Skeletal Tissues

The Skeletal System
Tuesday, 23 October 12
The Skeletal System

Functions of the Skeletal System
Support against gravity

Leverage for muscle action - movement
Protection of soft internal organs
Blood cell production
Storage - calcium, phosphorous, fat
The Skeletal System

The skeletal system includes:
Cartilages
Bones
Joints
Ligaments
Other connective tissues
Cartilage
Embryo
More prevalent than in
adult
Skeleton initially mostly
cartilage
Bone replaces cartilage
in fetal and childhood
periods
Specialized connective tissue

Rigid, Elastic, Resilient RESISTS COMPRESSION
AVASCULAR
nutrients diffuse through
matrix
Location of cartilage in adults

External ear
Nose
Articular covering
the ends of most bones
and movable joints
Costal connecting
ribs to sternum
Larynx - voice box
Epiglottis flap
keeping food out of
lungs
Cartilaginous rings
holding open the air
tubes of the
respiratory system
(trachea and bronchi)
Intervertebral discs
Pubic symphysis
Articular discs such as
meniscus in knee joint
Cartilage is connective tissue

Cells called
chondrocytes
Abundant extracellular
matrix
Fibers: collagen & elastin
Jellylike ground
substance of complex
sugar molecules
60-80% water
(responsible for the
resilience)
No nerves or vessels
PERICHONDRIUM
Dense irregularly
arranged connective
tissue (type I
collagen)
Ensheaths the
cartilage
Houses the blood
vessels that nourish
chondrocytes
CHONDROBLAST
Progenitor of
chondrocytes
Lines border
between
perichondrium and
matrix
Secretes type II
collagen and other
ECM components
CHONDROCYTE
Mature cartilage
cell
Reside in a space
called the lacuna
Clear areas =
Golgi and lipid
droplets
Chondrocytes
completely fill their
lacunae
RER and
euchromatic nuclei
Synthetically
active, secrete
matrix
N
RER
Cartilage matrix
Provides the rigidity,

elasticity, & resilience
FIBERS
MATRIX
Collagenous and elastic
GROUND SUBSTANCE
Glycosaminoglycans
(chondroitin sulfates,
keratin sulfate, hyaluronic
acid)
Proteoglycans: GAGs +
core protein
Water
Basophilic
Territorial matrix - high [ ]
of sulfated
CARTILAGE GROWTH
Appositional
Growth from outside
Chrondroblasts in perichondrium
(external covering of cartilage) secrete
matrix
Interstitial
Growth from within
Chondrocytes within divide and secrete
new matrix
Cartilage stops growing in late teens
(chrondrocytes stop dividing)
Regenerates poorly in adults
TYPES OF CARTILAGE
HYALINE
ELASTIC
FIBROUS
Types of cartilage: 3
1. Hyaline cartilage: flexible and
resilient
Chondrocytes appear spherical

Lacuna cavity in matrix holding
chondrocyte
Collagen the only fiber
2. Elastic cartilage: highly bendable
Matrix with elastic as well as

collagen fibers
Epiglottis, larynx and outer ear
3. Fibrocartilage: resists
compression and tension
Rows of thick collagen fibers

alternating with rows of
chondrocytes (in matrix)
Knee menisci and annunulus
fibrosis of intervertebral discs
Hyaline Cartilage
Elastic Cartilage
FIBROCARTILAGE
FUNCTION
Support with great
tensile strength
MATRIX
Type I collagen Oriented parallel to
stress plane
LOCATION
Intervertebral disks,
pubic symphysis
Types of
Cartilage
Bone (Osseous Tissue)

Specialized cells - 2% of bone weight
Strong flexible matrix
Calcium phosphate crystals - two-thirds of bone
weight (hydroxyapatite Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2)
Collagen fibers
General Shapes Of Bones

Long bones (e.g., humerus, femur)
Short bones (e.g., carpals, tarsals, patella
Flat bones (e.g., parietal bone, scapula, sternum)
Irregular bones (e.g., vertebrae, hip bones)
Structure of Typical Long Bone

Diaphysis - tubular shaft forming the axis
of long bones.
Composed of compact bone

Central medullary cavity
Contains bone marrow
Epiphysis expanded end of long bones.

Composed mostly of spongy bone
Joint surface is covered with articular
(hyaline) cartilage
Epiphyseal lines separate the diaphysis
from the epiphyses
Metaphysis where epiphysis and

diaphysis meet
Structure of Short, Flat and irregular

Bones
Thin plates of periosteumcovered compact bone on the
outside and endosteumcovered spongy bone within.
Have no diaphysis or
epiphysis because they are
not cylindrical.
Contain bone marrow
between their trabeculae, but
no marrow cavity.
In flat bones, the internal
spongy bone layer is known
as the diplo, and the whole
arrangement resembles a
stiffened sandwich.
Bone Membranes
Periosteum
Provides anchoring points for
tendons and ligaments
Double-layered protective
membrane, supplied with nerve
fibers, blood, and lymphatic
vessels entering the bone via
nutrient foramina.
Inner osteogenic layer is
composed of osteoblasts and
osteoclasts
Endosteum
Delicate CT membrane covering
internal surfaces of bone
Covers trabeculae of spongy
bone
Lines canals in compact bone
Also contains both osteoblasts
and osteoclasts
Gross Anatomy of Bones
External Features of Bones projections, depressions, and

openings that serve as sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon
attachment, as joint surfaces, or conduits for blood vessels and
nerves
Compact Bone dense outer layer

Spongy Bone (cancellous bone) honeycomb of trabeculae
(needle-like or flat pieces) filled with bone marrow
Gross Anatomy - Bone Markings
Superficial surfaces of bones reflect stresses on them
There are three broad categories of bone markings
Projections for muscle attachment
Surfaces that form joints
Depressions and openings
Table 6.1
Histology of Compact Bone

Osteon the structural unit of compact bone
Lamellae column-like matrix tubes composed of
collagen and crystals of bone salts
Central canal - (Haversian canal) canal containing
blood vessels and nerves
Histology of Compact Bone
Lacunae - cavities in bone containing osteocytes
Canaliculi - hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and

the central canal
Perforating canal (Volkmanns) channels lying at right angles to the
central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum
to the central canal
Osteons
Each osteon consists of a single

central canal, known as a haversian
canal, surrounded by concentric
layers of calcified bone matrix.
Haversian canals allow the
passage of blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels, and nerve
fibers.
Each of the concentric matrix
tubes that surrounds a
haversian canal is known as a
lamella.
All the collagen fibers in a
particular lamella run in a single
direction, while collagen fibers in
adjacent lamellae will run in the
opposite direction. This allows
bone to better withstand twisting
forces.
Cells in Bone
Osteoprogenitor cells precursors to osteoblasts
Osteocytes - mature bone cells between lamellae
Osteoclasts - bone-destroying cells, break down
bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium
Source of acid, enzymes for osteolysis
Calcium homeostasis
Osteoblasts - bone-forming cells

Responsible for osteogenesis (new bone)
Source of collagen, calcium salts
1. Osteoblasts
Bone-building cells.
Synthesize and
secrete collagen
fibers and other
organic
components of
bone matrix.
Initiate the process
of calcification.
Found in both the
periosteum and the
endosteum
2. Osteocytes
Mature bone
cells.
Osteoblasts that
have become
trapped by the
secretion of
matrix.
No longer secrete
matrix.
Responsible for
maintaining the
bone tissue.
Yellow arrows indicate

osteocytes notice
how they are
surrounded by the
pinkish bone matrix.
Blue arrow shows an
osteoblast in the
process of becoming an
osteocyte.
3.
Osteoclasts
Huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50

monocytes (a type of white blood cell).
Cells that digest bone matrix this process is called bone
resorption and is part of normal bone growth, development,
maintenance, and repair.
Concentrated in the endosteum.
On the side of the cell that faces the bone surface, the PM is
deeply folded into a ruffled border.
The Structure of Spongy Bone

No osteons
Lamellae as trabeculae
Arches, rods, plates of
bone
Branching network of
bony tissue
Strong in many
directions
Red marrow (blood
forming) spaces
Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones

Plates of periosteumcovered compact bone
on the outside with
endosteum-covered
spongy bone, diplo,
on the inside
Have no diaphysis or
epiphyses
Contain bone marrow
between the trabeculae
Bone Development
Osteogenesis or Ossification the
process of bone tissue formation that
leads to:
The formation of the skeleton in embryos
Bone growth until early adulthood
Bone thickness, remodeling, and repair
Formation of the Skeleton

Before week 8, the skeleton of a
human embryo consists of
fibrous membanes and hyaline
cartilage
Intramembranous ossification
bone develops from a fibrous
connective tissue membrane.
The flat bones of the skull
(frontal, parietal, temporal,
occipital) and the clavicles are
formed this way.
Endochondral ossification bone
forms by replacing hyaline
cartilage, uses hyaline cartilage
bones as patterns
Bone Formation in 16-Week-Old Fetus
Bone Formation and Growth

Intramembranous Ossification
OssificationProcess of converting other
tissues to bone
Forms flat bones of skull, mandible,
clavicle
Stem cells differentiate to osteoblasts
Produces spongy bone, then compact
bone
Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
An ossification center
appears in the fibrous
connective tissue
membrane
Osteoblasts secrete
bone matrix within the
fibrous membrane
Osteoblasts mature
into osteocytes
The bone matrix develops
into trabeculae.
The trabeculae formed from
various ossification centers
fuse with one another to
create spongy bone.
Eventually the spaces
between trabeculae fill with
red bone marrow.
Bone Formation and Growth

Endochondral Ossification
Most bones formed this way

Cartilage model replaced by bone
Replacement begins in middle (diaphysis)
Replacement follows in ends (epiphyses)
Endochondral Ossification
Chondrocytes at
the center of the
growing cartilage
model enlarge and
then die as the
matrix calicifies.
Newly derived
osteoblasts cover
the shaft of the
cartilage in a thin
layer of bone.
Blood vessels
penetrate the
cartilage. New
osteoblasts form a
primary ossification
center.
The bone of the

shaft thickens, and
the cartilage near
each epiphysis is
replaced by shafts
of bone.
Blood vessels invade the

epiphyses and osteoblasts form secondary
centers of ossification.
Articular
cartilage
Enlarging
chondrocytes within
calcifying matrix
Epiphysis
Diaphysis
Epiphyseal
cartilage
Marrow
cavity
Primary
ossification
center
Bone
formation
Marrow
cavity
Blood
vessel
Secondary
ossification
center
Blood
vessel
Cartilage
model
Figure 6-5
1 of 6
Longitudinal Bone Growth

Longitudinal Growth (interstitial) cartilage continually grows
and is replaced by bone
Bones lengthen entirely by growth of the epiphyseal plates
Cartilage is replaced with bone CT as quickly as it grows
Epiphyseal plate maintains constant thickness
Epiphyseal Plate
Cartilage is organized for
quick, efficient growth
Cartilage cells form tall stacks
Chondroblasts at the top of
stacks divide quickly
Pushes the epiphysis away
from the diaphysis
Lengthens entire long bone
Older chondrocytes signal

surrounding matrix to calcify,
then die and disintegrate
Leaves long trabeculae
(spicules) of calcified
cartilage on diaphysis side
Trabeculae are partly eroded
by osteoclasts
Osteoblasts then cover
trabeculae with bone tissue
Trabeculae finally eaten away
from their tips by osteoclasts
At puberty, growth in bone length

is increased dramatically by the
combined activities of growth
hormone, thyroid hormone, and
the sex hormones.
As a result osteoblasts begin
producing bone faster than the
rate of epiphyseal cartilage
expansion. Thus the bone grows
while the epiphyseal plate gets
narrower and narrower and
ultimately disappears. A remnant
(epiphyseal line) is visible on Xrays (do you see them in the
adjacent femur, tibia, and fibula?)
Appositional Bone Growth
Growing bones widen as they lengthen
Appositional growth growth of a bone by addition of bone tissue to its

surface
Bone is resorbed at endosteal surface and added at periosteal surface
Osteoblasts add bone tissue to the external surface of the diaphysis

Osteoclasts remove bone from the internal surface of the diaphysis
Figure 6-6
Bones get thicker by

appositional growth
Osteoblasts form
new extracellular
matrix
Blood vessel
becomes enclosed,
supports new osteon
Osteoblasts lay
down extracellular
matrix
CLEIDOCRANIAL DYSPLASIA
Bone - Remodeling/Homeostasis
Role of Remodeling in Support
RemodelingContinuous breakdown and
reforming of bone tissue
Shapes reflect applied loads
Mineral turnover enables adapting to new
stresses
What you dont use, you lose. The stresses

applied to bones during exercise are
essential to maintaining bone strength and
bone mass
Bone Remodeling
Bone is active tissue small changes in bone architecture
occur continuously 5 to 7% of bone mass is recycled weekly
spongy bone is replaced every 3-4 years and compact bone
approximately every 10 years
Remodeling Units adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts
deposit and reabsorb bone at periosteal and endosteal
surfaces
Bone Remodeling
Bone Depostition
Occurs when bone is injured or extra strength is needed
Requires a healthy diet - protein, vitamins C, D, and A, and
minerals (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, etc.)
Bone Resorption
Accomplished by Osteoclasts (multinucleate phagocytic cells)
Resorption involves osteoclast secretion of:
Lysosomal enzymes that digest organic matrix
HCl that converts calcium salts into soluble forms
Dissolved matrix is endocytosed and transcytosed into the
interstitial fluid the blood
Bone - Remodeling/Homeostasis
Homeostasis and Mineral Storage
Bones store calcium
Contain 99% of body calcium
Store up to two kg calcium
Hormones control storage/release
PTH, calcitriol release bone calcium
Calcitonin stores bone calcium
Blood levels kept constant
Process of fracture repair
Bone grows slowly; blood supply may be

affected
Fractures
Despite its mineral strength, bone

may crack or even break if
subjected to extreme loads,
sudden impacts, or stresses from
unusual directions.
The damage produced
constitutes a fracture.
The proper healing of a fracture
depends on whether or not, the
blood supply and cellular
components of the periosteum
and endosteum survive.
Fracture
Repair
Step 1:
A. Immediately
after the
fracture,
extensive
bleeding
occurs. Over a
period of
several hours,
a large blood
clot, or fracture
hematoma,
develops.
B. Bone cells at
the site become
deprived of
nutrients and
die. The site
becomes
swollen,
Step 2:
A. Granulation tissue is formed as the hematoma is
infiltrated by capillaries and macrophages, which
begin to clean up the debris.
B. Some fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that span
the break , while others differentiate into
chondroblasts and begin secreting cartilage
matrix.
C. Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone.
D. This entire structure is known as a
fibrocartilaginous callus and it splints the broken
bone.
Fracture
Repair
Step 3:
A. Bone trabeculae
increase in
number and
convert the
fibrocartilaginous
callus into a bony
callus of spongy
bone. Typically
takes about 6-8
weeks for this to
occur.
Step 4:
A. During the next several months, the bony callus is continually
remodeled.
B. Osteoclasts work to remove the temporary supportive structures
while osteoblasts rebuild the compact bone and reconstruct the
bone so it returns to its original shape/structure.
Fracture Types
Fractures are often classified according to the
position of the bone ends after the break:
Open (compound) bone ends penetrate the
skin.
Closed (simple) bone ends dont penetrate the
skin.
Comminuted bone fragments into 3 or more
pieces.
Common in the
elderly (brittle bones).
Greenstick
bone breaks incompletely. One
side bent,
one side broken.
Common in children
whose bone contains more collagen and
are
less mineralized.
Osteoporosis
This bone:
a. Has been demineralized
b. Has had its organic component removed
Joints
Rigid elements of the skeleton meet at joints
or articulations
Greek root arthro means joint
Functions of joints
Hold bones together
Allow for mobility
Articulations can be
Bone to bone
Bone to cartilage
Teeth in bony sockets
Classification of Joints
Joints can be classified by function or
structure
Functional
Synarthroses immovable joints
Amphiarthroses slightly moveable joints
Diarthroses freely moveable joints
Structural
Fibrous joints - generally immovable
Cartilaginous joints - immovable or slightly
moveable
Synovial joints - freely moveable
Functional Classification
Functional classification based on amount of
movement
Synarthroses immovable joints
Suture very short CT fibers, e.g. between cranial bones
Gomphosis teeth in sockets
Synchondrosis hyaline cartilage unites bones, e.g.
epiphyseal plate, costal cartilage of 1st rib and manubrium
Amphiarthroses slightly moveable joints

Syndesmosis bones connected by ligaments, e.g. between
tibia and fibula
Symphysis - bones are covered by hyaline cartilage fused
with fibrocartilage, e.g. between vertebrae, pubic bones of
the hip
Diarthroses - freely moveable; knee, elbow, etc
Classifications of Joints
Structural classification based on
Material that binds bones together
Presence or absence of a joint cavity
Structural classifications include
Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial
Fibrous Joints
Bones are connected by fibrous
connective tissue
Primarily dense regular CT
Do not have a joint cavity
Most are immovable or slightly movable
Types
Sutures
Fibrous Joints - Sutures

Bones are tightly bound by a minimal amount of fibrous tissue
Only occur between the bones of the skull
Allow bone growth so the skull can expand with brain during
childhood
Fibrous tissue ossifies in middle age
Synostoses closed sutures
Fibrous Joints - Syndesmoses

Bones are connected exclusively by ligaments
Amount of movement depends on length of fibers
Tibiofibular joint immovable synarthrosis
Interosseous membrane between radius and ulna
Freely movable diarthrosis
Fibrous Joints - Gomphoses

Tooth in a
socket
Connecting
ligament the
periodontal
ligament
Figure 9.1c
Cartilaginous Joints
Bones are united by cartilage

Lack a joint cavity
Two types
Synchondroses - hyaline cartilage unites bones

Epiphyseal plates
Rib and sternum
Symphyses
Symphyses
Fibrocartilage unites bones resists tension and
compression
Hyaline cartilage also present as articular cartilage
Slightly movable joints that provide strength with flexibility
Intervertebral discs
Pubic symphysis
Synovial Joints
Most movable type of joint
All are diarthroses
Each contains a fluid-filled joint cavity
General Structure of Synovial Joints

Articular cartilage
Ends of opposing bones are
covered with hyaline cartilage
Absorbs compression
Joint cavity (synovial cavity)

Unique to synovial joints
Cavity is a potential space that
holds a small amount of
synovial fluid

Articular capsule joint
cavity is enclosed in a twolayered capsule
Fibrous capsule dense
irregular connective tissue,
which strengthens joint
Synovial membrane loose
connective tissue
Lines joint capsule and
covers internal joint surfaces
Functions to make synovial
fluid

Synovial fluid
A viscous fluid similar to
raw egg white
A filtrate of blood
Arises from capillaries in
synovial membrane
Contains glycoprotein
molecules secreted by
fibroblasts

Reinforcing ligaments
Often are thickened parts
of the fibrous capsule
Sometimes are
extracapsular ligaments
located outside the
capsule
Sometimes are
intracapsular ligaments
located internal to the
capsule
Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint

Tendon sheath - elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
Bursae flattened fibrous sacs
Lined with synovial membranes
Filled with synovial fluid
Not actually part of the joint
Menisci
Fat pads
Structural Classification of Synovial Joints
Gliding (plane joint, e.g., vertebravertebra)

Hinge (e.g., knee)
Pivot (e.g., atlasaxis)
Ellipsoidal (condyloid plant, e.g., distal
radius)
Saddle (e.g., thumb)
Ball-and-Socket (e.g., hip)
Types of Synovial Joints Based on Shape
(Gliding)
Figure 5.29ac
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide
Types of Synovial Joints Based on Shape
(Ellipsoidal)
Figure 5.29df
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide
Summary of Joint Classes

Skeletal Tissues

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Skeletal Tissues

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The Skeletal System

The Skeletal System

Support against gravity

The Skeletal System

Specialized connective tissue

Location of cartilage in adults

Cartilage is connective tissue

Provides the rigidity,

Collagenous and elastic

Chondrocytes appear spherical

2. Elastic cartilage: highly bendable

Matrix with elastic as well as

Rows of thick collagen fibers

Bone (Osseous Tissue)

General Shapes Of Bones

Structure of Typical Long Bone

Composed of compact bone

Epiphysis expanded end of long bones.

Metaphysis where epiphysis and

Structure of Short, Flat and irregular

Gross Anatomy of Bones

External Features of Bones projections, depressions, and

Compact Bone dense outer layer

Gross Anatomy - Bone Markings

Superficial surfaces of bones reflect stresses on them

There are three broad categories of bone markings

Projections for muscle attachment

Surfaces that form joints

Depressions and openings

Histology of Compact Bone

Histology of Compact Bone

Lacunae - cavities in bone containing osteocytes

Canaliculi - hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and

Each osteon consists of a single

Osteoblasts - bone-forming cells

Yellow arrows indicate

Huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50

The Structure of Spongy Bone

Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones

Formation of the Skeleton

Bone Formation and Growth

Copyright 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Bone Formation and Growth

Most bones formed this way

The bone of the

Blood vessels invade the

Longitudinal Bone Growth

Older chondrocytes signal

At puberty, growth in bone length

Appositional Bone Growth

Growing bones widen as they lengthen

Appositional growth growth of a bone by addition of bone tissue to its

Osteoblasts add bone tissue to the external surface of the diaphysis

Bones get thicker by

What you dont use, you lose. The stresses

Process of fracture repair

Bone grows slowly; blood supply may be

Despite its mineral strength, bone

Amphiarthroses slightly moveable joints

Fibrous Joints - Sutures

Fibrous Joints - Syndesmoses

Fibrous Joints - Gomphoses

Bones are united by cartilage

Synchondroses - hyaline cartilage unites bones