Composite Materials

Introduction:
The word composite means consisting of two or more distinct parts. Thus a material having two or
more distinct constituent materials or phases may be considered as composite materials.
When the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and the composite
properties are noticeably different physical properties then they are said to be composites. Generally
metals consists of unwanted impurities or alloying elements, but they must not be called as
composites because the constituent phases will have nearly identical properties, the phases are not
generally fibrous in character, and one of the phases is usually present in small fractions.
Thus classification of certain materials as composites is often based on cases where
significant property changes occur as a result of combination of constituents, and these property
changes will be generally be most obvious when one of the phase is in platelet or fibrous form, when
the volume fraction is greater than 10%, and when the property of one constituent is much greater (>5
times) than the other.
So composites can be considered as materials consisting of two or more chemically distinct
constituents, on a macro scale, having a distinct interface separating them whose mechanical
properties are superior to those of individual components acting independently.

Constituents:
One phase is discontinuous, stiffer and stronger is called reinforcement. Other phase is continuous,
less stiff and weaker is called matrix. Sometimes, a third phase exists between reinforcement and the
matrix because of chemical interactions or other processing effects is called interphase which plays an
important role in controlling failure mechanisms, fracture toughness. The reinforcing phase, is in the
form of fibers, flakes, or particles, and is embedded in the other phase called the matrix. For example:
polymer/ceramic composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component, but aren't as brittle
as ceramics. The phases retain their physical identities on a macroscopic scale, which do not dissolve
in to one another completely, but they are perfectly bonded at the interfaces so that they complement
each other in the action. These facts indicate that the composite material is physically nonhomogenous at macroscopic level. On the other hand the phase of single metallic alloys combine at
microscopic level, looses their physical identities and they have mechanical properties, more or less of
same order.

Classification of Composites:
Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:
The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The
major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix
Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix
composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix
Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon
composites.
The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced
composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites
(FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.
Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a
composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties
vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further
increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the
composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and
when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These
fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.
Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich
structures fall under this category.
Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body.
The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are
examples of this category.

Only Polymer Matrix Composites are considered in the present topic

Classification Based On Matrices:

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable
mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in
aeronautical applications.
Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such
as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of
melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the
conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a
partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible.
Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites.
Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a
premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting
material as in epoxy, polymer and Phenolic polyamide resins.

Thermoplastic materials

Thermoset materials

Matrix Selection:
Thermodynamically stable dispersions are essential for the use of metal matrix composites for high
temperature applications. This can be done by using an alloy dispersed system in which solid state
diffusivity, interfacial energies and elemental solubility are minimized, in turn reducing coarsening
and interfacial reactions. Aluminium and magnesium alloys are regarded as widely used matrices due
to low density and high thermal conductivity. Composites with low matrix alloying additions result in
attractive combinations of ductility, toughness and strength. In discontinuous reinforced metal matrix
composites minor alloying elements, used in wrought alloys as grain refiners, are not required. These
additions should be avoided since coarse inter-metallic compounds get formed during consolidation,
thus, reducing the tensile ductility of the composite.

Role of matrix materials:

The choice of a matrix alloy of particular importance is whether the composite is to be continuously
or discontinuously reinforced. The use of continuous fibers as reinforcements may result in transfer of
most of the load to the reinforcing filaments and hence composite strength will be governed primarily
by the fiber strength. The primary roles of the matrix alloy then are to provide efficient transfer of
load to the fibers and to blunt cracks in the event that fiber failure occurs and so the matrix alloy for
continuously reinforced composites may be chosen more for toughness than for strength. On this
basis, lower strength, more ductile, and tougher matrix alloys may be utilized in continuously
reinforced composites. For discontinuously reinforced composites, the matrix may govern composite
strength. Then, the choice of matrix will be influenced by consideration of the required composite
strength and higher strength matrix alloys may be required.
Additional considerations in the choice of the matrix include potential reinforcement/matrix
reactions, either during processing or in service, which might result in degraded composite
performance; thermal stresses due to thermal expansion mismatch between the reinforcements and the
matrix; and the influence of matrix fatigue behavior on the cyclic response of the composite. Indeed,
the behavior of composites under cyclic loading conditions is an area requiring special consideration.
In composites intended for use at elevated temperatures, an additional consideration is the difference
in melting temperatures between the matrix and the reinforcements. A large melting temperature

difference may result in matrix creep while the reinforcements remain elastic, even at temperatures
approaching the matrix melting point. However, creep in both the matrix and reinforcement must be
considered when there is a small melting point difference in the composite.

Functions of a Matrix:
In a composite material, the matrix material serves the following functions:
Holds the fibres together.
Protects the fibres from environment.
Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected to the same amount
of strain.
Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.
Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.
Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing alternate failure
path along the interface between the fibres and the matrix.
Carry inter-laminar shear.

Desired Properties of a Matrix:

The needs or desired properties of the matrix which are important for a composite structure are as
follows:
Reduced moisture absorption.
Low shrinkage.
Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fibre bundles completely and eliminates
voids during the compacting/curing process.
Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongation should be greater than fibre).
Must be elastic to transfer load to fibres.
Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application).
Low temperature capability (depending on application).
Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).
Should be easily processable into the final composite shape.
Dimensional stability (maintains its shape).

Factors considered for Selection of Matrix:

In selecting matrix material, following factors may be taken into consideration:
The matrix must have a mechanical strength commensurate with that of the reinforcement i.e.
both should be compatible. Thus, if a high strength fibre is used as the reinforcement, there is
no point using a low strength matrix, which will not transmit stresses efficiently to the
reinforcement.
The matrix must stand up to the service conditions, viz., temperature, humidity, exposure to
ultra-violet environment, exposure to chemical atmosphere, abrasion by dust particles, etc.
The matrix must be easy to use in the selected fabrication process.
Smoke requirements.
Life expectancy.
The resultant composite should be cost effective

Classification Based on Reinforcements:

Reinforcements

Common Categories of Composite Materials based on fibre length:

Based on the form of reinforcement, common composite materials can be classified as follows:
1. Fibers as the reinforcement (Fibrous Composites):
a. Random fiber (short fiber) reinforced composites

Short-Fiber Reinforced Composites

b. Continuous fiber (long fiber) reinforced composites

Long-Fiber Reinforced Composites

2. Particles as the reinforcement (Particulate composites):

Particulate-composites

3. Flat flakes as the reinforcement (Flake composites):

Flake composites

4. Fillers as the reinforcement (Filler composites):

Filler-composites

Role and Selection of fibers:

The points to be noted in selecting the reinforcements include compatibility with matrix material,
thermal stability, density, melting temperature etc. The efficiency of discontinuously reinforced
composites is dependent on tensile strength and density of reinforcing phases. The compatibility,
density, chemical and thermal stability of the reinforcement with matrix material is important for
material fabrication as well as end application. The thermal discord strain between the matrix and
reinforcement is an important parameter for composites used in thermal cycling application. It is a
function of difference between the coefficients of thermal expansion of the matrix and
reinforcement. The manufacturing process selected and the reinforcement affects the crystal structure.

Also the role of the reinforcement depends upon its type in structural Composites. In
particulate and whisker reinforced Composites, the matrix are the major load bearing constituent. The
role of the reinforcement is to strengthen and stiffen the composite through prevention of matrix
deformation by mechanical restraint. This restraint is generally a function of the ratio of interparticle spacing to particle diameter. In continuous fiber reinforced Composites, the reinforcement is
the principal load-bearing constituent. The metallic matrix serves to hold the reinforcing fibers
together and transfer as well as distribute the load. Discontinuous fiber reinforced Composites display
characteristics between those of continuous fiber and particulate reinforced composites. Typically, the
addition of reinforcement increases the strength, stiffness and temperature capability while reducing
the thermal expansion coefficient of the resulting MMC. When combined with a metallic matrix of
higher density, the reinforcement also serves to reduce the density of the composite, thus enhancing
properties such as specific strength.

Classification of Manufacturing Processes:

Most widely used manufacturing methods for laminated fibre composites are as follows:
Open Mold Process:
Spray lay-up - Chopped roving and resin sprayed simultaneously, rolled.
Hand lay-up - Lay-up of fibres or woven cloth, impregnate, no heat or pressure.
Filament winding.
Sheet molding compound.
Expansion tool molding.
Contact molding.
Closed Mold Process:
Compression molding Load with raw material, press into shape.
Vacuum bag, pressure bag, autoclave - Prepreg laid up, bagged, cured.
Injection molding Mold injected under pressure.
Resin Transfer Fibres in place, resin injected at low temperature.
In these processes, only some processes are discussed here.

Wet Lay-up/Hand Lay-up process:

Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing. The infrastructural
requirement for this method is also minimal. The processing steps are quite simple. First of all, a
release gel is sprayed on the mould surface to avoid the sticking of polymer to the surface. Thin
plastic sheets are used at the top and bottom of the mould plate to get good surface finish of the
product. Reinforcement in the form of woven mats or chopped strand mats are cut as per the mould
size and placed at the surface of mould after perspex sheet. Then thermosetting polymer in liquid form
is mixed thoroughly in suitable proportion with a prescribed hardener (curing agent) and poured onto
the surface of mat already placed in the mould. The polymer is uniformly spread with the help of
brush. Second layer of mat is then placed on the polymer surface and a roller is moved with a mild
pressure on the mat-polymer layer to remove any air trapped as well as the excess polymer present.
The process is repeated for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required layers are stacked. After
placing the plastic sheet, release gel is sprayed on the inner surface of the top mould plate which is
then kept on the stacked layers and the pressure is applied. After curing either at room temperature or
at some specific temperature, mould is opened and the developed composite part is taken out and
further processed. The schematic of hand lay-up is shown in figure 1. The time of curing depends on
type of polymer used for composite processing. For example, for epoxy based system, normal curing

time at room temperature is 24-48 hours. This method is mainly suitable for thermosetting polymer
based composites. Capital and infrastructural requirement is less as compared to other methods.
Production rate is less and high volume fraction of reinforcement is difficult to achieve in the
processed composites. Hand lay-up method finds application in many areas like aircraft components,
automotive parts, boat hulls, dais board, deck etc.

Hand lay-up

Advantages of Hand Lay-up process:

Design flexibility.
Large and complex items can be produced.
Tooling cost is low.
Design changes are easily effected.
Sandwich constructions are possible.
Semi-skilled workers are needed.
Higher fibre content and longer fibres than with spray lay-up.

Disadvantages of Hand Lay-up process:

Only one molded surface is obtained.

Quality is related to the skill of the operator.
Low volume process.
Longer cure times required.
Resins need to be low in viscosity to be workable by hand. This generally compromises their
mechanical/thermal properties.
The waste factor can be high.

Spray lay-up process:

The spray lay-up technique can be said to be an extension of the hand lay-up method. In this
technique, a spray gun is used to spray pressurized resin and reinforcement which is in the form of
chopped fibers. Generally, glass roving is used as a reinforcement which passes through spray gun
where it is chopped with a chopper gun. Matrix material and reinforcement may be sprayed
simultaneously or separately one after one. Spray release gel is applied on to the mold surface to

facilitate the easy removal of component from the mold. A roller is rolled over the sprayed material to
remove air trapped into the lay-ups. After spraying fiber and resin to required thickness, curing of the
product is done either at room temperature or at elevated temperature. After curing, mold is opened
and the developed composite part is taken out and further processed further. The time of curing
depends on type of polymer used for composite processing. The schematic of the spray lay-up process
is shown in figure. Spray lay-up method is used for lower load carrying parts like small boats, bath
tubs, fairing of trucks etc. This method provides high volume fraction of reinforcement in composites
and virtually, there is no part size limitation in this technique.

Spray lay-up

Advantages of Spray Lay-up process:

Widely used for many years.

Low cost way of quickly depositing fibre and resin.
Low cost tooling.

Disadvantages of Spray Lay-up process:

Laminates tend to be very resin-rich and, therefore, excessively heavy.

Only short fibres are incorporated, which severely limits the mechanical properties of the
laminate.
Resins need to be low in viscosity to be sprayable. This generally compromises their
mechanical/thermal properties.
The high styrene content of spray lay-up resins generally means that they have the potential to
be more harmful and their lower viscosity means that they have an increased tendency to
penetrate clothing etc.

Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) Process:

This is a low-pressure, closed mould semi-mechanized process. The fibre reinforcement, which may
be pre-shaped, is placed in the required arrangement in the cavity of a closed mould and a liquid resin
of low viscosity is injected under pressure into the cavity, which is subsequently cured. The main
potential advantages of RTM can be summarized as the capability of rapid manufacture of large,
complex, high-performance structures with good surface finish on both sides. It also permits the use
of foam and other removable cores to yield three-dimensional parts and hollow components as well.

Resin transfer molding is a closed mold low pressure process that allows the fabrication of composites
ranging in complexity from simple, low performance to complex, high performance parts and in size
from small to large (Figure). The process is differentiated from other molding processes in that the dry
reinforcement and the resin are combined within the mold to form the composite component. The
fibre reinforcement, which may be pre-shaped, is placed into a tool cavity, which is then closed. A
tube connects the closed tool cavity with a supply of liquid resin, which is pumped or transferred into
the tool to impregnate the reinforcement for subsequent curing. Injection pressure is normally less
than 690 kPa (100 psi). The displaced air is allowed to escape through vents to avoid dry spots. Cure
cycle is dependent on part thickness, type of resin system and the temperature of the mold and resin
system. The part cures in the mold, normally heated by controllers.

Resin Transfer Molding

Advantages of RTM Process:

Parts can be made with better reproducibility than with wet lay-up.
Reinforcement and combination of reinforcements can be used to meet specific properties.
Production cycles are much faster than with wet lay-up.
Using matched tools for the mold, one can improve the finish of all the surfaces.
Mechanical properties of molded parts are comparable to other composite fabrication
processes.
Large and complex shapes can be made efficiently.
Volatile emissions are low because RTM is a closed mold process.
The skill level of operator is less critical.
Mold surfaces can be gel coated to improve surface performance

Disadvantages of RTM Process:

The mold design is critical and requires good tools or great skill.
Reinforcement movement during resin injection is sometimes a problem.
Control of flow pattern or resin uniformity is difficult. Radii and edges tend to be resin rich.

Advantages of composites:
The application of composite materials in the field of cryogenic technology is consistently gaining
reputation due to following chief advantages:
Good specific strength: - We know that specific strength is the ratio of strength to unit weight. We
know that aluminium is the lightest material, which has high specific strength, so we use it, has
aeroplane body. But the composites now developed have specific strength even less than that it is
about 40 to 60% less than aluminium.
Good insulating properties: -When we are dealing with low temperatures the main preventive measure
we can follow is controlling flow of heat because refrigeration cost is proportional to the effectiveness
of insulation. By using the composite materials as supporting members in refrigerated units, we can
minimize heat transfer such as using as supports for the super conductivity magnets or panels of
refrigerants or walls of tanks etc.
High corrosion resistance: - Comparing to metals these have good corrosion resistance with the
floods and with ambient moisture. The first important thing is selecting the correct combination of
composites and materials to be stored. If they are chemically stable then the corrosion resistance is
very good.
Long durability: - The life of the composite material is highly sufficient for its performance in its
applications. The trend is now changing; the conventional materials are replaced by composites, as
they are reusable, which is particularly in applications of space shuttles.
Cost advantages: - Even it seems costly to manufacture composites material at now. But mass
production may leads to provide some cost advantages such that they are economical than
conventional metals.
High specific modulus:- Specific modulus may be defined as ratio of Youngs Modulus (E) and
density (p).The specific modulus is high for composite material which means the rod cross section of
graphite/epoxy would only be one third of steel of same strength. This reduction in cross sectional
area and mass translates to reduced space requirements, lower energy and material costs.

Limitations of Composites:
Mechanical characterisations: - Mechanical characterization of a composite structure is more complex
than of a metal structure. Unlike metals, composite materials are not isotropic, that is, their properties
are not the same in all directions. So require more material parameters. In the case of a monolithic
material such as steel, one requires only four stiffness and strength constants.
Repairing capability: - Repair of composites is not a simple process as compared to metals.
Sometimes critical flaws and cracks in composite structures may go undetected.
Mechanical performance: - Composites do not have a high combination of strength and fracture
toughness as compared to metals. Metals show an excellent combination of strength and fracture
toughness as compared to composites.
All-round performance: - Composites do not necessarily give higher performance in all the properties
used for material selection. Six primary material selection parameters are strength, toughness, and
formability; join ability, corrosion resistance, and affordability. If the values at the circumference are
considered as the normalized required property level for a particular application, certain areas will
show values provided by ceramics, metals, and metal-ceramic composites. Clearly, composites show
better strength than metals but lower values for other material selection parameters.

Applications of composites:
Composites are one of the most widely used materials because of their adaptability to different
situations and the relative ease of combination with other materials to serve specific purposes and
exhibit desirable properties.
In surface transportation, reinforced plastics are the kind of composites used because of their
huge size. They provide ample scope and receptiveness to design changes, materials and process. The
strength-weight ratio is higher than other materials. Their stiffness and cost effectiveness offered,
apart from easy availability of raw materials, make them the obvious choice for applications in
surface transportation.
In heavy transport vehicles, the composites are used in processing of component parts with
cost-effectiveness. Good reproductively, resilience handled by semi-skilled workers are the basic
requirements of a good composite material. While the costs of achieving advanced composites may
not justify the savings obtained in terms of weight vis--vis vehicle production, carbon fibers
reinforced epoxies have been used in racing cars and recently for the safety of cars.
Commercial aircraft applications are the most important uses of composites. Aircraft, unlike
other vehicles, need to lay greater stress on safety and weight. They are achieved by using materials
with high specific properties. A modern civil aircraft must be so designed as to meet the numerous
criteria of power and safety.
Industrial applications: - Newer technology for processing of materials includes cryogenic processing
which increases the fatigue life of tools and processing parts. As the technology is growing the
requirement of modern processing techniques is needed to meet objective without the factor of cost.
As the materials are subjected to low temperature one must have knowledge of thermal distribution in
the materials when subjected to cryogenic temperature.
Automotive applications: - For increase the performance of the automotive parts which is very much
needed in racing cars without increasing dimensions of parts can be achieved by cryogenic processing
of these parts. Such as one must have knowledge about temperature distributions in the parts.
Medical applications:-Recent trends in material testing apparatus are requiring the low temperatures
for some instruments like magnetic resonance imaging etc. such that the panels and structures
supporting the low temperature chambers are subjected to thermal loads causing thermal stresses our
model assists for the sake of knowledge about that.
Super conductivity: - Super conductivity is the phenomenon of disappearance of resistance at low
temperature which is now on going friend applicable to storage cells, rail transport in modern
countries etc. The supporting members are subjected one side by cryogenic temperatures at which
super conductivity takes place and the other side it is near to ambient temperature which results
thermal stresses.
Space applications: - The solar panels in the satellites are subjected to one side to high temperature
and the other side very low temperature of order 100k which induces a thermal stresses in the panels
to have knowledge about the conductivity and temperature distribution we should have the knowledge
of transport phenomena.

Various composite components used on Airbus series of aircraft are given in the Following Table.
Aircraft Type
Airbus A300B2/B4

Airbus A310-300

Airbus A320/A319 & A321

Airbus A330

Airbus 340

Components Made of Composite Materials

Radome, fin leading edge and tip, fin trailing edge
panels, cabin and cargo hold furnishings. Fairing pylon, wing/ fuselage rear.
Rudder, elevator, vertical stabilizer, spoilers, cowl
(inlet & fan), thrust reverser, main & nose landing
gear door of wing leading & trailing edge panels,
nacelles. Fairings -Ion, flap track, win fuselage.
Aileron, horizontal and vertical stabilizer, elevator,
rudder, spoilers, flaps, engine cowl, radome,
landing gear doors (main & nose), floor panels,
wing panels (leading & trailing edge), other access
panels, nacelles.
Fairings -flap track, wing/fuselage (forward &
rear), and main landing gear leg.
Ailerons, rudder, flaps, spoilers, elevator, horizontal
and vertical stabilizer, wing panels (leading &
trailing edge), landing gear doors (main & nose),
nacelles.
Fairings -flap track, wing/fuselage (forward & rear).
Ailerons, rudder, flaps, spoilers, elevator, horizontal
and vertical stabilizer, wing panels (leading &
trailing edge), landing gear doors (main & nose),
nacelles.
Fairings -flap track, wing/fuselage (forward & rear).

Conclusion:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process
resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness,
durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers
the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

References:
1. Bhagawan D. Agarwal, Lawrence J. Broutman. Analysis and performance of fiber
composites. A Wiley-interscience publication, Second Edition.
2. NPTEL Lecture notes on Composite materials. IISC Bangalore.
3. Bhagwan D Agarwal, Lawrence J Broutman. Analysis & performance of fiber composites,
John4Nilly & Sons, 1980.
4. Krishan K. Chawla, Composite Materials, Science and Engineering, Springer, 2001.