American Journal of Earth Sciences

2014; 1(1): 25-32

Published online April 20, 2014(http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/ajes)

An integrated analysis of Landsat OLI image and

satellite gravity data for geological mapping in
North Kordofan State, Sudan
Khalid A. Elsayed Zeinelabdein1,*, Mohammed S. Elemam1, Hamdi A. Ali2, Osman M. Alhassan2
1
2

Department of Geology, Faculty of Petroleum and Minerals,Al Neelain University, Khartoum, Sudan
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science and Technology,Omdurman Islamic University, Omdurman, Sudan

Email address
kalsayed2001@yahoo.com(K. A. Elsayed Zeinelabdein)

To cite this article

Khalid A. Elsayed Zeinelabdein, Mohammed S. Elemam, Hamdi A. Ali, Osman M. Alhassan. An Integrated Analysis of Landsat OLI
Image and Satellite Gravity Data for Geological Mapping in North Kordofan State, Sudan, American Journal of Earth Sciences.
Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014, pp. 25-32

Abstract
North Kordofan Region is characterized by poor rock exposure, which makes the traditional field mapping always a
problematic issue. The objective of the present study to test the viability of integrating Landsat 8 OLI image and satellite
gravity data with limited field work for regional geological mapping in poorly exposed areas. Remote sensing has
proven a valuable aid in geological mapping and exploring for mineral deposits. However, this technique has limitations,
especially in vegetated areas or regions characterized by poor rock exposure. The processing of Landsat 8 OLI image
utilizing various remote sensing techniques such as colour composite, PCA, band ratoing and PC spectral sharpening
improved the visual interpretation of the image set. The enhanced image provided persuasive spectral information
helpful for discriminating the various rock units. Bouguer anomaly map produced from the processed satellite gravity
data provided complementary information that assisted in the delineation of the boundary of different rock domains in
addition to the enhancement of the linear features which in most cases represent structural elements such as faults and
shear zones. The integration of the different datasets including the enhanced satellite images and gravity data with the
petrographic investigation of some selected rock samples in the GIS environment facilitated the production of the final
geological map of the study area, which is of accepted credibility and relatively took shorter time frame. Therefore, this
integrated approach should be adopted in mapping similar regions of the same characteristics.

Keywords
Landsat 8 OLI Images, Satellite Gravity, Geological Mapping, North Kordofan, Sudan

1. Introduction
Mineral exploration activities were dramatically
increased in the recent years in Sudan. This entails the
proper geological mapping and delineation of major
structures that control the presence of mineralization. North
Kordofan Region is characterized by poor rock exposure,
which makes the traditional field mapping always a
problematic issue. The tough environments coupled with
the poor exposure of rocks make the conventional
geological field survey very expensive, time consuming

and difficult to conduct. Additionally, the obtained results

to a great extent rely on interpolations. In this case, the
integration of remote sensing and satellite gravity data may
be qualified as an alternative tool for conducting regional
geological mapping with reasonable accuracy and relatively
short time frame. Therefore, the objective of the present
study to test the viability of integrating Landsat 8 OLI
image and satellite gravity data with limited field work for
regional geological mapping in a poorly exposed area.
Remote sensing techniques when used together with
field mapping and professional ground truthing, it makes
the geological mapping effective and efficient in all aspects

26

Khalid A. Elsayed Zeinelabdein et al.: An Integrated Analysis of Landsat OLI Image and Satellite Gravity
Data for Geological Mapping in North Kordofan State, Sudan

of cost [1]. Modern remote sensing systems record image

data in a digital raster format that is suitable for computer
processing using readily available software and personal
computers [2]. Remote sensing advances in recent years
have helped earth science researchers to identify and map
the distribution of target minerals on the Earths surface [3].
This study was carried out in North Kordofan State
within the area bounded by latitudes 1431'30"N 1459'26"N and longitudes 2909'00"E - 2936'28"E(Fig.1).
This region is characterized by arid to semi-arid desert
climate and low laying gently undulating surface with few
scattered moderately elevated hills. The drainage system of
the area is irregular, having a dendritic drainage pattern
which seems to be structurally controlled by shear zone
andits related master and conjugate faults system.

Mesozoic(Carboniferous-Triassic)
alkaline
ring
complexes affected both of the high-grade and low-grade
sequences in the region [10]. The general structural trend of
the low-grade Pan-African sequences is NE-SW parallel to
other Pan-African structures in the main shield east of the
Nile,e.g. [11].
Umm Badir Shear zone (UBSZ) is a late Precambrian
Pan African brittle shear zone which affects all previous
formations. Kinematic indicators suggest dextral strike-slip
movement shearing structure related to the late
Precambrian. Sodari Shear Zone (SSZ) represents
reactivation of latter pan African orogeny, which is sinistral
brittle strike-slip structure trending 33NE and extend for
about 200 km (144-240 Ma), it affects the very low-grade
units of Umm Badir belt [10].

3. Methodology
In order to fulfill the objective of the present study,
different materials and methods have been utilized:
3.1. Data Types
The following materials were made available for the
present study:

Landsat 8 OLI image path 175 and row 50 acquired

on 24-05-2013 obtained from USGS.

Satellite gravity grid data obtained from the

Satellite Geodesy at the Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, University of California San Diego.

Rock samples for petrographic investigations.

3.2. Methods
Fig. 1. A map showing the location of the study area.

2. Geologic Setting
The late Proterozoic crust in the Arabian Nubian Shield
was built by the growth and coalescence of several intraoceanic island arcs and Andean-type magmatic arcs to form
large continental masses [4]. The Precambrian basement of
Sudan can be divided into two major geodynamic systems,
namely
gneisses
with
interfolded
supra-crustal
metasediments and a dominantly low-grade juvenile
ophiolitic island-arc assemblage[5].
Continuation of Late Proterozoic structures with juvenile
basement from the Arabian-Nubian Shield into the foreland
region west of the Nile is well-documented [6].Two distinct
high-grade and low-grade basement sequences are exposed
in the foreland region of the Arabian Nubian Shield west of
the Nile. The high-grade sequence, which is probably
middle to lower Proterozoic in age, is overlain by lowgrade late Proterozoic Pan African sequences of
metasediments, metavolcanics and volcanoclastic rocks and
associated calc-alkaline intrusive rocks [7]. Relatively
intact ophiolite complexes have so far been reported from
the Jabel Rahib area [8]and from the Nuba Mountains[9].

The adopted methods comprised the digital enhancement

of satellite image utilizing different processing techniques
such as colour compositing, band ratioing, image sharpening
and principal component analysis (PCA). The gravity data
was originally provided as Free Air Anomaly (FAA)
delivered together with the elevation data for each point. This
combination of data was used to compute Bouguer Anomaly
(BA) for the study area. Furthermore, different derivatives
were computed from the Bouguer anomaly values. The
Bouguer anomaly and the derived values were interpreted in
terms of variations in lithological units, which were
constrained by the surface exposures where available.
Limited field work was carried out in order to collect
rock samples for petrographic investigations, take structural
measurements and establish the field relationships.
Polarized light microscopic investigations were conducted
for selected rock samples to identify the rock types and
give accurate names for the different lithologies.
The enhanced satellite images, the BA data and its
derivatives together with the results of the petrographic
investigations were all imported into the GIS environment,
wheredata integration and analysis was carried out to
facilitate the production of the final geological map of the
study area.

American Journal of Earth Sciences 2014; 1(1): 25-32

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Digital Image Processing
In order to ease the subsequent digital images
processing,the Landsat 8 OLI bands were stacked and
resized to the following coordinate: long: 291000
293830 E and lat: 143000 - 150000 N.
Image fusion was then executed to sharpen the low spatial
resolution multispectral bands using the high spatial
resolution panchromatic band 8.
4.1.1. Colour Composite

27

For the purpose of image display only three bands or

band combinations, each directed to one of the primary
colour - guns (red, green, and blue) are required [12]. The
rule of colour composites is to set the most informative
band for a particular purpose in the red, the next to the
green and the least informative to the blue [13]. The
different RGB combinations helped in discriminating the
rock types, which is useful in the geological application.
Because Landsat 8 OLI images are delivered with
additional bands, the combinations used to create RGB
composites will be different than those of Landsat 7 ETM+
images(Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum shows Landsat 7 ETM+ and Landsat 8 OLI bands locations.

Different colour composites were created during this

study. For instance, Figure (3) shows a false colour
composite of bands 7,5,2 in RGB, respectively. This colour
composite shows that the acid meta-volcanic rocks appear
in dark olive green colour with generally trend in NE- SW
direction. The weathering results of these rocks in the
composition of kaoline are clearly seen in white colour
restricted to the southwestern part of the image area.
Moreover, linear features such as structural lineaments,
faults and fold axes are not unclear on this image.

the acid meta-volcanic rocks appear in dark green colour,

while the weathering results of these rocks are clearly seen
in bluish white. As in the previous image, the linear
features are also clear on this image.

Fig4. OLI colour composite obtained using bands 7,6,5 in RGB,

respectively.

Fig3. OLI colour composite obtained using bands 7,5,2in RGB,

respectively.

Another colour composite image was prepared by using

the infrared bands of the image set, i.e. utilizing bands 7, 6,
and 5 in RGB respectively (Fig. 4). This image shows that

4.1.2. Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

Principal components analysis can be used either as an
enhancement technique to improve the visual interpretation
or as a tool for merging different data sets.ThePCs are
scene independent and totally uncorrelated [14]. Also,
relationships between different groups of pixels

28

Khalid A. Elsayed Zeinelabdein et al.: An Integrated Analysis of Landsat OLI Image and Satellite Gravity
Data for Geological Mapping in North Kordofan State, Sudan

representing different land cover types may become clearer

if they are viewed in the principal axis reference system
rather than in terms of the original spectral bands.
Generally, the PCA image enabled the differentiation
between major lithological units which have large spatial
extent.
Using the six reflected multispectral OLI bands of image,
the PCA was performed over the image of the study area.

Tables (1) show the covariance and eigen matrices used in

the transformation, respectively. It is clear from the Table
(1) that, the PC1 with 86.81% variance and positive
loadings from all OLI bands. It is well known that the PC1
contains significant topographic information that often
accounts for the high direct correlation between the input
bands.

Table 1.Statistical summary of Eigen vectors, eigen values and variance percentage of the OLI principal components.

Band 2

Band 3

PC 1

0.12

0.21

PC 2

0.55

0.52

PC 3

0.49

0.32

Eigen vector
Band 4
Band 5

Eigen value

Var. %

Acc. Sum

0.54

17408313.04

86.81

86.81

-0.25

-0.46

1805816.588

9.01

95.82

-0.11

0.54

569302.68

2.84

98.66

band 6

Band 7

0.48

0.54

0.27

0.25

-0.34

-0.48

0.36

PC 4

0.23

0.02

-0.51

-0.01

0.72

-0.41

169926.43

0.85

99.51

PC 5

-0.01

-0.02

-0.63

0.68

-0.34

0.16

80548.47

0.40

99.91

PC 6

0.62

-0.76

0.14

0.08

-0.05

0.04

16808.81

0.08

99.99

The PC 1 and PC2 display more lithological contrast,

and the topographic expression is better and it is known
that they discriminate well between the VNIR and SWIR
bands. Both PC3 and PC4 although they have low variance
value but still display fair lithological contrast, whereas the
rest PC5 and PC6 with very low variance, are less
informative and show only noise. Colour composite image
of PC1, PC2 and PC3 in RGB (Fig. 5)has provided much
lithological information and discrimination between units.

Fig 5. The PCA colour composite image obtained using PC1, PC2 and
PC3 in RGB, respectively.

The differentiation between the acid meta-volcanics and

sheared granite rocks can be easily observed on this image,
since the former are displayed in pale green colour while
the latter are displayed in shining green, the post-orogenic
granite is displayed in beryl green colour and the kaolinite
is displayed in white colour.

4.1.3. Decorrelation Stretching

During this study the decorrelation stretching technique
was applied to the PC sharpened image to expand the
variability of the selected bands 7, 5, 3 in RGB,
respectively (Fig. 6). The resulted image improved the
range of intensities and saturations of colours. Moreover, it
well discriminates the different lithological units and
enhanced the appearance of the structural elements within
the investigated area.

Fig 6.Colour composite obtained through the decorrelation stretching of

the PC spectral sharpened bands 7, 5, 3 in RGB, respectively.

This image shows the acid meta-volcanic rocks in light

green colour, the sheared granite in cyan, the post-orogenic
granitein blue and the kaolinite is displayed in white
colour,the linear features are very clear.

American Journal of Earth Sciences 2014; 1(1): 25-32

4.1.4. Ratioing Technique

Spectral band radioing is a proven technique which
allows identification of geological materials based on the
reorganization of diagnostic absorption bands. It minimizes
the effect of topographic slope, aspect, and Albedo
differences between rocks, and enhances the subtle
differences in reflectivity between bands which are
diagnostic of various surface materials [15]. Ratio images
are prepared by dividing the DN value in one spectral band
by the corresponding DN value in another band for each
pixel [2].
Several ratio images were prepared during this study for
the purpose of geological mapping. OLI bands ratios: 6/7,
6/2 and (4/5*6/5) in R, G and B, respectively were
computed accoding to [16]. The resulted image (Fig.7)
shows that the acid meta-volcanic rocks appear in light
pink colour, the sheared granite in deep pink, while the
post-orogenic granite is displayed in deep violet and the
kaolinite appears with deep blue colour.

29

4.2.2. Satellite Gravity Data

The Radar altimeter measurements provided the
scientific community with valuable information about the
earth interior [18]. From this, the sea-surface topography
from radar altimeter data was used to calculate the vertical
component of the gravity field. This significantly helped in
improving the knowledge of the earths tectonic [19], [20].
Consequently, the gravity field measurements were moved
from only calculating the marine gravity field from radar
altimeter measurements to measuring the global gravity
field using new satellite missions. This step led to
improving the quality of the available data and also
improving our understanding of the overall earth tectonic
history,e.g. [21].
Satellite gravity is gravity field measurements that were
available recently in the last decade. Recent satellite
missions were launched like CHAMP in 2000, GRACE in
2002, and GOCE in 2009 to map the Earths gravity field
[21], [22]. The global coverage and the consistent data
quality are the most significant advantages of the satellite
gravity data [18].
4.2.3. Satellite Gravity Data Processing and
Interpretation
The study area is characterized by a very poor rock
exposure, where large parts are covered by superficial
deposits. These obstacles impair the interpretation of the
remotely-sensed data and make the delineation of contacts
between the various rock units more difficult. Therefore,
the variations in the Earth gravity field have been used to
draw the boundaries between the different rock units.

Fig7. Sultan's colour composite ratio image obtained using bands ratios
6/7,6/2 and (4/5*6/5) in RGB, respectively.

Bouguer Anomaly
Satellite gravity data in the form of Free Air Anomaly
(FAA) was processed usingthe elevation data to calculate
the Bouguer correction and hence the Bouguer Anomaly for
each point. The results of computations were imported into
the GIS environment for further manipulations which
finally resulted in the preparation of Bouguer anomaly map
of the study area (Fig. 8).

4.2. Gravity Investigations

4.2.1. Introduction
The present day is an attempt to integrate various data
sets (satellite, radar data, geologic and geomorphologic
field data) to obtain a general better understanding of the
tectonic setting [17]. The gravity method is a
nondestructive geophysical technique that measures
differences in the earths gravitational field at specific
locations. The success of the gravity method depends on
the different earth materials having different bulk densities
(Mass) that produce variations in the measured
gravitational field. The variations in the measured
gravitational field of the different earth materials, can be
interpreted by a variety of analytical and computer methods
to determine the depth, geometry and density that causes
the gravity field variations.

Fig 8. Bouguer gravity map of the study area, contour interval is 1mGal.

30

Khalid A. Elsayed Zeinelabdein et al.: An Integrated Analysis of Landsat OLI Image and Satellite Gravity
Data for Geological Mapping in North Kordofan State, Sudan

The obtained Bouguer anomaly map was visually

interpreted in term of boundaries between units having
different densities. The anomaly values were not directly
tied to certain lithologies, rather, the rock type information
was obtained from the field work coupled by petrographic
investigations, while the gravity data was used as
complementary information in delineating the boundary of
each rock type.
As it is clear from the map, many varieties of igneous
rocks both extrusive and intrusive show almost the same
gravity values due to similarities in mineral composition,
while some rocks show variation in the gravity values. Base
on the previous knowledge about the region, the high
gravity value rock were interpreted as basic meta-volcanics,
the medium as acid meta-volcanics and the low ones as
acidic intrusive rocks.
The only exception to this rule as can be noticed from
the low gravity value of the acid meta-volcanic rocks in the
center of the study area. This low value can be attributed to
the shearing and silicification of these rocks along linear
trends. Another advantage of the gravity map is that it
enabled the identification and delineation of linear features
which in most cases represent structural elements such as
shear zones that may control the mineralization and hence
improve the potentiality of the area.
Many faults were identified from the Bouguer map as
indicated by dense gradient belt of gravity anomaly. Some
of the identified faults are main faults but some of them are
just minor faults with limited effects. The main faults which
separate the gravity high area are trending N-S, while the
others are of N-E trend.
First and Second Vertical Derivatives
The Second Vertical Derivative technique was used as
two dimensional filters for interpretation of potential field
data [23]-[28].The second derivative accentuates shallow
anomalies and suppresses deep seated effects. Points of
inflections of the second derivatives, i.e. points where the
second derivative value changes its sign, are geologically
expressed as faults, since the gravity gradient undergoes its
most rapid changes from one level to another in the vicinity
of faulted areas [29].
If we use the symbol (g) to represent the gravity and (z)
is vertical downward axes, then the second derivative is the
quantity d2g/dz2. The importance of the second derivative
for potential field interpretation arises from the fact that the
double differentiation with respect to depth tends to
emphasize the smaller, shallower geological anomalies at
the expense of larger, regional feature [24].
The intent of applying the derivative technique in this
study is to detect thesurface and near surface faults.As
shown in Figure (9), the derivative has a higher value at the
greatest curvature (crest or trough) and has a zero value
where there is no curvature i.e. at point of inflection; this
phenomenon could geologically represented by the
presence of a fault.

Fig9.The second vertical derivative gravity map of the study area, on

which the zero contour lines separate the positive from the negative
anomalies. The separated anomalies indicate different lithological units.

Fig10.The second vertical derivative gravity map of the study area. Note:
zero contours line separates the positive from the negative anomalies. The
separated anomalies indicate different lithological units.

4.3. GIS Data Analysis and Integration

By the accomplishment of the remote sensing OLI
imageanalysis;the different colour composite imageries, PC
spectrallysharpenedimage and sultan ratio image were
combined with the results of petrographic investigationsof
the rock samples in the GIS environment for further
analysis.The Bouguer anomaly map was, also, imported to
the GIS and utilized to delineate the boundary between the
different lithological units and to revealthe linear
structurespresent in the mapped area. The integration of all
these data sets facilitated the production of the final
geological map of the study area (Fig. 11).

American Journal of Earth Sciences 2014; 1(1): 25-32

31

Fig 11. Geological map of the study area obtained through the integrated analysis of Landsat OLI image and satellite gravity data.

5. Conclusions
Remote sensing has proven a valuable aid in geological
mapping and exploring for mineral deposits. However, this
technique has limitations, especially in vegetated areas or
regions characterized by poor rock exposure.
The processing of Landsat 8 OLI image utilizing various
remote sensing techniques such as colour composite,
principal component analysis transformation and PC
spectral sharpening techniques improved the visual
interpretation of the image set of the study area. The
enhanced Landsat 8 OLI Image provided persuasive
spectral information helpful for discriminating the various
rock units.
Bouguer anomaly map produced from the processed
satellite gravity data provided complementary information
that assisted in the delineation of the boundary between the
different rock domains in addition to the enhancement the
linear features which in most cases represent structural
elements such as faults and shear zones.
The integration of the different datasets including the
enhanced satellite images and gravity data with the
petrographic investigation of some selected rock samples in
the GIS environment facilitated the production of the final
geological map of the study area with reasonable accuracy
and relatively took short timeframe. Therefore, this

integrated approach should be adopted in mapping regions

characterized by poor rock exposure.

Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank the United States Geological
Survey (USGS) for providing the Landsat 8 OLI
images.Thanks extended to the Satellite Geodesy atScripps
Institution of Oceanography, University of California San
Diego for availing the satellite gravity grid data.Thanks are,
also, due to the editor and anonymous reviewer for their
constructive comments.

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