous motor and synchronous types. An asynchronous motor
requires slip - relative movement between the magnetic field (generated by the stator) and a
winding set (the rotor) to induce current in the rotor by mutual inductance. The most ubiquitous
34

example of asynchronous motors is the common AC induction motor which must slip to generate
torque.
In the synchronous types, induction (or slip) is not a requisite for magnetic field or current
production (e.g. permanent magnet motors, synchronous brush-less wound-rotor doubly fed
electric machine).
Rated output power is also used to categorize motors. Those of less than 746 watts, for example,
are often referred to as fractional horsepower motors (FHP) in reference to the old imperial
measurement.

11.3 DC Motors
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs
are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearing motor,
which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and
brushless types, which use internal and external commutation respectively to reverse the current
in the windings in synchronism with rotation.

11.3.1 Permanent-Magnet Motors

A permanent-magnet motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on
permanent magnets to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to
produce torque. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors
to improve commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed
control. Permanent-magnet fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the
power consumption of the field winding. Larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which
have stator windings. Historically, permanent magnets could not be made to retain high flux if
they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux.
However, large permanent magnets are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble;
this favors wound fields for large machines.
To minimize overall weight and size, miniature permanent-magnet motors may use high energy
magnets made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-ironboron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy permanent are at
least competitive with all optimally designed fed synchronous and induction electric machines.
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Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three
rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube
that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.
11.3.2 Brushed DC motors

fig 11.1 brushed dc motor

Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor and permanent-magnet stator. ("N"
and "S" designate polarities on the inside face of the magnets; the outside faces have opposite
polarities.)
DC motors have AC in a wound rotor also called an armature, with a split ring commutator, and
either a wound or permanent magnet stator. The commutator and brushes are a long-life rotary
switch. The rotor consists of one or more coils of wire wound around a laminated "soft"
ferromagnetic core on a shaft; an electrical power source feeds the rotor windings through the
commutator and its brushes, temporarily magnetizing the rotor core in a specific direction. The
commutator switches power to the coils as the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the
rotor from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never
stops (like a compass needle does), but rather keeps rotating as long as power is applied.
Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to
press against the commutator. This creates friction. Sparks are created by the brushes making and
breaking circuits through the rotor coils as the brushes cross the insulating gaps between
commutator sections. Depending on the commutator design, this may include the brushes
shorting together adjacent sections and hence coil ends momentarily while crossing the gaps.
Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its
circuit is opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes. This sparking limits the maximum
speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator.
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The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the
output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric contact also generat eselectrical noise;
sparking generates RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the
commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on
small motors). The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element, requiring
precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently
integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.
While most commutators are cylindrical, some are flat discs consisting of several segments
(typically, at least three) mounted on an insulator.
Considering how frequently connections make and break, they have very long lifetimes.

Fig 11.2 A: shunt B: series C: compound f = field coil

11.3.3 Brushless DC motors

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this
motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brush gear assembly is replaced by an
external electronic switch synchronized to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically 85
90% efficient or more, efficiency for a brushless electric motor, of up to 96.5% was reported
whereas DC motors with brush gear are typically 7580% efficient.
Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the brushless DC
motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use a permanent magnet
external rotor, three phases of driving coils, may use Hall effect sensors to sense the position of
the rotor, and associated drive electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by
the drive electronics as cued by the signals from either Hall effect sensors or from the back EMF
(electromotive force) of the undriven coils. In effect, they act as three-phase synchronous motors
containing their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A specialized class of brushless DC
motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phase connections instead of Hall
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effect sensors to determine position and velocity. These motors are used extensively in
electric radio-controlled vehicles. When configured with the magnets on the outside, these are
referred to by modelers as outrunner motors.
Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in
computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM(etc.)
drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers.
Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger
brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find
significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.

11.3.4 Switched Reluctance Motors

fig 11.3 6/4 Pole Switched reluctance motor

The switched reluctance motor (SRM) has no brushes or permanent magnets, and the rotor has
no electric currents. Instead, torque comes from a slight mis-alignment of poles on the rotor with
poles on the stator. The rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field of the stator, while the stator
field stator windings are sequentially energized to rotate the stator field.
The magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path of least magnetic reluctance,
meaning the flux will flow through poles of the rotor that are closest to the energized poles of the
stator, thereby magnitizing those poles of the rotor and creating torque. As the rotor turns,
different windings will be energized, keeping the rotor turning.

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CHAPTER 12
SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION

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Fig12.1 Flow chart of software implementation

First initialization of ports A and D as input port and output port respectively of the ADC was
done. Now switch is checked forits ON or OFF status. If the switch is not ON the ports A and
Dare initialized again. And if the switch is ON, condition of there in is checked whether its
raining heavily or not. If yes, motoris turned on at the high speed and if the rain is not heavy, the
motor speed is set to low. Delay is given after each stroke of the wiper blade and when there is
no moisture left on the windscreen, motor is turned OFF. The delay sub routines are
initialized before the main program is written. Vref=Vdd=5v has-been set in the ADC. Now the
analog-to-digital (A/D) Converter module has eight input channels for the PIC18F458 devices. This
40

module has the ADCON0 and ADCON1 register definitions that are compatible with the PIC micro midrange A/D module. The low resistor, A/D control resistor 0 and A/D control resistor 1
Corresponding 10-bit digital number. The A/D module has four registers.

CHAPTER 13
ADVANTAGES
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Low cost automation project.

Free from wear adjustment.
Less power consumption
Operating Principle is very easy.
Installation is simplified very much.
41

f) To avoid other burnable interactions viz. (Diaphragm) is not used.

g) It is possible to operate Manually/automatically by proving On/Off switch.
h) Sensor cost is very low due to conductive sensor

13.1 APPLICATIONS
a) Four Wheeler Application

13.2 DISADVANTAGES
a) This system applied in the case of water falling on the class only.
b) Addition cost is required to install this system to four wheeler.

CONCLUSION
The automotive industries are more specific in automation of the All the results are tested
positive and hardwares are working fine in real time environment as far as test was don e. It
will give driving night an traffic prone areas where they already have to concentrate on
brakes and clutch. The removal of controlling the wipers during rain will provide them much
ease and help them concentrate on the basic ABC (accelerator, brake and clutch) of a new
dimension of comfort and aid to the drivers who work at In recent days the whole concept of
making cars has changed and comfort to their customers. The invention of wiper dates
backforth motion .dust in the windshield. In most of the cars, the windshield wiper is operated
manually and the speed of the wiper blades should be controlled manually. The working of the
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wiper is based on the conversion of the wiper motors linear motion into linear back and from
circuit for a windshield wiper motor is developed in which the Inside the motor/gear
assembly is the electronic circuit which senses when the wiper are in their down position.
One such system designed for vision aid in windshield assembly. A control wiper motor is made
automatically responsive to the presence of account the recent challenges in the windshield
assembly sweep back and forth at a rate dependent upon the level of precipitation
encountered. In this project, design and working of Windshield wiper speed control will be
discussed taking into moisture droplets on the windshield.

43

REFERENCE
1. Vehicular Vision System, Kenneth Scofield, Holland, MI(US); Mark L Larson, Grand Haven,
MI(US); Patent No: US 7344261B2
2. Development of Vision Based Control Smart Windshield Wiper System for Intelligent
Vehicle; Jee-Hun Park; Man-Ho Kim; Hong-Jun Im; Kyung Chang Lee; Suk Lee; Dept. of
Mech. Engg., Pusan Nat. Univ.
3. Wiper Mechanism - Hand Book of Automotive by Robert Bosch
4. Wiper Electrical Circuits - Automotive Electrical and Electronic Systems, Second Edition by
Tom Denton.
5. History of Windshield wiper. http://www.answers.com/topic/windscreen-wiper-1.
6. Working system of windshield wiper http://auto.howstuffworks.com/wiper.htm

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