CONTENTS:

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.

Fluidized Bed technology

Background
Pressurized Circulating Fluidized Bed
Motivation

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Hydrodynamics and Heat Transfer in a CFB
2.2. Mechanistic Model for prediction of heat transfer in a PCFB
2.3. Table form of literature review
2.4. Summary of the literature review
CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVES OF THE WORK AND TIME ACTIVITY
SCHEDULE
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 5: WORK DONE DO FAR
5.1. Preliminary experiment on the PCFB setup and observations
5.2. Design of the distributor plate.
5.3. Results and discussions.
CHAPTER 6: FUTURE WORK PLAN AND EXPECTED OUTCOME
REFERENCES

CHAPTER 1
1

Introduction:
1.1. Fluidized Bed Technology:
There are various attractions to generate power from biomass derived fuels such as coal, biomass etc.
through fluidized bed technology [18]. Fluidized bed has emerged as an environmentally acceptable
technology for burning wide range of solid fuels to generate steam and electricity power because of
its unique in situ capture of SO 2 and NOx. It is a compact, cheap and efficient method of using low
grade coals which are either difficult to be used or not possible to use in conventional processes [2].
Fluidization is a phenomenon where a granular material, such as sand, transforms from a solid-like
state into a fluid-like state [2]. Fluidization occurs when a fluid, liquid or gas, is passed up through
the granular material. Depending on the flow rate, the properties of the particles and the type of the
fluid several different states of fluidization are possible. If the flow rate is low, the fluid merely flows
through the empty spaces between the particles and the bed remains stationary. This situation is
called fixed bed. If the flow speed is increased, the drag forces between the fluid and the particles
become larger and the bed begins to expand in volume. Eventually a limit is reached where the drag
force is in balance with the gravitational force and the particles are suspended within the flow. At this
point the bed is considered to be at minimum fluidization state and the particles start to exhibit fluidlike behaviour [2]. After the minimum fluidization point, in case of gas-solids systems, the excess
gas usually starts to form channels and bubbles within the bed. The bubbles are formed near the gas
entry points at the bottom and they rise up through the bed finally bursting up when they reach the
bed surface. On the way up the bubbles change in size and shape as they collide with other bubbles
or break up into smaller bubbles. If the bed is relatively tall and narrow, the bubbles can fill up the
entire width of the bed and the flow becomes slugged. If one continues to increase the flow speed
beyond what is needed for bubbling flow, the nature of the particle bed changes again. The bed
height increases and its surface becomes less clearly defined. The bubble shapes become more and
more distorted and quite suddenly instead of bubbling flow, one can observe very complex,
turbulent-like motion of particle strands and clusters. This state is known as turbulent fluidization
and in this regime the mixing of particles is very vigorous [2].
With even higher flow velocities than what is required for turbulent fluidization a substantial amount
of the particles start to leave the bed as they become entrained in the up-going flow. Stable operation
at this point requires either constant supply of new particles or a recirculation path for the escaped
particles. At this point the behaviour of the bed can be controlled by adjusting the feed rate of
particles. If the feed rate is kept relatively high, so that the particles are not completely blown away,
2

the bed is called a fast fluidized bed. A fast fluidized bed typically consists of a relatively dense,
turbulent bottom bed which gets more dilute higher up. The dilute region contains particle clusters
which are rapidly breaking apart and reforming [2].

Fig 1: Different regimes of fluidization [2].

With even higher flow velocities than what is required for turbulent fluidization a substantial amount
of the particles start to leave the bed as they become entrained in the up-going flow. Stable operation
at this point requires either constant supply of new particles or a recirculation path for the escaped
particles. At this point the behaviour of the bed can be controlled by adjusting the feed rate of
particles. If the feed rate is kept relatively high, so that the particles are not completely blown away,
the bed is called a fast fluidized bed. A fast fluidized bed typically consists of a relatively dense,
turbulent bottom bed which gets more dilute higher up. The dilute region contains particle clusters
which are rapidly breaking apart and reforming. The excellent mixing and good contact between the
fluid and particle phases makes fast fluidization interesting for many industrial applications [2].
A fast fluidized bed with a return channel is called a circulating fluidized bed (CFB). The particles
are fluidized by fast, up blowing air in the riser section. Some amount of the particles reach the top
of the riser, where they are separated from the up flowing gas in a cyclone. From the cyclone the
particles are dropped to the return channel. At the bottom of the channel there is a loop seal which
prevents the fluidization air entering the return channel. The particles are circulated in this fashion
until the desired reactions have been achieved. Many industrial processes also use fluidization in the
bubbling regime and these are called bubbling fluidized beds (BFB) [2].

Finally, if flow rate is high enough and if the particle

concentration

is kept very low, i.e. the volume

fraction less than 1%, the situation is called

pneumatic transport. Under pneumatic transport
there is practically no interaction between the
particles. Pneumatic transport can be used for
instance to transport solids from one container to
another [2].

ackground:

Fig
1.2.2: Schematic diagram of circulating
fluidized bed [2]

Fritz Winkler from Germany was the first to obtain a patent for a fluidized bed hot gas generators in
1921 [3].Fluidized bed processes came into wide use in the petroleum industry in the 1940s [1].
These processes are also extensively used in the chemical and metallurgical fields. The first CFB
boiler, designed exclusively for the supply of steam and heat, was built in the Vereingte Aluminum
Werke at Luenen, Germany in 1982 [18]. This plant generated 84 MW total (9 MW electricity, 31
MW process steam, 44 MW molten salt melt) by burning low-grade coal washery residues in the
presence of limestone [3]. Today there are a number of CFB plants operating all over the world and
size of the plant installations are increasing. The worlds largest power plant (Lagisza) of capacity
460MWe began commercial operation in 2009, which marked the beginning of a new era in the
evolution of this technology. This is also the worlds first once through unit supercritical CFB boiler
[2]. Along with the commercial CFB units, various laboratory and pilot CFB units are developed to
investigate and optimize the operating parameters for higher efficiencies at lower emission level.
Continued research and development in the field of fluidization has led to the development of
pressurized bubbling fluidized bed (PCFB). The first pilot PCFB plant of capacity 10MW was
developed by Ahlstrom at Karhula, Finland in 1989 [18]. Due to multiple advantages of CFB
technology such as multi-fuel flexibility, compactness, uniform temperature throughout etc. CFB
gasification has also been developed side by side with CFB technology. The first commercial
atmospheric gasifier was installed in 1983 in Jacobstad, Finland [18]. In 1991, Foster Wheeler
supplied a PCFB gasification system to a 17 MW biomass-fired Integrated Gasification Combined
Cycle (IGCC) demonstration project a Varnamo, Sweden and it is the first biomass fired IGCC plant
in the world [18]. The potential of fluidized bed technology appears to be almost unlimited. As the
technology refinement opens up new vistas, PCFB power generation holds a greater promise to
generate power in a most cost effective and environment friendly way.
4

1.3.

Pressurized Circulating Fluidized Bed:

Pressurized circulating fluidized bed (PCFB) combustor technology is a recent extension of the
fluidized bed technology family [1]. This type of circulating fluidized bed combustor operates at
elevated pressures, but still maintains all the advantages of the circulating fluidized bed system [18].
This technology is relatively new and is only at demonstration stage. An application of PCFB
combustor technology to combined cycle power generation has opened up an attractive alternative
due to its (1) high overall efficiency, (2) low emission and improved combustion, (3) good heat
transfer characteristics, (4) compact furnace size and (5) fuel flexibility. However, in order to fully
comprehend the advantages of pressurized circulating fluidized bed combustion, it is important to
understand the effect of operating pressure on different design parameters [18]. The bed-to-wall heat
transfer coefficient is one of the important parameters whose knowledge is required during both the
design and operating phase of a boiler [3]. There are two types of pressurized fluidized beds:
bubbling and circulating. While pressurized bubbling bed designs have been developed and are in
commercial operations, the circulating fluidized bed (CFB) designs are still in the pilot stage.
The PCFB unit, in general consists of a riser, a cyclone separator, a return leg called downcomer, a
loop seal and a feeding system. The performance of a PCFB unit is influenced by a number of
factors, including superficial velocity, solid circulation rate, solid inventory, and particle size
distribution [4]. Change of any of these parameters changes the bed hydrodynamics such as bed
voidage, and suspension density, and this causes a change in the heat transfer along the bed height.
Many researchers have reviewed the bed hydrodynamics and heat transfer at atmospheric conditions
[18].

1.4.

Motivation:

As mentioned earlier PCFB units have many advantages and the understanding of bed
hydrodynamics and heat transfer characteristics is very important for the proper design of PCFB
units. Very limited research has reported the effect of various parameters in a PCFB. In this view, the
present work concentrates in studying and investigating the effect of various operating parameters on
the hydrodynamic and heat transfer characteristics in a PCFB riser (laboratory unit).

CHAPTER 2
Literature Review:
A critical review of the available literature on the bed hydrodynamics heat transfer characteristics in
pressurized fluidized bed units which are relevant to the scope of the present study are presented in
this chapter. The summary of the literature review is also presented at the end of the chapter.

2.1. Hydrodynamics and Heat Transfer in a CFB:

For specific design of a fluidized bed the bed hydrodynamic studies are very essential as these would
provide information on basic flow patterns, mixing, particle attrition behavior, and heat and mass
transfer characteristics. The hydrodynamic condition influences the parameters like auxiliary power
consumption, heat absorption, temperature distribution, combustion condition, bed inventory and
erosion. The mechanism of heat transfer in a fluidized bed is very complicated and is quite different
from the usual system as it involves a large of number of variables and heavily depends on bed
hydrodynamics. Glicksman (1988) stated that the important hydrodynamic factors in a CFB are the
fraction of the wall covered by particles and gas and average contact time of particles at the wall. The
work of Weinstien et al. (1983) has confirmed the existence of core-annulus structure of the dense
phase of the fast fluidized bed. In simple terms, there exists a relatively dilute upflow core in which
solid particles are entrained upward by a high velocity gas stream and much denser annulus layer
near the column wall in which solid particles congregate and fall as dense structures similar to waves
of strands or streamers. As the heat transfer surfaces are commonly located at the column wall for
most CFB applications, the influence of down flowing wall layer on heat transfer is significant. The
velocity of descent of strands in the wall layer, the duration of their stay at the wall and the time
fraction of wall coverage are all important hydrodynamic parameters that affect the heat transfer
between the gas solids suspension and the wall. Glicksman (1988) considered voidage as the volume

fraction of the bed occupied by bubbles. The bed voidage ( ) at any cross-section has been estimated
from the measured pressure drop (

pb

) from a differential water filled U-tube manometer connected

across it.

=Voidage
1-

=Fractional volume of the bed occupied by solid particles

For a fluidized bed, the pressure drop across the bed equals the weight of the bed, the fluid drag is
written as
From this equation
pb 1 L s g g

Since, s >g , we may write,

pb 1 L s g
hL
w g
100

pb

Again,

Where

hL

: density of water = 1000 Kg/m3

: Difference of height in manometer fluid in cm of water.

Therefore from these equations we have,

hL
w g 1 L s g
100

pb

Or,

hL

1000 g 1 L s g
100
1

Or,

10 hL
L s

1
or

10 hL
L s

The axial variation of voidage is typically a flattened S profile. At the bottom of the riser solid
fraction varies from 0.2 to 0.4, whereby it decreases and remains almost constant throughout the
height of the riser.

Fig 3: Axial voidage profile [2]

The

amount

of

solids

density at a particular section

of the bed may be defined as suspension density. Mathematically, it can be expressed as,
sus=(1 ) +
s

It is reported that, the particle size and the solid inventory have a substantial influence on the
suspension density profile in a CFB furnace (Basu, 2006). It is claimed that with the decrease in
particle size, the suspension density increases. One can influence the suspension density by
changing the bed inventory and this was suggested by Yue et al. (2005).The suspension density
along the height of a CFB boiler varies exponentially as it does in the freeboard region of a
bubbling fluidized bed (Liand Kwauk, 1980 and Kunii and Levenspiel, 1991).
Minimum fluidization velocity is the basic information required for the design and development of
a fluidized bed. Many researchers have studied how an increased pressure effects the minimum
fluidization velocity. They have experimentally found that the effect of pressure on the minimum
fluidization velocity depends on the particle size. The results of their experiments show a clear
decrease in the minimum fluidization velocity with increasing pressure for particles larger than
100m. To estimate the effect of pressure on minimum fluidization velocity, Ergun (1952) has
developed an expression. The pressure drop per unit height of a packed bed of uniformly sized
particles, is correlated as
Type equation here .

For a fluidized bed, the pressure drop across the bed equals the weight of the bed, the fluid drag is
written as

The minimum fluid velocity at which the bed just becomes fluidized (U mf) may be obtained by
solving these two eq. simultaneously to obtain

Where Archimedes number,

8

The values of the empirical constants C1 and C2 as taken from experiments are 27.2 and 0.0408,
respectively (Grace, 1982).
In a CFB, fine solid particles (Geldart Group A and B) agglomerate and form clusters or strands in
a continuum of generally up-flowing gas containing sparsely dispersed solids. The continuum is
called the dispersed phase, while the agglomerates are called the cluster phase. The majority of the
bed particles move upwards through the core of the bed, but flow downwards along the wall in the
form of clusters of particles or strands.
The heat transfer to the furnace wall occurs through
conduction from particle clusters, convection from
the dispersed phase, and radiation from both phases.
Solid clusters sliding down the wall experience
unsteady-state heat conduction to the wall. The
clusters cool down while losing heat to the wall
through conduction and radiation.
If f is the average fraction of the wall area covered by

Fig 4: Schematic of the mechanism of heat transfer

clusters, the time-averaged overall heat transfer

coefficient, h may be written as the sum of convective, hconv and radiative, hr heat transfer
coefficients (Subbarao and Basu, 1986; Dutta and Basu, 2004):
h=hconv +hr = f(hc+hcr)+(1 - f)(hd+hdr)
where, hc and hd are the convective heat-transfer coefficients due to the cluster and dispersed
phase, respectively. The heat-transfer coefficients hcr and hdr are the radiative contributions of the
cluster and dispersed phase, respectively.

2.2. Mechanistic Model for prediction of heat transfer in a PCFB:

The bed-to-wall heat transfer coefficient is one of the important parameters whose knowledge is
required during both the design and operating phase of a boiler. A PCFB operates at several
atmospheric pressures. Higher gas densities under higher system pressures may have a major
bearing on the heat transfer coefficients. For the sake of scale up and parametric study, Basu et al.
(1996) developed a mechanistic model by extending an earlier model developed for atmospheric
9

pressure. Then on the basis of experiments conducted, an empirical relation is also developed for
prediction of heat transfer coefficients, within the present range of experiments. The riser of a
CFB operating under a fast fluidized regime comprises two phases: clusters and dispersed phase.
At any instant the wall of the bed is covered partially by clusters and partially by dispersed phase.
Thus the bed-to-wall convective heat transfer coefficient, h conv would have two components: one
due to the clusters hc and other due to the dispersed phase, hd. The fraction of the wall covered by
the clusters c may be estimated as
1 w Y

0.5

c =K
Where K = 0.5,

w is the voidage near the wall, which can be obtained by

w = ( r i=R )= 3.811 ,
c

is the voidage within the clusters. The average solid concentration in the clusters at the wall

(1- c ) of the bed was derived by Lints from the capacitance probe data of Wu et al. (1989) and
Longer et al.(1990) [1] as
0.54

1 c =1.23(1 )
Where

is the cross-section average voidage of the solids. The volume fraction of the solid in

the dispersed phase Y may be taken as 0.001%.

Thus the bed-to-wall convective heat transfer coefficient hconv can be expressed as
hconv =c hc +(1 c )h d
The convective heat transfer coefficient due to particles and clusters may be written as

hc =

1
dp
tc
+
10 K gf 4 K c C c c

0.5

10

where d p is the particle diameter,

K gf

is the thermal conductivity of the gas film evaluated

at mean gas film temperature, t c is the average residual time of clusters on the wall.
K c ,C c c

are the thermal conductivity, specific heat and density of cluster respectively.

C c =[ ( 1 c ) C p + c C g ] and

c =[ ( 1 c ) p + c g ] and the thermal conductivity of the cluster

is taken from the following equation

K c =K g

Kp
Kg

( )

0.280.757log 10 c 0.057 log10

( )]+0.1 C
Kp
Kg

d p U mf

K g may be assumed independent of pressure because it changes

The gas thermal conductivity

by less than 2% whereas the pressure changes from 100 kPa 1000 kPa at the same bed
temperature. The minimum fluidization velocity Umf may be predicted by the Ergun equation. The
maximum fall velocity of clusters Umf is taken as 1.26 ms-2 in the model calculation. The
convective heat transfer due to the upflowing dispersed phase as given by Basu for atmospheric
pressure could not reflect the effect of the pressure very well. Xavier and Davidson (1985) and
Martin (1985) found that the gas convective heat transfer coefficient varies approximately as the
square root of the gas density. So the equation developed by Wen and Miller in 1961 used by Basu
was modified as
hd =

K g C p dis
dp C g p

0.3

Ut
gdp

0.21

g
go

0.2

( )( ) ( )
pr

Where the density of the dispersed phase is

gY + g (1Y ) and Ut is the terminal velocity of the

particle.

2.3. Table form of literature review:

TITLE

AUTHORS

Heat Transfer in Basu

a
Pressurized Cheng
Circulating
(1995)
Fluidized
Bed
Boiler

WORK CARRIED OUT

and Studied the heat transfer in
Pressurized
Circulating
Fluidized bed. In their study
they have modified the
cluster renewal model for
atmospheric
circulating

OBSERVATIONS
REPORTED
(1)
The
bed-to-wall
convective
heat
transfer
coefficient increases with
increasing system pressures
and bed suspension density,
but not with particle size for a
11

fluidized bed to account for

the effect of pressure on heat
transfer. Bed-to-wall heat
transfer
coefficients
at
different operating pressures
were measured. The effects
of system pressure, bed
suspension density, particle
size and superficial gas
velocity were investigated in
the tests. In addition to the
modified model, a semiempirical equation based on
the test data is proposed for
the prediction of heat
transfer coefficients

Estimation of the Reddy

and
Effect of the Basu (2002)
system pressure
and
CO2
concentration on
radiation
heat
transfer in a
PCFB
Combustor.

Reports the effect of CO2

and system pressure on
radiation heat transfer in a
pressurized
circulating
fluidized combustor.

Bed to wall heat Gupta and Nag An

experimental

short heat transfer surface.

The effect of superficial gas
velocity on the heat transfer
coefficient is negligible.
(2) The effect of system
pressure on the heat transfer
coefficient can be explained
by its effect on the gas
density and cluster thermal
conductivity.
(3) The modified cluster
renewal model predicts the
heat transfer coefficient with
a reasonable accuracy.
(4) An empirical relation is
proposed to predict the heat
transfer coefficient at room
temperature.
(1) They have investigated
that for a given CO2
concentration in a pressurized
circulating fluidized bed
combustor, radiation heat
transfer increases slightly
with system pressure due to
increased gas partial pressure
and gas emissivity.
(2) The results demonstrate
that for the given CO2
concentration, the effect of
system pressure on radiation
heat transfer is minimal in a
pressurized
circulating
fluidized
bed
(PCFB)
combustor.
(3) The effect of variation in
CO2 concentration levels on
bed to wall radiation heat
transfer during combustion in
a pressurized circulating
fluidized combustor is not
significant for a narrow
combustor.
(1) The axial bed voidage
12

transfer behavior (1998)

in a PCFB

Hydrodynamics,
erosion and heat
transfer in a
pressurized
fluidized bed:
influence of
pressure,
fluidization
velocity, particle
size and tube
bank geometry

Wiman
Almstedt
(1997)

investigation has been made

to study the effect of
pressure and other relevant
operating parameters on bed
hydrodynamics and bed-towall heat transfer in a
pressurized
circulating
fluidized bed (PCFB) riser
column of 37.5 mm internal
diameter and 1940 mm
height. A specially designed
heat transfer probe is used to
measure the bed-to-wall heat
transfer co-efficient.

and Measurements
of
hydrodynamics, local tube
erosion
and
local
instantaneous bed-to tube
heat transfer were carried
out in a cold pressurized
fluidized bed, with two
horizontal tube banks having
different tube packings. The
influence
of
pressure,
fluidization velocity,particle
size and tube bank geometry
was studied. Two size
distributions of silica sand
were used, one with a mean
particle diameter of dp = 0.7
mm and one with dp = 0.45
mm. The bed has a crosssection of 0.2 m x 0.3 m, and
was operated at pressures
between 0.t and 1.6 MPa and
at excess gas velocities of
0.2 and 0.6 m/s.

along the height of the bed is

observed to be less in the
bottom zone and is high in
the top zone.
(2) It is also observed that the
bed voidage increases in the
bottom zone and decreases in
the top zone with increase in
operating pressure.
(3) The heat transfer coefficient is found to be
increasing with the increase
in operating pressure as well
as increase in gas superficial
velocity. It also increases
monotonically
with
increasing bed temperature.
The data show trends similar
to
those
in
published
literature.
(1).Results shows that the
hydrodynamic behavior is
similar for two different
particle sizes if plotted
against the excess gas
velocity,
but
differs
significantly between the two
tube banks.
(2).The smaller particles
generally give rise to less
erosion than the larger
particles, as an effect of their
momentum being lower at a
given particle velocity.
(3). The small particles also
give a higher heat transfer
than the large particles, as a
result of a higher particle
convection.
(4). The denser tube bank
causes an earlier transition to
a turbulent bed behavior with
increasing
pressure
or
fluidization velocity. The
13

A model for heat Reddy

and
transfer in a Basu (2000)
pressurized
circulating
fluidized
bed
furnace.

Effect

of Winaya

dense tube bank gives rise to

considerably less erosion but
also gives a somewhat lower
heat transfer than the more
sparse
tube
bank,
at
corresponding
operating
conditions.
(5). For the sparse tube bank
investigated,
at
high
pressures,
the
erosion
decreases with increasing
pressure. The bed-to-tube
heat
transfer
coefficient
generally increases with
increasing pressure. Thus, it
should be favorable to
operate a bed at high pressure
levels.
(1). Heat transfer coefficient
increases
with
system
pressure due to increased
particle and dispersed phase
convection heat transfer
coefficient, as a result of
effect of pressure on cluster
thermal conductivity, capacity
and residence time.
(2). Increase in suspension
density results in higher
cluster solid fraction and
particle concentration near
the wall, which results in
higher
heat
transfer
coefficient.

Developed a mechanistic
model based on cluster
renewal approach to predict
bed to wall heat transfer in
pressurized
circulating
fluidized bed (PCFB). The
model takes into account the
effect of pressure on cluster
density, cluster thermal
conductivity and particle
convection heat transfer
coefficient. The effect of bed
pressure and temperature on
bed to wall heat transfer
coefficient is investigated.
The model predictions are
validated
against
the
experimental data obtained
from a PCFB riser of 52.4
mm in diameter and 2020
mm
height.
The
experimental results are
reported for pressures up to
600
KPa
and
bed
temperature up to 6500C.
and Experiments are performed Heat

transfer

coefficient
14

pressure
and Basu (2000)
carbon dioxide
concentration on
heat transfer at
high temperature
in
a
PCFB
combustor.

in an electrically heated 52.5

mm and 2020 mm high
pressurized
circulating
fluidized bed to investigate
the bed to wall heat transfer
in it. The bed-to-wall heat
transfer is determined from
the
radial
temperature
distribution in the wall.
Carbon di-oxide content of
the fluidizing gas is changed
by either adding varying
amounts of carbon dioxide
to the air or burning coal and
coke with and without
addition
of
adding
limestone.
Cheng
and Studied the solids flow
Basu (1999)
through a loop seal in a
pressurized
circulating
fluidized bed (CFB) in an
experimental setup in which
the effects of system
pressure, aeration rates in the
two chambers of the loop
seal, and particle size could
be investigated.

increase with both system

pressure and bed temperature
due to increased contribution
of gas convection and
radiation.
Heat
transfer
coefficient also increase with
carbon dioxide concentration
due to increased nonluminous radiation from
carbon dioxide.

Effect
of
pressure on loop
seal
operation
for a pressurized
circulating
fluidized bed

The results show that the

solids flow rate increases
with aeration rate as well as
the system pressure. However
solids are not recycled until
the aeration rate reaches a
threshold limit. The solids
flow rate also increases with
decreasing
particle
size.
Analysis of pressure drops
through the standpipe, loop
seal
opening,
recycle
chamber and recycle pipe
verifies that the recycle flow
rate of the loop seal can be
determined by an analysis of
the pressure balance around
the CFB loop.
Results show that, with the
increase in operating pressure
and solid inventory, the bed
voidage decreases. The solid
circulation rate is found to
increase with an increase in
superficial velocity as well as
with an increase in solid
inventory. The heat transfer

Parametric study Kalita et

of
(2012)
hydrodynamics
and heat transfer
along the riser of
a
pressurized
circulating
fluidized
bed
unit.

al. In the present investigation,

the effects of particle size,
solid
inventory
and
operating pressure on bed
hydrodynamics and heat
transfer in a pressurized
circulating fluidized bed has
been studied. Three different
particle sizes of mean

15

Some studies on Kalita et

wall-to-bed heat (2013)
transfer in a
pressurized
circulating
Fluidized
bed
unit

Simulation and Cao.et

experimental
(2008)

diameter of 278, 307 and

469 m are considered.
Experiments have been
conducted at five different
solid inventories such as
400, 500, 600, 800, and 1000
g, and at three different
operating pressures such as
1, 3 and 5 bar. All the above
studies have been made at
three different superficial
velocities of 5, 6 and 7 m/s.
The axial variation of heat
transfer coefficient with
various percentage blending
of sawdust in sand has also
been studied.
al. In the present work, a
pressurized
circulating
fluidized bed (PCFB) unit of
54 mm inner diameter and
riser height of 2000 mm has
been
fabricated
to
investigate the effect of
pressure on suspension
density and heat transfer.
The effects of blending of
biomass in sand, and
superficial velocity on bed
hydrodynamics and heat
transfer has also been
studied. Experiments have
been conducted at four
different
percentage
blending of biomass such as
2.5 %, 7.5 %, 15 % and 20
% in sand with two different
weight composition ratios
and at a superficial velocity
of 5 m/s. Operating pressure
is varied from 1 to 5 bar in a
step of 2 bar.
al. The influence of pressure on
the bubble size and average

coefficient decreases with an

increase in particle size, while
it increases with operating
pressure from the bottom to
the top of heat transfer probe.
The heat transfer coefficient
is also found to increase with
the increase in % blending of
sawdust in sand and the
operating pressures.

Results show that, the axial

heat
transfer
coefficient
increases from the bottom to
the top of heat transfer probe
with the increase in operating
pressure. The radial variation
of heat transfer coefficient
decreases from the wall to the
core of the heat transfer
probe. The heat transfer
coefficient is also found to be
higher in between the 7.5 to
15 % biomass blending in
sand.

(1) Both experimental and

theoretical results clearly
16

studies
on
fluidization
properties in a
pressurized
jetting fluidized
bed

Effects of
distributor design
on solids
distribution in a
CFB riser.

bed voidage has been

investigated experimentally
and computationally in a
circular three-dimensional
cold-flow
model
of
pressurized jetting fluidized
bed of 0.2 m i.d and 0.6 m in
height with a central jet and
a conical distributor, which
roughly stands for the ashagglomerating fluidized bed
coal
gasifier.
The
pressurized average bed
voidage and bubble size in
the jetting fluidized bed
were investigated by using
electrical
capacitance
tomography
(ECT)
technique.
The
timeaveraged
cross-sectional
solids
concentration
distribution in the fluidized
bed was recorded. The
influence of pressure on the
size of bubble and the
average bed voidage in a
pressurized fluidized bed
was studied.
Jing Xu et al. The influence of gas
(2010)
distributor design on the gassolids flow structure was
investigated in a rectangular
CFB
riser.
The
gas
distributor was altered five
different ways. Five types of
gas inlet arrangements were
employed: (1) fully opened;
(2) left opened; (3) right
opened; (4) sides opened; (5)
center opened. The solids
distribution, in terms of
solids concentration and
particle
velocity,
was
measured by optical fiber

indicate that there is, at the

lower pressure, a small initial
increase in bubble size
decided by voidage and then
a decrease with a further
increase in pressure.
(2) The average bed voidage
increases gradually with the
pressure at the same gas
velocity.
(3) There is a disagreement
in the average bed voidage
between
the
simulation
results and experimental
results as the pressure and gas
velocity increase.
(4) The change of average
bed voidage is connected
with the drag between gas
and solid. The increase in
drag may be because of the
increase in the density of the
gas, which increases with
pressure.

The solids concentration and

particle velocity along the
lateral direction were quite
uniform for fully opened
distributor, while the left side
opened or the right side
opened gas inlet structure
caused the profiles of solids
concentration to be half-dilute
half-dense, and the particle
velocity to be half-high halflow; the center opened
distributors
leads
to
symmetric center-dilute walldense distribution of solids
concentration and center-fast
17

probes and investigated

experimentally
and
numerically.
The
fully
opened
distributor
was
considered as the original
condition, the other four
types of special designed
distributors were compared
with the unaltered one.

The influence of
distributor design
on fluidized bed
dryer
hydrodynamics

Wormsbecker
et al. (2007)

The influence of perforated

plate, punched plate and
Dutch
weave
mesh
distributor
designs
on
fluidized
bed
dryer
hydrodynamics was studied
for a range of bed loadings
and
superficial
gas
velocities.

wall-slow pattern of particle

velocity, whereas, reversed
profiles of concentration and
velocity were produced by
the sides opened distributor.
The results also show that the
profile of the gas is the main
reason dominating the solids
distribution in the CFB riser,
accounting for the profiles of
solids concentration and
particle
velocity.
The
distribution of the gas dictates
the flow structure in the riser
column and might have more
significant effects over the
inherent wall effect.
The present study has found
that the punched plate
distributor design provides
shorter drying times than the
Dutch weave and perforated
plate designs when wet bed
loadings of 2.5 kg and above
are dried at superficial gas
velocities typical of the
pharmaceutical industry (1.0
to 1.5 m/s). This study was
carried out on a laboratory
scale fluidized bed dryer. It is
possible that in larger
diameter fluidized beds, such
as clinical and production
scale dryers, the positive
influence of the punched
plate
may
be
more
pronounced as bed loadings,
and therefore bed depths,
become greater.

18

Mixing patterns
Ghaly
and Investigated the effects of
and residence
Macdonald
sand particle size, distributor
time
(2012)
plate shape and angle, bed
determination in a
height
and
fluidizing
bubbling fluidized
velocity on particle mixing
bed
and residence time in the
System.
fluidized bed reactor.

Distributor effects
near the bottom
region of a
turbulent
fluidized beds.

Celia sobrino,
Naoko ellis and
Mercedes
de
vega (2008)

The distributor plate effects

on
the
hydrodynamic
characteristics of turbulent
fluidized
beds
are
investigated by obtaining
measurements of pressure
and radial voidage profiles
in a column diameter of 0.29
m with Group A particles
using bubble bubble-cap or
perforated plate distributors.
Distributor pressure drop
measurements between the
two
distributors
are
compared
with
the
theoretical estimations while
the influence of the mass
inventory
is
studied.
Comparison is established
for the transition velocity
from bubbling to turbulent
regime, Uc, deduced from
the pressure fluctuations in
the bed using gauge pressure
measurements. The effect of
the distributor on the flow

(1) Greater values of the

residence time were obtained
with course sand whereas
lower values were obtained
with fine sand.
(2) An increase in the angle
of convex or a decrease in the
angle of a concave of the
distributor plate resulted in an
increase in the residence time.
(3) To improve the mixing
properties of the binary
mixture, which has great
tendency for segregation due
to density differences, an
angled
distributor
plate
(concave or convex) should
be used.
The
perforated
plate
presented a lower Uc velocity
and a higher decrease of the
dense bed height with
increasing the superficial gas
velocity. This indicates that
the rate of solids transferred
from the dense bed to the free
board is higher for the
perforated plate, and begins at
a lower superficial gas
velocity. From the pressure
measurement results, it is
concluded that the solids
density near the bottom
region is higher for the
bubble-cap distributors; while
a more homogeneous radial
structure in terms of voidage
is found. The results are in
accordance with time mean
average voidage obtained
with optical probes; whereby,
the voidage measured with
these probes was also found
to be smaller for all radial
19

structure near the bottom

region of the bed is studied
using differential and gauge
pressure transducers located
at different axial positions
along the bed. The radial
voidage profile in the bed is
also measured using optical
fiber probes, which provide
local measurements of the
voidage at different heights
above the distributor.
the influence of
the distributor
plate on the
bottom zone of a
fluidized bed
approaching
the transition
from bubbling to
turbulent
fluidization

Effect of
Distributors on
Fluidised Beds
Heat Transfer
from Immersed
Surfaces in Gas

j. m. paiva

The dynamics of the bottom

zone of a narrow fluidized
c. pinho
bed, from bubbling to
turbulent
regimes,
was
r. figueiredo
studied in a cold model of
2004
0.1 m i.d. and 1.3 m high.
Tested distributor types were
perforated perspex plates,
with six different perforation
grids, metallic mesh and
porous
ceramic,
with
pressures drops ranging from
0.05
to
350
kPa,
corresponding to superficial
air velocities from 0.1 to 2.3
ms
Group B silica ballotini,
within the range 0.355
0.425 mm, were used as bed
material. The experimental
data consisted of pressure
drop and absolute pressure
fluctuating signals, together
with visual observations.
d.
Heat transfer coefficients
sathiyamoorthy, from a smooth tube of
ch. sridhar rao internal diameter 26 mm
and m. raja immersed horizontally in
rao
gas fluidised solids in the
(1987)
overall size range 70 161 urn have been mea-

positions and the profiles

obtained were flatter when
using
the
bubble-cap
distributor. A dilute core and
a denser annulus structure
was observed in the bottom
region of the bed for the two
distributors studied. Radial
voidage profiles in the dense
bed were found to be fitted by
a quadratic profile, and
presented
similarity
for
different fluidizing velocities.
The results show that the flow
changes with variation of the
operating conditions. The
measurements at several
different equal heights show
changes in the hydrodynamic
behaviour of the gassolid
suspension. For the tested
group B particles and static
bed height, there is no linear
decrease, or even a sustained
uniform trend towards a
decrease of the solids
concentration with height in
that region of the bed.
Furthermore, using a
model for the calculation of
the fraction of bubbles, the
results include the detection
of a fluctuation in the values
of the porosity of the
emulsion, with height and
with the fluidization velocity.
The optimum gas velocity
Uopt corresponding to the
maximum heat transfer
coefficient h,,, and the gas
velocity U, at which all
orifices in the distributor
just become operational are
20

The Design of
Distributors for
G .as-Fluidized
-Beds

Geldart 1985

sured as a function of gas

velocity using multi- orifice
distributors of various free
areas (0.0888% - 0.52%).

found to be the same.

For gas velocities U just
below Uopt the wall heat
transfer coefficient has been
found to be influenced by
the free area of the
distributor, while
the
effective
bed
porosity
remains
close to
the
incipient
state
of
fluidisation with a slight
increase
near
optimum
velocity. Correlations to
predict Reopt and the
corresponding Nu,,, have
been proposed. An attempt
has been made to explore
the effects of distributor on
heat transfer, but without a
rigorous
supporting
theoretical analysis.

The performance of the

gas
distributor often
determines the success or
fai!ure of a fluidized bed
and although much more
is known now than 20
years ago, there are still
many pitfalls
for
the
designer. Particle and gas
properties play a key, ole
in
successful
design
together with the critical
pressure drop ratio, and
hole size, geometry and
spacing;
these
strongly
influence jet penetration,
dead
zones,
particle
sifting,
attrition and mixing.

The current state of the

art .is reviewed in the light
of recent research and
industrial experience.

21

Effect of
Distributors on
Gas-Solid
Fluidization

s. c. saxena,
a.chatterjee
and r. c. patel
1979

The efficient operation of

a fluidized bed is very
much
dependent
upon
distributor
performance,
which in turn depends on
its design parameters. The
work reported here deals
with the characteristics of
such distributors as are
commonly employed in
laboratories, pilot plant and
large scale
operations.
Specifically, a porous plate
distributor, two bubble cap
distributors of different
geometries and four
Johnson screen distributors
of different percent open
area
have
been
investigated in a 30.5 cm
by
30.5
cm
square
fluidized bed as a function
of air fluidizing velocity
and
bed height.
The
pressure drop data for all
the distributors have been
correlated by a single
equation
with
two
unknown constants.

The
distributor
pressure
drop was found to increase
with fluidizing velocity, to
decrease with
percentage
open area of the distributor
plate,
and
to
be
independent of the bed
weight or height for a
given distributor design.
The
pressure
ratio,
APd/APb, was found to
increase
rapidly
with
increase
in
fluidization
velocity. The value of this
pressure ratio at minimum
fluidization was found to
be dependent on the bed
height, and its degree
depends sensitively
on
distributor design,
The bed expansion ratio
was found to increase with
the increase in excess
fluidizing velocity
and
decrease -with bed height.
The quantitative magnitudes
of these variations are
dependent on the distributor
design. A distributor with
greater pressure drop across
it gives rise to smaller
bubbles for the same excess fluidizing velocity than
a distributor with smaller
pressure drop [15]. This is
substantiated by the present
measurements of bed expansion ratio for the bubble
cap,
porous
plate and
Johnson screen distributors

22

Effect of
Distributor
Design on Heat
Transfer from an
Immersed
Horizontal Tube
in a Fluidized
Bed

Grewal et al. Experiments have been

1979
carried out to examine the
effect of distributor design
on the total heat transfer
coefficient between a 12.7
mm diameter electrically
heated copper tube and a
square fluidized bed (0.305
m X 0.305 m) of glass
beads (a,, = 265, 357 and
427 pm). The distributors
are two perforated plates of
different open area with a
cloth sandwiched between
them.
The
effect
of
distributor design on the
total
heat
transfer
coefficient is explained on
the basis of its effect on
the initial bubble size and
frequency
Table 1: Literature
Review

2.4. Summary of the literature review:

Various literatures are available for investigation of heat transfer and hydrodynamic of an
atmospheric fluidized bed. However very limited literature is available for investigation of heat
transfer and hydrodynamics of pressurized circulating fluidized bed. In most of the cases, the
mechanistic models developed for atmospheric fluidized bed was used for prediction of heat transfer
in pressurized fluidized bed. Some of the important observations related to heat transfer and
hydrodynamics of pressurized fluidized bed is presented below:
(1) With increase in operating pressure the bed voidage is increases in the bottom zone and decreases
in the top zone.
(2) The heat transfer coefficient is found to be increasing with the increase in operating pressure as
well as increase in gas superficial velocity.

23

(3) The minimum fluidization velocity, the bubbling velocity and the terminal velocity were
decreasing with increase of operating pressure
(4) The modified cluster renewal model predicts the heat transfer coefficient with a reasonable
accuracy. Increase in suspension density results in higher cluster solid fraction and particle
concentration near the wall, which results in higher heat transfer coefficient.
(5) The bed-to-wall convective heat transfer coefficient increases with increasing system pressures
and bed suspension density
(6) For a given CO2 concentration in a pressurized circulating fluidized bed combustor, radiation
heat transfer increases slightly with system pressure due to increased gas partial pressure and gas
emissivity.
(7) The distribution of the gas dictates the flow structure in the riser column.
(8) An increase in the angle of convex or a decrease in the angle of a concave of the distributor plate
resulted in an increase in the residence time.

CHAPTER 3
Objectives of the work and Time activity Schedule:
3.1. Objectives:
In the prospect of the above discussion, the aim of the present work is to study the effects of various
operating parameters on the hydrodynamics and heat transfer characteristics in a PCFB laboratory
scale unit. The following tasks are taken as objectives for this study:

1.

To investigate the variation of bed hydrodynamics along the riser and heat transfer
characteristics along the upper splash region of the riser under different heat flux and

2.
3.

operating pressure.
To fabricate the designed distributor plate.
To investigate the variation of the above mentioned parameters by using the designed gas
distributor plate and comparing the results with the straight hole distributor plate.
24

4.

To perform a CFD simulation of the above experiment in a commercial CFD software Ansys
Fluent.

3.2. Time Activity Schedule:

WORK TIME

Aug -

Oct-

Sept.

Nov.

Dec.

Dec-

January

April-

Jan.

March.

June.

Literature review.
Learning

of the

CATIA and ANSYS

technical software.
Design of the distributor plate
Start of progress report and presentation.
Fabrication of the distributor plate.
Start of experimentation and data analysis.
CFD simulation of the experiment conducted and comparison
Thesis writing and final Submission

CHAPTER 4

Table 2: Time activity schedule

Methodology:
The following methodology is chosen to fulfill the objectives:1. Experiments will be conducted on a PCFB laboratory scale setup of 54 mm internal riser
diameter and 2000 mm height which is installed at the Energy Efficiency Laboratory, Center
for Energy, IITG.
2. The experiments will be conducted by using two types of air distribution grid: (a) straight
hole distributor plate and (b) newly designed distributor plate.
3. The experiments will be performed at different superficial velocity, different heat fluxes and
different operating pressures.
4. The bed inventory will be ranging from 1.0 kg to 2.0 kg.
5. Sand particles of average size 300m will be used as bed material.
6. The bed hydrodynamics and heat transfer characteristics will be investigated by using both
types of distributor plates at the bottom of the riser and finally the obtained results will be
compared.
25

7. The working formulas that will be used are:

10 hL
1
L s
a) Bed voidage ,

b) Suspension Density, sus=(1 ) +

s

ma
c) Superficial Velocity, U = g X A b
d) Solid circulation rate, G s=

s X La X A d X (1 mf )
Ab t

e) Wall to bed heat transfer coefficient,

h=

VI
A htp(T bs T bi )

Where,
ma = mass flow rate of the air through the orifice in kg/s,

= bed voidage.

L= difference between two consecutive pressure taps across which pressure drops.
s= density of sand in kg/m3 , hL= difference of height in manometric fluid measured in
cm of water column, g= density of air in kg/m3, Ab= cross-sectional area of the bed in m2.
La= solid accumulation height in m, Ad= cross-sectional area of the downcomer in m2.
mf

= voidage at minimum fluidization, t= the time to accumulate particular height after

closing ball valve in s, V, I, Ahtp, Tbs and Tbi are the voltage supply, current supply, heat
transfer probe surface area, bulk surface temperatures and bed temperatures, respectively.
8. CFD simulation of the riser will be performed in a commercial CFD simulation software
named Ansys FLUENT and the results will be compared with the experimental results. All
CFD codes contain three main elements. a) Pre-processing b) Solver and c) Post-processing.
a). In Pre-processing, it consists of input of a flow problem by means of an operator friend
interface and subsequent transformation of this input into a suitable form which can be used
by the solver. This step is performed by software tools such a GAMBIT, TGRID and DM.
The pre-processing stage involves the following steps (Bakker, 2002).
Defining the geometry of the region for computational domain.
Generating the grids for subdivision of the domain into a number of smaller, nonoverlapping subdomains.

26

Specifying the appropriate boundary and continuum conditions at each cells, which
coincide with or touch the boundary.

b). The CFD solver does the flow calculations and produces the desired results. FLUENT
uses the finite-volume method to solve the governing equations for a fluid. It provides the
capability to use different physical models such as incompressible or compressible, inviscid
or viscous, lminar or turbulent,etc. Governing equations are non-linear and coupled, several
iterations of the loop are performed by solver before a converged solution is obtained
(Bakker, 2002). The main functions of the solver are:

Approximation of unknown flow variables by means of simple functions.

Discretization by substitution of the approximation into governing flow equations and

subsequent mathematical manipulations.

Solving the algebraic equations.

c) Post-processing is the final step in CFD analysis, and it involves the results and
interpretation of the predicted flow data.

CHAPTER 5
Work Done So Far:
5.1. Preliminary experiment on the PCFB setup and observations:
A trial experiment has been performed on the PCFB setup which is installed in the Energy Efficiency
Laboratory, Center for Energy, IITG. This experiment was performed to investigate the bed
hydrodynamics with 400gm of sand particles of average diameter 300m as bed inventory. The
figure below shows the schematic diagram of the experimental setup.

27

Fig 5: Schematic diagram of experimental setup [13]

The riser is made of stainless steel of ID 54 mm, height of 2000 mm and thickness of 3 mm. The
PCFB unit contains a mild steel cyclone separator of barrel diameter 80 mm and height 160 mm.
Entrained solids are recovered in a cyclone separator and are then sent to the bottom of the riser
column through a transparent return leg of ID 24.5 m. Air is supplied to the CFB unit through the
bottom of the riser by a high pressure centrifugal blower and a compressor.
The following observations were recorded during the experiment:

Table 3: Observations of the preliminary

The variation of bed voidage and suspension density were observed as follows:

28

Voidage Profile
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2

Dist. from the distributor plate

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

Voidage

Fig 6: Variation of voidage along the height of

the riser

Suspension Density Profile

2
1.5

Dist. from the distributor plate

1
0.5
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Suspension Density

5.2. Design

Fig 7: Variation of suspension density along the height of

the riser

of

the

distributor plate:
The distributor was designed based on design procedure by Kunni and Levenspiel (1991), and Basu
(2006). The figure below shows the different views of the designed distributor grid.

29

Fig 8: Different views of the designed distributor plate

Specifications of the design distributor grid:Material that will be used:- Mild steel.
Diameter of the orifice: - 2mm.
Orifice discharge co-efficient: - 0.923.
No. of holes in the distributor plate: - 193.
Thickness of the distributor plate: - 5mm.

5.3. Results and discussions:

1) The experiment on the PCFB setup was performed at an operating pressure of 1.5 bar and
superficial velocity of 6 m/s. The bed inventory was 400gms and the average particle
diameter was around 300m. The variation of bed voidage and suspension density along the
height of the riser is shown in Fig 6. & Fig 7. It is being observed that bed voidage is found to
be in between 0.8 to 0.9. The bed voidage increases steeply during the first 200mm of the
30

riser height and then it remains almost constant for the rest of the height of the riser. This may
be due to the less amount of bed inventory. The suspension density is also found to be
fluctuating in nature as it increases rapidly and then decreases and again increases and then
keeps on decreasing along the height of the riser.
2) The distributor plate was designed according to the design procedure by Kunni and
Levenspiel (1991), and Basu (2006). The details of the design procedure is more elaborately
explained reference #18. CATIA V5 software was used in designing and post processing the
diagrams showing different views.

CHAPTER 6
Conclusions:
Future work plan and expected outcome:
(1) The next set of experiments will be conducted in the next phase of the project. We will be
increasing the bed inventory and also the operating pressure which would certainly help us to
study the bed hydrodynamics more deeply.
(2) The heat flux to the heat transfer probe will also be varied accordingly.
31

(3) The newly designed distributor plate will be fabricated and it will be installed in the bottom
of the riser.
(4) The experiments will be conducted by using two types of distributor plates and the results
will be compared.
(5) CFD simulation of the above experiment will be done by using a commercial CFD software
known as FLUENT and the results will be compared with the experimental results.

REFERENCES:
1) http://energy.gov/fe/fluidized-bed-technology-overview
2) Kunii, D. and Levenspiel, O. Fluidization Engineering. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2nd edition,
1991. ISBN 0-409-90233-0.
3) Basu. P, Combustion and Gasification in Fluidized Beds, Taylor & Francis Group, CRC
Press, New York, 2006.
4) Gupta. A.V.S.S.K.S, Nag. P.K, Bed-to-wall heat transfer behavior in a pressurized circulating
fluidized bed, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 45 (2002) 34293436.

32

5) Basu. P, Cheng. L, Heat transfer in a pressurized circulating fluidized bed, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 39 (13) (1996) 27112722.
6) Basu .P, Nag. P.K, Heat transfer to walls of a circulating fluidized-bed furnace, Chem. Eng.
Sci. 51 (1) (1996) 126.
7) Winaya Nyoman S., and Basu Prabir, Effect of pressure and carbon dioxide concentration on
heat transfer at high temperature in a pressurized circulating fluidized bed (PCFB)
combustor, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 44, pp.2965-2971, 2001.
8) Reddy B.V., Basu and P., A model for heat transfer in a pressurized circulating fluidized
furnace, International Journal of Heat and Mass, Transfer, 44, pp.2877-2887, 2001.
9) Reddy B.V., and Basu P., Estimation of the Effect of System Pressure and CO2
Concentration on Radiation Heat Transfer in a Pressurized Circulating Fluidized Bed
Combustor, Institution of Chemical Engineers Trans IChemE, Vol 80, Part A, March 2002.
10) Cheng Leming and Basu Prabir, Effect of pressure on loop seal operation for a pressurized
circulating fluidized bed, Powder Technology, 103, pp.203211, 1999.
11) Wiman J. and Almstedt A. E., Hydrodynamics, erosion and heat transfer in a pressurized
fluidized bed: influence of pressure, fluidization velocity, particle size and tube bank
geometry, Chemical Engineering Science, Vol. 52, No. 16, pp. 2677-2695, 1997.
12) Cao Jiantao, Cheng Zhonghu, Fang Yitian, Jing Huimin, Huang Jiejie, and Wang Yang,
Simulation and experimental studies on fluidization properties in a pressurized jetting
fluidized bed, Powder Technology, 183, 127132, 2008.
13) Kalita P., Saha U. K., and Mahanta P, Parametric study on the hydrodynamics and heat
transfer along the riser of a pressurized circulating fluidized bed unit, Experimental Thermal
and Fluid Science, 2012. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2012.09.001.
14) Kalita P., Saha U. K., and Mahanta P., Some studies on wall-to-bed heat transfer in a
pressurized circulating fluidized bed unit, 2013. 5th BSME International Conference on
Thermal Engineering.
15) Zhu et al.,.The effects of distributor design on the solids distribution in a CFB riser, The 13th
International Conference on Fluidization - New Paradigm in Fluidization Engineering, Art.
53 [2010].
16) Wormsbecker et al.: Influence of Distributor Design on Dryer Hydrodynamics, the 12th
International Conference on Fluidization - New Horizons in Fluidization Engineering, Art.
100 [2007], http://dc.engconfintl.org/fluidization_xii/100.
17) Ghaly and Macdonald, Mixing patterns and residence time determination in a bubbling
fluidized bed System. American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 2012, 5 (2),
170-183 ISSN: 1941-7020 2012 Science Publication doi:10.3844/ajeassp.2012.170.183
18) Kalita P., Investigation of hydrodynamics and heat transfer characteristics with biomass
blends in a PCFB, PhD. Thesis, IIT Guwahati, 2013.

33

34